Module: 34-Executive development
P-1
DO IT-VIRTUAL-UNIVERSITY
School of Science and Applied
Management Economics
>>[MODULE:-34<<
Learning objectives!
34.3-Purpose and objective of management development
Xx
34.1-Introduction!
A manager is considered, in modern complex organisations, as the dynamic life-
giving element and the success of an enterprise largely depends on his calibre
and performance. Every business unit is interested in improving the quality of
managers (including the chair-person, departmental head, personnel
administrator, a planner, an organiser, and a coordinator, a supervisor, executive,
administrator etc). All organisations, in order to ensure high quality of
management, should devote great attention to improve the quality, introduce
imaginative and innovative management development programmes and achieve
the organisational objectives.
34.2-What is executive development?
34.4-Why to develop Executives
The terms 'executive development' and 'management development' are used
synonymously and interchangeably. Management development is "the
development of management over and above its science and theory, its practice
and application in organisations, corporations and institutions, alike in relation to
the organisation and manager, so as continuously to re-equip both to fulfill their
purposes more effectively and in harmony with each other, and both with the
environment in which they function and have their being and hope to thrive upon
and grow...”
Thus, management development (i) involves making exercises in managerial
manpower flows and future inventories of human skills, abilities and resources to
match the demands of expanding and diversifying operations of the enterprise, (ii)
is concerned with forecasting of human resources balance sheets and
programmes to even out manpower surpluses and deficits, (iii) attempts at
increasing professionalisation of management in order to replace the outdated,
traditional, dogmatic and centralized authoritarian pattern of management by
more democratic norms, (iv) attempts to adapt the organisation structure,
systems, procedures and development of managers of today to meet the demand
of tomorrow to make the organisation more challenging and successful.
As pointed out by Lesley Bernstein, management development has two important tasks,
viz: (a) improvement of management performance, and (b) organisation of management
succession Management development aims at preparing the managers for better
performance in the organisation and to meet future challenges.
Managers, supervisors and executives are the most crucial in effective decision-making
and therefore most of the enterprises want to ensure that these personnel are up-to-date
and well-motivated. Without competent executive reservoir, no organisation can hold a
place of leadership despite its vast resources like capital, technology and others. Other
resources would remain unproductive and underutilised when there is a dearth of
executive talent in the organisation. It is the executive who plan, organise, direct and
control the resources and activities in an organisation; it is the executives who are
responsible for translating the resources into output. Thus, undoubtly, the executives
represent basic building blocks of an organisation. Realising the fact that executives form
the crucial activating elements in building strong organisations, managements are laying
emphasis on executive development programmes on a mass scale and spending huge
amount of money. Organisations have recognised the fact that without adequate
executive development programmes it would not be possible for the executives to
shoulder heavy responsibilities and accept towering assignments in the wake of troubling,
uncertain, unpredictable environmental challenges.
(i) In the context of rapidly changing technology and changing business scenario, the skills
of executives become obsolete, sooner than later when there are no training and
development programmes in the organisation. As pointed out by Dale Yoder, "Without
training, the executives lose their punch and drive and they die on the vine. Training and
development are the only ways of overcoming the executive dropouts.”
(ii) Basic change in the style and functioning of management and the posture of managers
today emphasizes the role of training and development of traditional managers. The
modern-day manager is more of a diagnostician rather than one who follows blindly the
dogmatic principles. Dale Yoder points out that "the new manager is a connoisseur of all
goodies coming into the shelves from behavioral scientists". Learning is an important
factor for achieving success in the job performed by executives. Peter F. Drucker is of the
opinion that the executive's job is to be effective and the effectiveness can be 'learned/
Executives learn through the 'development programmes'.
(Iii) In the present era of stifling competition, the survival and success of a firm depends on
the manpower and managerial quality. Special programmes for developing managerial
skills are considered vital to encounter the costly game of 'manpower obsolescence.'

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(iv)-Today's functionally-oriented executives find it difficult to manage the affairs
because they are ill-equipped with the methods of handling the jobs. They require
constant training and development to remain on the top berths of organisations.
(v)-Many executives exhibit fear for handling computers and interpret the
computerised information. It is necessary for them to acquire training and
development in the fields where they lack knowledge.
(vi)-Some executives may have technical expertise but may lack managerial
skills. These skills can be developed only through development programmes that
are conducted from time to time by organisations and educational institutions.
