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Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Fit and Performance
Author(s): Athina Zeriti, Matthew J. Robson, Stavroula Spyropoulou and Constantinos

N. Leonidou
Source: Journal of International Marketing , 2014, Vol. 22, No. 4 (2014), pp. 44-66
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of American Marketing Association
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43966928
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Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy
Fit and Performance
Athina Zeriti, Matthew J. Robson, Stavroula Spyropoulou, and Constantinos N. Leonidou
ABSTRACT
Despite the growing global importance of sustainability issues , scant research has examined marketing strategy sust
ability issues in international settings . Although significant prior work has examined drivers and performance cons
quences of adaptation/ standardization of marketing strategies in international markets , researchers have yet to ap
this avenue of inquiry to sustainable marketing strategies . Building on contingency theory and the concept of stra
fit , the authors develop a model of drivers of sustainable export marketing strategy adaptation and explore the cir
stances under which such a strategy affects export performance . Using a sample of U.K. exporters , they find that
ous macro- and microenvironmental factors are responsible for sustainable export marketing strategy adapt
which shapes the nature of sustainable export marketing strategy fit and its export venture performance outcomes
results indicate that sustainable export marketing strategy adaptation is the outcome of the differences between ho
and export markets in terms of economic and technological conditions , competitive intensity ; customer characteris
and stakeholder pressures. Moreover, the performance relevance of sustainable export marketing strategy adap
requires adequate fit with these macro- and microenvironmental factors.
Keywords: sustainability, marketing strategy, export performance, contingency theory, strategic fit
mance (Chan 2010; Tatoglu et al. 2014). Likewise,

strategically important to managerial decision makers emerging research in marketing suggests that firms can
In strategically
as firms faceas recent firmsscrutiny
heightened face years,
from important
their employ-heightened sustainability to scrutiny managerial issues from decision have their employ- become makers derive performance benefits from the adoption of sus-
ees, customers, and other stakeholders focused on their tainable (i.e., environmentally and/or socially friendly)
efforts to engage in sustainability initiatives (Chabow- marketing strategies (Cronin et al. 2011; Leonidou, Kat-
ski, Mena, and Gonzalez-Padron 2011). Sustainability sikeas, and Morgan 2013). Yet scant research has exam-
refers to development that meets the needs of the pres- ined the drivers and outcomes of sustainable marketing
ent without undermining the ability of future genera- strategies in international settings (Leonidou et al.
tions to meet their needs (World Commission on Envi- 2013).
ronment and Development 1987). The international
business literature has recently emphasized the link Several reasons justify the investigation of firms' sus-
between multinational enterprise (MNE) sustainability tainability activities in international marketing. First,
practices (e.g., subsidiary pollution reduction, develop- owing to the globalization of communication technolo-
ment of local institutional standards) and firm perfor- gies and social media, consumers across the world are
robustly embracing green and social issues. In situations
in which the domestic market does not yield a large
Athina Zeriti is Lecturer in Marketing, Durham University Business group of customers prone to sustainability-related mar-
School, Durham University (e-mail: athina.zeriti@durham.ac.uk).
keting programs, foreign markets can furnish firms with
Matthew J. Robson is Professor of Marketing (e-mail: M.J.Robson@
lubs.leeds.ac.uk), Stavroula Spyropoulou is Associate Professor of
Marketing (e-mail: ss@lubs.leeds.ac.uk), and Constantinos N. Journal of International Marketing
Leonidou is Associate Professor of Marketing (e-mail: C.Leonidou@ ©2014, American Marketing Association
leeds.ac.uk), Leeds University Business School, University of Leeds. Vol. 22, No. 4, 2014, pp. 44-66
Bulent Mengue served as guest editor for this article. ISSN 1069-0031X (print) 1547-7215 (electronic)
44 Journal of International Marketing

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such customers (Becker-Olsen et al. 2011). Second, for- adaptation of sustainable strategies (Kolk and Margin-
eign firms might embrace sustainability not only to eantu 2009), scholars have not addressed the crucial
derive positions of competitive advantage over other issues of whether and under what contingent circum-
market entrants but also to stay ahead of the curve rel- stances sustainable export marketing strategy adapta-
ative to local firms, thus minimizing risk posed by grow- tion affects performance. The purpose of this study is
ing customer animosity in the market (Engardio et al. to move beyond extant research with regard to this
2007). Third, governments of both developed and matter.
emerging markets are imposing regulations on market-

ing activities for the protection of local natural environ- We make three specific contributions to knowledge.
ments (Leonidou et al. 2013). Fourth, by their very First, within the recent groundswell of strategy sustain-
nature sustainability issues (e.g., global warming, ability research, several studies have focused on MNE
resource depletion) have an international aspect and corporate sustainability strategies within subsidiary net-
transcend national borders (Varadarajan 2014). works (Tatoglu et al. 2014) or on marketing strategies
within domestic settings (Leonidou, Katsikeas, and
Of special interest is the examination of sustainability Morgan 2013). The current study extends previous
credentials of exporting firms. The global growth of strategy sustainability research by featuring sustainable
export trade is accompanied by increasing awareness of marketing strategies with international scope. Many
sustainability problems related to corporate activities consumers across national markets are sensitive to sus-
(Martín-Tapia, Aragón-Correa, and Senise-Barrio 2008). tainability matters, and exporters have made strides in
Exporting is the most common mode of foreign market targeting associated opportunities (Marshall et al.
entry for firms of all kinds because of its low resource 2010); yet the sustainability concept has seldom been
requirements, low exposure to business risks, and high applied to areas of theory and practice particular to
strategic flexibility (Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas international marketing strategy.
2009). Still, exporters are often confounded by serious
barriers to productive trade when operating overseas Second, the study is novel in assessing the (macro- and
(e.g., green technical standards, institutional relation- microenvironmental) drivers, together with perfor-
ship pressures). Export managers can be caught flat- mance outcomes, of sustainable export marketing
footed by fluctuations in local market sustainability strategy adaptation among export ventures. We thus
needs (e.g., products with extra green features, reduc- employ sustainability arguments to provide new
tions in environmental costs from transportation). insights into the export marketing strategy adaptation/
Indeed, the limited available evidence (Leonidou et al. standardization debate. On the basis of contingency
2013; Martín-Tapia, Aragón-Correa, and Senise-Barrio theory, we respond to Leonidou et al.'s (2013) call for
2008) suggests that a firm's environmental/social researchers to examine factors responsible for the effec-
approaches to the marketing mix positively influence its tive adaptation of the firm's sustainable marketing
export performance. strategy in export markets. Analysis of the performance
effects of mismatching sustainable export marketing
For more than two decades, the exporting field has paid strategy adaptation with environment factors reveals
particular attention to the assessment of performance that some factors matter as expected, whereas others do
outcomes of marketing strategy adaptation. Inconsistent not. Our results offer new insights into the complex
findings, however, have led scholars to conjecture that dynamics linking sustainable marketing strategy to per-
the appropriateness of a specific strategy depends on its formance in export ventures.
fit with the environmental context in which it is deployed
(Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas 2009). It might seem Third, Katsikeas, Leonidou, and Morgan's (2000)
promising to adopt contingency theory reasoning that assessment of the export performance literature indi-
marketing strategy adaptation, standardization, or any cates that both market targeting and marketing program
combination of the two can enhance export performance (i.e., mix) elements directly affect export performance.
only if there is fit (i.e., coalignment) between the strategy To date, export marketing strategy adaptation literature
deployed and the context in which it is implemented. has neglected the former. Our study is novel in concep-
Nonetheless, robust applications of contingency theory tualizing sustainable export marketing strategy to
remain the exception rather than the norm in export per- include market targeting and marketing program ele-
formance literature. Furthermore, while a few inter- ments in a single global scale. We posit that inclusive
national marketing studies have explored drivers of framing of marketing strategy (see Özsomer and
Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Fit and Performance 45

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Simonin 2004) can contribute to a better understanding an adaptation strategy can derive advantages from their
of marketing adaptation, particularly in the sustainabil- experiential knowledge of a foreign market (Hultman,
ity context (Mengue, Auh, and Ozanne 2010). Robson, and Katsikeas 2009; Slangen and Dikova
2014). The power of a marketing strategy carefully
adapted to the local market lies in its potential to con-
LITERATURE REVIEW verge with customer needs and thus enhance perform-
ance. Still, the economic benefits of deploying standard-
ized marketing programs - treating the export
The sustainability literature is voluminous at the domes-
marketing mix as a reproduction of domestic market-
tic level. Research has featured corporate environmental
strategies (e.g., Mengue, Auh, and Ozanne 2010), cor-
ing - can make this strategy attractive for exporters as
porate social responsibility (CSR) strategies (e.g.,
they expand globally. Although standardization offers
Torugsa, O'Donohue, and Hecker 2012), environmentalexporting firms benefits associated with the use of
culture and orientation (e.g., Mengue and Ozanne
global brands (Madden, Roth, and Dillon 2012),
economies of scale, and fewer requirements for assimi-
2005), and green marketing strategies (e.g., Fraj-Andrés,
Martinez-Salinas, and Matute- Valle jo 2009). Domestic
lating local marketing knowledge, it can lead to subop-
sustainability research has established valuable timal
new sales when it is incongruous with the local market
concepts such as "enviropreneurial" marketing (e.g., (Yip 2003).