Management development (or executive development) is thus a deliberate
process of bringing about development in the individual executives so that they
work effectively. In terms of systems approach, management development can be
considered as a process whereas the output variables are the following:-
1-Change in the knowledge;
2- Desired change in the attitudes;
3-Desired change in behaviour of executives;
4-Change in the performance; and Change in the operational results.
Thus inputs can be listed thus:
1. The trainee's personal characteristics (such as the intelligence
quotient achievement-motivation, the interest in learning, etc).
2-The actual learning efforts of executives.
According to H. F. Meril and E. Martin, the organisation aims of management
development are to secure the following invaluable end-results:-
(a)-Improvement in the technical performance.
(b)-Improvement in the supervisory and leadership skills at top,
middle, and lower level of management.
(c)-Improvement in the inter-departmental cooperation and coordination.
(d)-Highlighting the individual's weakness so that he can remove them.
(e)-Facilitating sound 'promotion-from-within' policies and practices.
(f)-To ensure that the qualification of key personnel (executives)
become better known to the top management.
(g)-To attract good executives by the present organisation.
(h) To make an organisation more flexible by increased dynamism and versatility
of the executives.
(i) Improving the original structure.
(j) To stimulate junior executives to do better work.
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(k) To keep the organisation abreast of economic and technical conditions.
(1) To broaden the knowledge of people in the middle cadre, and
(m) To create reserves in management ranks.
The list of objectives would be continuous and never ending. Considering the practices
in U.S.A. and other developed countries, Prof. A. Das Gupta has stated the objectives of
management development according to different levels of management-top, middle line
and middle functional executives and specialists and points out that "for the top
management, the objectives are mostly general and aim at developing the ability to
understand and to decide, although a few functional areas like personnel, mailing and
finance are also included. For middle line executives, the objectives may be of two
types: one, to develop intellectually and the other to broaden the outlook and improve
the ability to make decisions along with some knowledge for specialised fields."
34.5-Components of Executive development programme
Anon-restrictive definition of executive development as propounded by Andrew Dublin
is that "any planned effort to improve current or future performance of the manager."
Therefore, management development programme of any organisation is a planned
effort. The main stages of management development programme involves the folio
wing:-
1-Organisational planning,
2-Programme targeting,
3-Ascertaining key positions requirements,
4-Managerial appraisal,
5-Replacement of skills inventories,
6-Planning individual development programmes, and
7-Appraising the existing programmes.
The underlying objective of conducting a management development programme is to
modify the behaviour of executives so as to meet current and future challenges of
environment in the organisation. Therefore, it would be necessary to (i) identify the
pattern of behaviour at which the management development programme is aimed, (ii)
identify the nature of exposure the managers needed and (iii) to examine the methods of
indoctrinating the proposed managerial behaviour into the executives.
34.6 Basic Components of managerial development programme
The essential components of an executive development programme can be discussed
under the following heads :-
(a)-Organisational objectives,
(b)-Development needs,
(c)-Present managerial talent appraisal,

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(d)-A management manpower inventory,
(e)-Individual development programmes,
(f)-Establishment of training and development programmes, and
(g)-Evaluation of development programmes.
Let us dwell upon these essential ingredients of a successful management
development programme
34.7-Organisational objectives
First of all, every organisation should, before deciding about the type of management
development programme it launches, consider the basic organisational objectives.
These objectives dictate where the executives are going and where they should go. In
other words, consideration of organisational objectives reveal the gap between 'what
ought to be' and what is.' This paves way for developing a broad framework for
launching a successful management development programme
34.8-Ascertaining development needs
Having considered the organisational objectives, the immediate step is to ascertain
the developmental needs based on job description, job specification, and job analysis.
In other words, the kind of executives currently needed, the type of educational
qualification; the type of executive needed in future, the required experience, special
knowledge, skills, personal traits, etc, should be identified.
34.9- A critique of present managerial talent
Evaluation of the existing managerial talent is another indispensable component of a
management development programme. Here, the performance of existing executives
is compared with that of expected performance to note the differences between the
standards and actual performance. This would help the management to become
aware of the good performers and bad performers. Appraisal of managerial talent is
also necessary to know the growing potential of executives so that organisations
prepare them for vertical advancement.
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34.10-A management manpower inventory
A complete scorecard of existing management manpower inventory is essential to
consider before launching a development programme. This card reveals complete
information about an executive's personal history, bio-data, educational
qualifications, performance evaluation, the results of tests and expedients conducted
by him, etc. This manpower inventory reveals the managerial obsolescence, skill
deficiencies and capable executives, etc.