Menon and Menon 1997) and market-oriented sustain-
ability (e.g., Crittenden et al. 2011). A far smaller body
International marketing scholars have often attempted
of work, in international settings, has focusedto on establish a direct link between strategy adaptation or
MNEs' environmental policies and services (e.g., Kolk standardization and performance, assuming implicitly
and Margineantu 2009), environmental management that one or the other is the optimal strategy (Özsomer
and Simonin 2004). Yet accumulated results do not
systems (e.g., Pinkse and Kolk 2012), CSR practices
show support for adaptation over standardization, or
(e.g., Husted and Allen 2006), and sustainability report-
ing (e.g., Kolk 2010). vice versa. Drawing on insights from strategic manage-
ment (Zajac, Kraatz, and Bresser 2000), scholars have
shown that the appropriateness of a particular market-
Only recently has sustainability been the focus of atten-
tion in exporting research. For example, Aguilera- ing program can be defined in terms of its "fit" with
Caracuel, Hurtado-Torres, and Aragón-Correa (2012) environmental factors (Schilke, Reimann, and Thomas
explore the influence of international diversification 2009). The contingency theory of fit tests whether more
and length of export activity on proactive environmen- than one strategy maximizes performance across a sam-
tal strategy; Marshall et al. (2010) investigate the ple role
of firms, on the basis of their various environmental
of managers' attitudes and perceptions and firms' conditions. This approach builds on three types of vari-
export dependence in the adoption of environmental ables: contingency variables, or the environmental fac-
practices; and Martín-Tapia, Aragón-Correa, and Rueda- tors that are typically external; response variables, or
Manzanares (2010) focus on the link between proactive the strategic actions taken in response to contingency
environmental strategy and export intensity. Further- variables; and performance variables, which are subject
more, Boehe and Cruz (2010) examine the role of to CSR
the fit between contingency and response variables
in shaping export performance, and Leonidou et foral.
a particular setting (Hultman, Robson, and Kat-
(2013) investigate drivers and export performance sikeas out- 2009).
comes of eco-friendly export marketing strategy. One
particular issue that has yet to receive attention inThe this
thrust of research into marketing strategy adapta-
stream of literature, despite theoretical advances madetion across borders has examined individual marketing
in international marketing research (e.g., Lages, Jap, program elements. For example, Sousa and Bradley
and Griffith 2008), is the adaptation/standardization (2008)
of and Theodosiou and Katsikeas (2001) both
focus on pricing strategy in isolation from other mix
sustainable marketing strategies used in export ventures.
aspects, and Cavusgil and Zou's (1994) empirical study
The flexible, low-involvement nature of exporting set is an
a precedent for subsequent work to feature product
advantage in terms of responding to troubles encoun- and/or promotion adaptation decisions. Against this
tered in a foreign market. Yet withdrawing from export backdrop, Özsomer and Simonin (2004) note that sur-
market activities in a particular country hardly consti-
prisingly little evidence exists on the performance out-
comes of adapted/standardized marketing programs.
tutes sustainable strategy in a general sense. Firms using

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They assert (p. 398) that though "much has been writ- ject to greater and more rigorous pressures from local
ten on the promises and pitfalls of overall marketing stakeholders than domestic firms (Child and Tsai 2005).
program standardization, the majority of published Indeed, foreign firms may be expected to do more than
work is conceptual, or based on anecdotal evidence." local firms to build their reputation and goodwill (Kos-
tova and Zaheer 1999); they should exceed local envi-
Our study takes the view that the importance of adopt- ronmental standards set at macro and micro levels. As
ing an overall strategy approach to the study of fit and such, our study adds to contingency theory work cen-
its effects is acute in the sustainability area. Evidence tered on testing the logic that firms react to the external
suggests that managers holistically and consistently environment as an exogenous variable and adjust their
make sustainable strategy decisions for the marketplace marketing strategies to enhance performance.
(Mengue, Auh, and Ozanne 2010; Sharma 2000). Inter-
national firms face the risk of being considered inconsis- Although there are several ways of modeling the impact
tent across and opportunistic with their sustainability of fit between environment and strategy on performance
activities in the local marketplace when they vary func- (see Venkatraman 1989), the international marketing
tional strategies (e.g., marketing and associated commu- literature has embraced two main approaches: fit as
nications) across the adaptation-standardization contin- either moderation or matching. Both approaches entail
uum (Christmann 2004). Foreign firms, specifically, identifying the precise functional form between contin-
may attract criticism in the local market for attempting gency and response variables (e.g., extent of marketing
to derive advantage from selective sustainability initia- strategy adaptation for each environmental variable)
tives across marketing-mix aspects. needed to augment performance variables. Fit as moder-
ation has proved useful in identifying specific, theoreti-
Extending this logic, we posit that holistic sustainable cally robust contingency relationships (Schilke,
export marketing strategy decisions should also include Reimann, and Thomas 2009), even if the results of mod-
market targeting aspects, given that processes of identi- eration testing applied to the adaptation issue have been
fying and selecting customers can prove critical in suc- inconsistent (Xu, Cavusgil, and White 2006). Fit as
cessfully developing groups of customers prone to matching is a response to the reductionism (i.e., overly
sustainability-related marketing appeals (Gurau and pragmatic specificity) of moderation, insofar as it
Ranchod 2005; Menon et al. 1999). Furthermore, in the assumes that firms are surrounded by an array of con-
exporting literature, the few studies that have captured tingencies that require simultaneous examination. Here,
targeting elements, such as market segmentation (Dia- fit is a theoretically defined match between several vari-
mantopoulos et al. 2014), usually reveal a positive rela- ables, unlike moderation's usual focus on joint effects of
tionship to performance (Leonidou, Katsikeas, and pairs of variables on performance. Therefore, we adopt
Samiee 2002). To our knowledge, international market- fit as matching, to determine whether external environ-
ing strategy adaptation/standardization studies have not ment-marketing strategy adaptation fit is positively
assessed market targeting as part of strategy. Thus, the linked to export performance. We first develop the
current conceptualization of sustainable export market- measure of fit by taking into account the effects of sev-
ing strategy includes elements of both market targeting eral macro- and microenvironment variables and then
(i.e., segmentation, targeting, and positioning) and mar- regress it on performance (see Figure 1).
keting program (i.e., product, promotion, place, and
price).1
HYPOTHESES
Our theorization of the drivers and outcomes of sustain-
able export marketing strategy adaptation follows We conceptualize sustainable export marketing strategy
structure-content-performance studies (Katsikeas, as marketing practices, policies, and procedures that
Samiee, and Theodosiou 2006) that have focused on or account for concerns related to the well-being of the
highlighted the criticality of strategic content responses natural environment and society in pursing the goals of
to "external" environmental variables (Hultman, Rob- creating revenue and providing outcomes that satisfy
son, and Katsikeas 2009; Mengue, Auh, and Ozanne organizational and individual objectives in the export
2010). Prior research suggests that the adoption of cor- market (e.g., Leonidou et al. 2013; Menon et al. 1999).
porate sustainability strategies in a foreign market is Prestudy field interviews revealed that firms adopting a
subject to an array of macro- and microenvironmental sustainable export marketing strategy engage in sustain-
forces (Tatoglu et al. 2014). Foreign marketers are sub- able product practices (e.g., improving the recyclability

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Figure 1. Conceptual Model
Macroenvironmental Forces
^ Marketing Strategy
• Economic conditions ^ Adaptation
• Regulatory conditions
• Sociocultural conditions
• Technological conditions
Strategic Fit
Microenvironmental Forces
• Competitive intensity ^ f
• Customer characteristics
• Market munificence Export

• Stakeholder pressures Performance
of product packaging, designing new sustainable prod- Macroenvironment Forces and Sustainable
Export
ucts), sustainable distribution practices (e.g., setting up Marketing Strategy Adaptation
product facilities closer to the target market, shipping
products in flat packs that enable larger quantitiesEconomic
to be conditions reflect differences in the economic
transported with less environmental impact), sustain- vitality of the home and export markets in terms of indi-
able promotion practices (e.g., providing information cators such as the level of industrial development, the pur-
related to the product's environmental and societal chasing
fea- power of customers, and income distribution.
tures on packaging, setting up websites with informa- Economic factors influence customers' interpretations of
tion on the firm's sustainability behaviors), and sustain-
international marketing strategies and associated purchas-
able pricing practices (e.g., incorporating the costs ing of
behaviors. Previous research has suggested that coun-
environmental compliance into the product's price, try clusters with similar economic conditions are a basis
adding a price premium for sustainable product for lines).