34.11-Planning the individual development programmes
Executives differ in their attitudes, behaviour, perception, etc. First of all, to develop
the executives, individual development programmes are launched. These
programmes are of short-term nature and are tailor-made. These programmes aid
the executives to become aware of their loopholes and remove these at the earliest
opportunity. Almost all organisations subject the executives to one kind or the other of
the individual development programmes depending on their intellectual and
emotional qualities.
34.12 Establishing of training and development programmes
This is the core of the programme. This programme is conducted by the personnel
department in an organisation. A training and development programme for
executives is comprehensive and well-planned and includes various topics from the
field of human relations, human resources, time and motion study, creative thinking,
industrial psychology, memory training, decision-making theories and techniques,
leadership styles, professionalisation of management etc. The type and context of
programme depends on the cost the management is willing to incur. Sometimes,
organisations conduct crash programmes to develop executives. These are of short
duration (running into less than a week-usually three days) and equip the executive
with the latest techniques in the field of management. Under this programme,
executives are kept abreast of the modern concepts, theories and behaviourial
trends, experience in different countries, etc. so that executives learn the art of
management effectively.
34.13 Evaluating the development programmes
Evaluation is an attempt to obtain feedback on the effects of an executive
development programme and to assess the value of training in the light of the
information. Evaluation is necessary to stimulate a high level of involvement and
interest of executives; to know whether programmes have really contributed to the
effectiveness of the enterprise; to decide whether the programmes need to be
continued or replaced by other activities, etc. The methods of conducting evaluation
of executive development programmes include; observation method (i.e. observing
the behaviour of executives systematically, quantitatively and specifically), rating
method (under which various elements of the training system should be rated
independently), trainee surveys (conducted for the purpose of knowing the opinion of
the trainees about the programmes) and
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2. Off-the-job methods: These methods include:

(a)-Case studies,
(b)-Role playing,
trainee interviews (to elicit the ideas and views of the trainees). (c)-In-basket methods,
(d)-Business games,
Finally, it must be pointed out that a management development programme cannot (E)-Sensitivity training,
take place in an unfavourable climate of an organisation. The management (f) Simulation,
development process is largely influenced by the environ- j merit of an organisation (g) Incident method,
and the manner in which superiors and peers i receive the programme and how they (h) Conferences,
encourage ideas, take initiative I and how they cooperate with the trainees. There (i) Lectures, and
must be a wholehearted support from the top management and willingness on the part (j) Syndicate method
of the concerned executives who act as trainees. To ensure success of the executive I
Let us briefly discuss these methods of bringing about executive development.
development programme, a blue print should be prepared and communicated to the
top management which in turn accepts and gives necessary instruction to the On-the-job techniques
personnel department for conducting the programme. The personnel department
should communicate the contents, purpose and objective of the programme to the On-the-job methods are most popular for developing executive talent. Here, both the
trainee executives. trainee executive and trainer are not free from their daily chores and the pressure of
their executive routine jobs. Some of the most common techniques of executive
34.14- Techniques of Executive development development which fall under the category of on-the-job techniques are as follows:-

Management development techniques are several and diverse depending on the
context and purpose. These include: conferences, lectures, seminars, group
discussions, case studies, films and slides, outside reading, role playing, workshop,
study panels, etc. Some other techniques include: job rotation, coaching and
counseling, professional lectures, membership in professional and technical
associations, committee assignments, management courses in reputed institutes and
universities, in-basket techniques, business games and T-group training, etc. Each
technique has a unique purpose of its own. Edwin Filippo contends, "techniques such
as in-basket methods, business games and case studies purport to develop decision-
making skills, while role-playing, sensitivity, training and structural insight are likely to
develop interpersonal skills for the executives. Further, while special projects,
counseling, etc meet the specific needs of executives, on the job-experience, coaching
and understudy provide job knowledge and multiple management and position rotation
enhance an executive's organisational knowledge. These methods can be discussed
under the following heads:-
1. On-the-job techniques: These methods comprise of
(a) Coaching method
Under this method, the superior acts as a guide and coaches the trainee executives
as to what he wants them to do, suggests how the work may be done, follow-up
suggestions and corrects the mistakes. The main objective of coaching the
executives is to provide them with diversified knowledge and teach them the methods
of performing the immediate assignments effectively. The superior delegates
authority to subordinate executives to prepare them to handle complex situations.