implementing standardized marketing programs (Day,
Fox, and Huszagh 1988). Moreover^ sustainability schol-
In addition, firms engage in sustainability segmentation
procedures (e.g., using consumer attitudes toward arssus-
have reported a positive relationship between a coun-
tainability as a criterion for market analysis), sustain-
try's economic climate and the importance of environmen-
ability targeting practices (e.g., launching products tally in
and/or socially friendly activities toward customers
markets that cater to the needs of environmentally (Marta
and and Singhapakdi 2005). Added sustainability fea-
societally conscious consumers), and sustainabilityturesposi- in products often require substantial changes in pro-
tioning policies (e.g., positioning the company and/orduction operations, imposing a significant burden in
brand as sustainable in the market). On the basis of the of product cost. Affluent and other segments of
terms
literature review and field interviews, we hypothesizesociety can afford sustainable products, which are often
priced above traditional merchandise (Gurau and Ranch-
that two sets of contingency factors influence the degree
of sustainable export marketing strategy adaptation: hod 2005). In contrast, such products might be prohibi-
(1) macroenvironmental factors, which consist of tivelybroadexpensive for customers living in countries with
lower disposable incomes. Customers in less developed
societal forces that shape the firm's marketing strategy,
including economic, regulatory, sociocultural, andcountries
tech- generally attach less importance to sustainability
nological conditions, and (2) microenvironmentalattributes
fac- and messages and are less likely to use sustain-
tors, which comprise forces associated with the firm'sability as a purchasing criterion, given that conventional
task environment, such as competitive intensity, cus-
attributes (e.g., price, functionality) have priority (Auger
tomer characteristics, market munificence, and stake- et al. 2010). As a result, when exporting from a developed
holder pressures. country to a less developed one and catering to local cus-

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tomers with lower disposable incomes, firms may need to gineantu (2009) find that societal expectations con-
adapt sustainable marketing strategies. In other words, tribute to accounting firms' international marketing
sustainable export marketing strategy adaptation is more decisions, insofar as their sustainable services are highly
likely when the economic conditions of the export market responsive to local public concerns. Thus, sociocultural
are different from those of the home market. differences between the home and export markets
require that the cultural relevance of the sustainable
Regulatory conditions capture differences in regulatory export marketing strategy be improved by adaptation.
and legal aspects pertaining to sustainability between
the home and export markets. Regulations and laws Technological conditions denote differences between the
regarding sustainability standards - which are designed home and export markets in skills, resources, develop-
to protect societal actors (e.g., customers, employees, ments, and changes connected with sustainable tech-
firms) and other national resources - can be key barriers nologies. Customers are becoming technologically
to the deployment of a uniform marketing strategy. For sophisticated the world over and increasingly expect
example, our field interviews suggested that food firms products to incorporate a high level of technological
use different versions of nutrition tables depending on innovation (Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas 2009).
whether there are differences in regulations between the Furthermore, firms can reduce the risks involved in
home and export markets. Similarly, previous research developing green and socially friendly products by
(e.g., Cavusgil, Zou, and Naidu 1993) has revealed that detecting and responding to sustainability-related tech-
firms are often forced to adapt marketing-mix compo- nology changes (Leonidou et al. 2013). Against this
nents in an export market in which regulations dictate backdrop, many firms (e.g., 3M, Unilever) have identi-
different health and safety standards. For example, Kolk fied, achieved, and marketed cost-related sustainability
and Margineantu (2009) find that accounting firms' improvements associated with technical process
responsiveness to local sustainability regulations is improvements (Banerjee, Iyer, and Kashyap 2003). Prior
partly behind the strong sustainability service adapta- research has observed that MNEs targeting foreign mar-
tion preferences of these firms. Developed countries kets with similar technological levels respond to pres-
tend to have highly developed regulatory systems, neces- sure from customers to adopt standardized marketing
sitating product modifications to local standards (Lages, strategies (Katsikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou 2006)
Jap, and Griffith 2008). When government involvement and that the deployment of tailored marketing strategies
and regulations regarding environmental and social is essential in export markets characterized by unique
issues are heightened, there is an elevated expectation technological expectations (Hultman, Robson, and Kat-
that firms will comply (Mengue, Auh, and Ozanne sikeas 2009). Similarly, societies knowledgeable about
2010). Firms facing regulatory differences in the export and sensitive to advances in sustainable technologies
market may even work to proactively comply to mini- require highly sustainable export marketing strategies,
mize the risk of fines and sanctions down the road. and vice versa. Gaps in information, transportation,
production, and other sustainable technologies in the
Sociocultural conditions tap differences between the export market may necessitate sustainable export mar-
home and export markets in terms of societal value sys- keting strategy adaptation to accommodate local
tems, customs, religions, education levels, and other resource constraints (Johnson and Arunthanes 1995).
normative aspects closely associated with sustainability
issues. Cultural values and artifacts have proved resist- Hj: Differences between the home and export ven-
ant to globalization trends, such that sociocultural ture markets in (a) economic, (b) regulatory,
dimensions across home and export markets are not (c) sociocultural, and (d) technological envi-
identical in every respect (Becker-Olsen et al. 2011). To ronments are positively related to the degree
this point, the level of societal awareness of sustain- of sustainable export marketing strategy
ability differs across countries. For example, we can adaptation.
expect public concern about environmental and social
issues to vary with people's knowledge of environmental Microenvironment Forces and Sustainable
problems associated with particular industries (Baner- Export Marketing Strategy Adaptation
jee, Iyer, and Kashyap 2003). In our field interviews, an
export manager from a tobacco firm remarked that Competitive intensity pertains to differences between
education-level differences are a key determinant of its the home and export markets in the number of competi-
marketing strategy adaptation overseas. Kolk and Mar- tors in the overseas market and the intensity of the

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sustainability-related competitive moves they employ intermarket customer segments (Samiee and Roth
(Leonidou et al. 2013). Variations in the frequency and 1992). Differences in customer tastes and preferences
aggressiveness of competitive actions across country between the home and export markets necessitate the
markets are likely to produce differences in marketing deployment of marketing strategy adaptation. Extend-
strategies - that is, internationalizing firms adapt their ing this logic, we argue that exporters that adapt their
export venture marketing strategies to remain competi- sustainable marketing strategies in line with identified
tive (Katsikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou 2006). Since differences in customers' sustainable consumption
Cavusgil, Zou, and Naidu's (1993) groundbreaking demands have a good chance of enhancing value for
study, the thrust of exporting research has associated local customers.
competitive intensity with the need for greater adapta-
tion to local conditions. Export decision makers are not Market munificence taps differences between the home and
immune from the safety net of adhering to industry export markets in terms of the degree to which the business
competitive norms. Sustainability scholars have fre- environment can support continuous sustainability-
quently asserted that imitation of domestic competitors' related sales, market, and profitability growth. The
environmental conduct is the prevailing approach for presence of a market demand trajectory, as opposed to
firms wanting to ensure that their standards meet the no movement or a downward arc, may have a clear
norms required to maintain legitimacy (Christmann bearing on a firm's marketing strategy decisions. The
2004). If exporters observe that many competitors inter- upswing of a marketplace in terms of size and demand
nationally standardize their sustainable marketing conditions for sustainable product offerings would
approaches, they may well follow suit. The pragmatic likely furnish incumbent firms with extra resources and
reality is that an exporting firm's sustainable marketing associated opportunities (Akaah 1991; Aragón-Correa
strategies can be a source of competitive advantage or and Sharma 2003). Senior managers are aware that for-
disadvantage, and the strategic choice should be tailored eign markets can compensate for the lack of domestic
to the export market when competitive codes of conduct market customers prone to sustainable marketing
are unfamiliar. More intense sustainability-related com- appeals (Becker-Olsen et al. 2011). Greater sales
petition in the export market compared with the home turnover generated in a growing foreign market might
market increases the risk of inaction, as perceived bycover the extra costs of a sustainability drive at home
managers (Leonidou, Katsikeas, and Morgan 2013), and abroad. Therefore, firms scrutinize whether export
and can induce firms to adapt. markets themselves are fertile opportunities to make
resourcing investments and build market share using
Customer characteristics refer to differences between sustainable marketing strategies. We propose that the
the home and export markets in the level of customer more distinctive the munificence characteristics of the
sensitivity to sustainability-linked marketing strategy export market (vs. the home market), the greater the
aspects, such as product evaluation criteria, product requirement for sustainable export marketing strategy
usage patterns, and purchasing criteria. Firms imple- adaptation.
ment environmental actions with the ultimate purpose
of fitting their targeting and image positioning to the Stakeholder pressures denote differences in environmen-
evolving consumer voice (Buil-Carrasco, Fraj-Andrés, tal stakeholders' feelings, concerns, and demands about
and Matute- Valle jo 2008; Mengue, Auh, and Ozanne the firm's sustainability position and actions between
2010). Customers across many country markets are the home and export markets. Internationalizing firms
demanding more environmentally and socially friendly encounter stakeholders within (and across) national
corporate behaviors, rather than traditional, purely eco- task/industry environments that aim to influence their
nomic behaviors. Importantly, firms' reputations for environmental and social conduct by pressuring them to
environmental responsibility are based on information legitimize their behavior and conform to normative
available to customers. The transparency of an standards (Christmann 2004). Indeed, extant research
exporter's overall sustainability policy to local cus- has suggested that MNEs conform on the basis of their
tomers tends to be limited. In essence, customers are participation in voluntary industry agreements for envi-
likely to focus on the sustainability of the export mar- ronmental conduct (Tatoglu et al. 2014). Whereas
keting strategy as a basis for their conclusions (Christ- macroenvironmental (e.g., regulatory, sociocultural)
mann 2004). The international marketing literature has forces exert indirect, institutional pressures on firms to
suggested that low adaptation approaches fail when conform, stakeholder pressures have access to and the
firms neglect to identify clearly defined and delineated attention of management (Banerjee, Iyer, and Kashyap

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2003). Such direct pressures may be exerted by groups tribute to a higher market share (Baker and Sinkula
within the firm's structure, such as local employees and 2005).