The coaching method enjoys the following merits:-
1-The coaching method is akin to learning by doing.
2-Coaching method requires the least centralised co-ordination from staff because
every superior can coach his subordinates even without a formal management
development programme.
3-Immediate feedback and periodic evaluation enable the trainee executives to learn
the job easily and without mistakes.
The chief demerits of the coaching methods are as follows:-

(a)-The coaching method, 1. The trainer may impose upon the trainees his work habits, ideas, beliefs, and
(b)-Understudy method, methods of doing the work. Coachingmethod, therefore, has a tendency to
(c)-Job rotation, perpetuate the current management styles and practices rather than promoting
(d)-Special projects, innovative styles.
(e)-Committee assignments, and
(f)-Selective readings. 2. The effectiveness of coaching methods depends on the ability of the trainer. If the
trainer is inexperienced, possesses pseudo-knowledge, and follows dogmatic
principles, there would not be any use of coaching the trainee executives
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Coaching method would be effective if the superior has extraordinary communicative
skills and if he provides a common platform for exchanging the ideas with the trainee
executives 'Without becoming dominant and if he has the capacity to stins»late the
executives to learn and practise the work. As pointed out by Stephen P. Robbins,
"Coaching method would work well if the coach provides a good model with whom the
trainee can identify; if both can be open with each other, if the coach accepts his
responsibility fully and if he provides the trainee with recognition of his improvement
and suitable rewards".
(b) Understudy method
Also known as 'attachment method', under this system, a person is picked up and
subjected to training so that he in future, assumes the full duties and responsibilities
of the position currently held by his superior. It is necessary to ensure a fully trained
person to replace a manager (superior) during his long absence or illness, or on his
retirement, transfer or promotion. 'Understudy' method is aimed at providing a person
who is going to replace the existing superior. A manager can pick up a subordinate
(from the existing lot of subordinates) and trains him by assigning a project, which is
most closely related to the work of superior. Here, the subordinate learns the
complexities of a problem, and h»w to solve the problem; learns the art of making
decisions effectively.
The chief merits of understudy method are as under:-
1-This is perhaps the better method of training subordinates to assume higher
responsibilities in future.
2-The trainee learns on-the-job and hence the learner's motivation and interest
would be high.
3-The superior may be relieved of heavy work load because he can delegate a
part to the 'understudy'.
4-The leadership qualities of the trainee would be developed because he may be
asked to supervise and guide a number of subordinates at work.
5-The trainee is not overburdened with the work and responsibility and at the
same time he continuously obtains guidance from his superior manager.
6-The 'understudy' method ensures continuity of managerial talent even when the
superior leaves (retires, transfers, or gets promotion) the department or
organisation.
7-The 'understudy' method is not a costly affair because it is coming within the
purview of 'on-the-job training
programme.’
On the negative side of the coin, the following are the chief demerits of understudy
method:-
1-The 'understudy' may be picked up by the superior and in this process he may
exhibit favouritism; this may promote the tendencies of sycophancy and
perpetuation of the existing practices of in-breeding.
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2-The motivation of all other employees in the unit (other than the 'understudy')
would be adversely affected because they become aware cf the 'understudy' in
advance, who would become the next occupant for higher mana
gerial position.
3-If a wrong person is selected as 'understudy' (due to favouritism or any other
factor) there are opportunities for sizeable errors which may turn out to be costly
to the entire organisation.
(c) Job rotation method
Another excellent method for broadcasting the knowledge of a manager is 'job
rotation' (also known as the Channel Method) emphasizing the diversified instead of
specialized skills ind knowledge. Under the job rotation method, the specialists are
translated into 'generalists' or 'all-rounders' because the executives are moved from
one job to another on some planned basis in order to learn and develop all-round
knowledge. As pointed out by H. Bedrosian, "Job rotation is designed for beginning
level managers while planned progression is more likely to occur at higher
managerial levels." Under the job rotation method, the trainees are rotated over
various routine jobs in a department, division, or unit before they are promoted as
managers. This rotation period may vary between six months to two years. Job
rotation is aimed at broadening the knowledge of potential executives in an
organisation. Job rotation may be horizontal or lateral. It also includes moving people
between line and staff positions. Job rotation programmes can be instituted on a
planned basis or situational basis. On a planned basis, an executive may be
subjected to an activity (like training) and then is moved onto a job. On a situational
basis, an executive may be moved onto another job because of the requirements of
the situation.