shareholders; industry regulators, with the objective of
protecting the reputation of their local industry; and Similarly, the international sustainability literature has
nongovernmental organizations, which often possess argued that sustainability can help firms achieve supe-
knowledge about ethical improvements and attempt to rior performance in international markets (Chan 2010).
bridge the firm to the local marketplace (Meznar and In particular, international firms can use sustainability
Nigh 1995). When stakeholders' concerns overlap or to enhance sales and market share by capitalizing on
converge to urge exporting firms to behave sustainably, foreign customers' demands for products of a more sus-
managers are expected to listen. Sustainable export mar- tainable nature; provide differentiated products in for-
keting strategy adaptation is more likely when stake- eign markets, enabling them to charge premium prices;
holder pressures in the export market are dissimilar to and offer products with superior quality and durability,
those of the home market. thus enhancing customer satisfaction and loyalty
(Leonidou et al. 2013). International firms can also
H2: Differences between the home and export ven- lower the costs of legal liabilities in foreign markets
ture markets in (a) competitive intensity, because they are better placed to avoid causing future
(b) customer characteristics, (c) market munifi- environmental/social damage and are better able to
cence, and (d) stakeholder pressures are posi- achieve cost advantages through pollution prevention
tively related to the degree of sustainable and waste minimization policies in foreign markets
export marketing strategy adaptation. (Chan 2010).
Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Adap- Firms face controversy when deciding whether to use
tation and Export Performance sustainability marketing strategies across markets. On
the one hand, international marketing managers can
Previous performance studies in the export marketing exploit cross-country differences by adopting "dirty"
(e.g., Katsikeas, Leonidou, and Morgan 2000) and sus- sustainability practices in countries with lax demand for
tainability (e.g., Leonidou, Katsikeas, and Morgan sustainability issues. On the other hand, research has
2013) fields consistently suggest that performance bene- proposed that firms need to standardize their environ-
fits of marketing strategies can take different forms. mental strategies through self-regulation and proactive
Economic measures are the most prevalent in these areas approaches (Christmann and Taylor 2001). Sustain-
nonetheless, and we specify that performance of the ability standardization might be a sensible option for
export venture comprises sales-, market share-, and large MNEs because of their greater visibility and
profit-related economic outcomes within the same impact (Christmann 2004). Smaller exporters, however,
global construct (Leonidou et al. 2013; Morgan, might either standardize or opt for a more adapted
Kaleka, and Katsikeas 2004). approach in an effort to maximize performance out-
comes in their foreign export market ventures (Hult-
The domestic sustainability literature has emphasized man, Robson, and Katsikeas 2009). In line with contin-
that sustainability marketing strategies can have a posi- gency theory, we argue that there is no one-size-fits-all
tive effect on performance (Leonidou, Katsikeas, and solution to the adaptation/standardization debate. We
Morgan 2013). Several reasons reinforce such a linkage. posit that complex systems cannot be easily understood
Specifically, sustainability marketing strategies can min- by breaking them down into individual parts (Tan and
imize waste, eliminate sustainability-related risks, and Litschert 1994). Therefore, rather than adopting a theo-
enhance cost savings in a manufacturing site; boost retical treatment of strategic fit that examines only a few
employee morale, output, and productivity (Peng and environment factors (e.g., Leonidou et al. 2013), we
Lin 2008); help strengthen relationships with various adopt a perspective that incorporates a variety of
stakeholders (e.g., regulators, nongovernmental organi- macro- and microenvironmental dimensions.
zations) and improve image and reputation among cus-
tomers ( Fra j -Andres, Martinez-Salinas, and Matute- The macroenvironment provides a structured and recog-
Vallejo 2009); and enable the firm to target new market nized context from which to investigate extraneous fac-
segments, such as customers whose sustainability con- tors that potentially influence sustainable export mar-
siderations are important to their purchasing behavior keting strategy outcomes. The general literature (e.g.,
(Banerjee, Iyer, and Kashyap 2003), which can con- Root 1988) has suggested that institutional environ-

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ments in national markets have a substantial impact on and to achieve a final study sample large enough to
the survival and growth outcomes of foreign firms. enable rigorous data analysis and increase the external
Thus, export intelligence agencies put clear emphasis on validity of the empirical findings. For comparability pur-
the need for exporters to consider macroenvironmental poses, we excluded exporters in services industries,
contingencies in the first instance (Hultman, Robson, exporters that were state owned, and exporters without
and Katsikeas 2009). We posit that export managers do export venture operations running for at least three
not directly influence performance but instead inten- years. The unit of analysis was the individual product-
tionally fit their sustainable export marketing strategy market export venture. The study used key informants,
to economic, regulatory, sociocultural, and technologi- defined as managers who were knowledgeable about
cal environment forces to improve their performance sustainable export marketing strategies and able and
(Leonidou et al. 2013). willing to participate in the study. Half our key inform-
ants were asked to focus on a more successful export
Performance can likewise be viewed as critically depend- venture and the other half to focus on a less successful
ent on the microenvironment in which an exporting firm export venture.