The merits of job rotation are as under:-
1-The innovative ideas of executives who are on rotation are in fused into
departmental personnel and then diffused throughout the organisation.
2-Executives take a broad, company-point-of-view, rather than narrow,
departmental-view, and hence take fruitful decisions.
3-Job rotation gives equal chance for all the executives for development and
promotion.
4-Job rotation roots out the possibility of monotony and boredom of executives.
5-Each executive's talents, intelligence, abilities and behaviour is tested at several
places as they move on from one job to another.
6. Job rotation promotes inter-departmental co-operation.
Job rotation suffers from the following defects:
1.- Job rotation may involve frequent transfers, which may upset the executive's
organisational, family and home life.
2-Executives may commit errors in the new seats because of lack of
understanding, experience, and operations in the new field (seat)
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3-Executives may have a tendency to pump in new ideas wherever they rotate.
The zeal for a change may not always be good; sometimes ill-conceived, untimely
and hasty innovations may lead to costly experimentation.
4-Whenever executives rotate from one job to another this may pose difficulty for
the subordinates to adjust to new bosses every time.
5-Job rotation may also result in certain dysfunctional behaviours in terms of
jealously, cleavage, non-cooperation, friction within the departments etc.
" trainees are given a business situation as a case to appraise and analyze it
6-Job rotation has the disadvantages of a 'musical chairs game' because it leaves
behind some executives who are not at all rotated and some are constantly
rotated either by virtue of their closeness to their bosses or by their intelligence.
This may lead to class-struggles between the executives who are rotated and
those who are not.
7-Job rotation may result in over-centralization, inflexibility and inefficiency.
To make job rotation effective, executives who are rotated on different jobs should
be educated to view the change as an opportunity for genuine learning and
experience.
(d) Special projects
Under this method, a trainee executive is assigned a special project involving heavy
responsibility. The trainee is supposed to study the project, understand the problem
issues, and prescribe appropriate solutions and make recommendations on the
viability of the project. Executives are assigned projects closely related to their job
areas. Executive development programme under the 'special assignment of projects'
is helpful for the executives because they learn how to work with others, how to tackle
typical problems, take independent decisions and exhibit their talent without any
constraints from their bosses.
(e) Committee assignments
This is similar to the special project method. Here the trainee executives become
members of special committees designed to solve specific problems. The executives
as a whole, study and discuss the problems assigned to it and submit the report
containing various suggestions and recommendations. Though committee
assignments solve different problems, they may not be effective in bringing rapid
executive development.
(f) Selective readings
Some organisations maintain huge libraries involving a large collection of useful
material on the subjects of interest to the enterprise. The executives go through the
books, journals, articles, notes and magazines and assimilate knowledge. The
executives, during their leisure hours, try to exchange their views with others and in
this process learn new ways of looking at things.
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Off-the-job methods
On-the-job methods of executive development just discussed above may not be
adequate because of the complexities of management process and inadequate
facilities, environment and teaching experience, calling for more sophisticated and
comprehensive methods of development. Off-the-job training methods aim at placing
the executives in a highly manoeu-vered and stimulated atmosphere so that they are
exposed to new ideas, new ways of analysis and are in a position to introspect
themselves by studying their own behavior. There is a wealth of off-the-job executive
development techniques and let us discuss some of the most important of these
techniques hereunder:-
(a) Case studies
This is one of the frequently employed methods of executive development. Here, the
thoroughly. The trainees study the case and suggest solutions for given problems
under the case. Case study method provides a common platform for the group
members to advance, defend and argue on the analytical and judgmental capacities.
Case studies provide stimulating discussions among participant executives and
develop the decision-making skills of them.
(b)-Role playing
Under this method, the trainee executives are required to assume different roles (just
like in a short play) in a given situation. This is a kind of acting in an unwritten,
scriptless play where executives are free to act depending upon the situation. This
method would be helpful in understanding human problems and conflicts being
encountered in a situation and provide an opportunity for the trainees to enhance
their sensitivity, growth, and development.
(c)-In-basket method
This is a typical method where each individual executive is handed over a file of
correspondence concerning any of the areas of management and the executive is
required to study the file thoroughly and make his recommendations on the situation.
If necessary, the executive trainee may be furnished additional information from
different quarters concerning the subject matter. The recommendations made by the
trainee executives are compared with the recommendations of functional specialists
and evaluated to see if there is any gap. Finally, a report of the evaluation is sent to the
top management.
The in-basket method of executive development offers the following advantages:-
1-The decision-making is quick, rapid and effective.
2-Instant feedback provides an opportunity for the executives to identity their
loopholes and rectify them.
3-Decisions are taken by a group of people from different departments and hence
each executive gets a fair chance of participating in the decision-making.
4-Through in-basket method of executive development, the efficiency of planning
and systematic approach, the efficiency of long-term objectives and planning can
be demonstrated.
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The chief disadvantages of the in-basket method are:-
1-The in-basket method may discourage original ideas because the ideas of an
executive may be turned down by the group as a whole.
2-The solutions prescribed by the group of executives may not be accepted by the top
management and hence the entire exercise may become redundant and
unnecessary.
(d) Business games
Also termed as 'management games', these games refer to the classroom simulation
exercises in which different teams consisting of individual executives are required to
compete with one another in order to achieve a given objective. Here, an artificial
atmosphere close to the real life situation is created in which the participant
executives play a dynamic role and enrich their skills through involvement and
simulated experience. The team usually consists of two to six members and each
team takes decisions on production, prices, research expenditure, advertisement
expenditure, marketing and the amount of expected profits under hypothetical
conditions. The decisions are fed into a computer, which has been programmed
according to the model of the market being followed. Such management games
continue for a period ranging between a fortnight to six months. At the end, the final
results are worked out by each team and compared with that of the competing
counterparts.
Management games are aimed at teaching the executives how to take useful and
profitable managerial decisions and make the executives aware of the existence of
various group processes, conflicts, leadership problems and ways of maintaining ties
of friendship with peers in other departments or functional areas:
The possible payoffs of management games can be listed thus:
1-It is very interesting for the dynamic executives to play games and learn, in this
process, the art of making decisions, developing the problem-solving skills,
understand the importance of planning in management.
2-Executives can analyze and select the relevant data from the available mass of
information and would be able to decide about the important aspects even with
incomplete information by filling up the gaps.
The chief limitations of the management games as a method of executive
development can be listed thus:-
1-Games are expensive to develop and administer and small organisations cannot
afford to manage them.
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2- As pointed out by Taylor and Lippett, Executives are forced to choose from
among the closed list of alternatives, whereas, in real life, managers indulge in
creating better alternatives and get ample reward for developing fruitful
alternatives and appropriate selection of an alternative from the available cases.
3-Games represent merely simulations which may not be very close to reality and
therefore, it would be wrong to infer that those who are successful in mwould also
be successful in real jobs.
(e) Sensitivity training
Originally developed by a behaviourial scientist Kurt Lewin and popularised by the
National Training Laboratories, U.S.A., sensitivity training (also known as T-group
training) is a "group experience designed to provide maximum possible opportunity
for the individuals to expose their behaviour, give and receive feedback, experiment
with new behaviour and develop awareness of self and of others" (Chris Argyris). The
fundamental objectives of sensitivity training are:-
1.To help the executives in improving their understanding of human behaviour and
their ability to read others and predict actions of fellow-colleagues.
2-To increase the participant's awareness of the impressions created by him on
others.
3-To highlight the sensitivity of other executives for the actions and feelings
(opinions) of him.
4-To increase personal satisfaction from relationship with other executives.
5-To achieve greater behaviourial effectiveness in transactions with one's various
environments.
6-To develop concepts and theoretical insights that will serve as tools in linking
personal values, goals and intentions to actions that are consistent with these
inner factors and with the requirements of the situation under question.
A T-group is a small group consisting of ten to fifteen executives who meet with no
formal agenda and discuss on important problems. This is a leaderless group and
the essence to T-group training is a self-examination and introspection of the
behaviour of oneself and also others. This is a kind of behaviourial training that is
aimed at bringing about organisational development.
(f) Simulation
Simulation is special training technique conducted on a duplicate environment which
is a mock up of a real life environment. Here the essential features of a real-life
situation in an organisation or activity are abstracted and presented before the
executives. The executives then are asked to assume different roles and asked to
make decisions that have a real effect in simulation and about which they receive
rapid feedback. Under the simulation method, a single hour may be equated for a
month, or a quarter of a month in real life. Like this, several events may be
experienced in a relatively short span of time.
Simulation is a useful technique of executive development because the decisions
taken are reversible (if wrong decisions are taken) and less costly to the enterprise.
One long-standing deficiency of the simulation technique is that it is difficult to
duplicate the reality (especially the pressures and problems) of actual decision-
making on jobs. Quite truly, individuals might act differently in real life