competes (Katsikeas, Leonidou, and Morgan 2000).
Regardless of the cost savings and coordination benefits We drew a sample of 1,200 manufacturing exporters
achievable through sustainable marketing standardiza- from the Dun and Bradstreet and FAME databases of
tion, a degree of sustainable marketing adaptation U.K. business enterprises and the British Exporters
might provide higher sales, market share, and profits Database. Execution of the sampling process was based
from a better exploitation of different market require- on a series of steps. First, all 1,200 exporting firms were
ments across countries. Export managers are likely to contacted by telephone to inform them of the study and
seek benefits by modifying their sustainable export mar- its objectives. These telephone calls revealed 644 eligible
keting strategy to meet perceived differences between firms and a key informant in each company who
the home and export markets in terms of competitive appeared knowledgeable and able and willing to partic-
intensity, customer characteristics, market munificence, ipate in the study. By extension, 556 companies were
and stakeholder pressures. In summary, high perform- excluded for various reasons: (1) 176 acknowledged no
ance of the export venture transpires only to the extent key informant familiar with the study topic and able to
that there is fit between the sustainable export market- take part in it; (2) 129 adhered to a company policy not
ing strategy adaptation being deployed and the macro- to take part in surveys; (3) 89 indicated that responsibil-
and microenvironmental contexts within which it is exe- ity for sustainable export marketing activities had been
cuted (Drazin and Van de Ven 1985). outsourced to other firms; (4) 68 had closed down, were
closing down, or had ceased export operations; (5) 45
H3: Fit between the level of sustainable export had no export venture beyond the three-year cutoff;
marketing strategy adaptation and the macro- (6) 27 did not find the survey applicable because they did
and microenvironmental context in which it is not export; and (7) 22 were subsidiaries of MNEs, not
implemented is positively related to export U.K. exporters. Second, the survey pack was sent to the
performance. 644 key informants. Third, three weeks after the first-
wave mailing, follow-up telephone calls were made and
another survey pack, including a reminder letter and
METHOD
thank-you note, sent to nonrespondents. Fourth, two
Sample and Data Collection Procedures weeks later, nonrespondents were sent a final note. All
questionnaires returned were coded and filed according
To test the study hypotheses, we obtained data using a to the date received. A final total of 238 questionnaires
survey from U.K. exporting firms within nine manufac- were returned; however, the number of usable responses
turing industries. These firms included manufacturers of
was 217, giving an effective response rate of 35%. Nine
food products and beverages; textiles; paper and paper questionnaires were dropped because of considerable
products; chemicals and chemical products; rubber and missing data, and 12 more failed our post hoc key
plastic products; radio, television, and communication informant competence test and were also dropped.
equipment; furniture; computers; and so on. The indus-
tries selected were actively involved in exporting activities Prestudy interviews suggested that informants with the
and sustainability practices. We used a multi-industry knowledge to report on sustainable export marketing
research design to enhance variation in the responses strategies could occupy a range of job titles (e.g., export

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manager, marketing manager, quality manager), the survey respondents with regard to the number of
depending on who is responsible for and involved in full-time employees (assessed from secondary sources).
such activities in each firm. During the initial telephone Using independent sample t-tests, we identified no sig-
contact with the 1,200 exporters, a key informant nificant differences at the .05 level (t = .79, p = .43). Sec-
whose responsibility included sustainable marketing ond, we employed an extrapolation procedure based on
strategies was identified by name and title. the earliness of the respondents (e.g., Magnusson et al.
2013). We compared early respondents (58% respond-
In line with procedures widely employed in international ing to our first-wave mailing) with the remainder of the
marketing studies (e.g., Boso et al. 2013; Obadia 2013), sample (42% classified as late respondents) with regard
we evaluated key informants on the basis of a post hoc to the key study constructs (i.e., sustainable export mar-
competence check. Specifically, the final part of the ques- keting strategy and export performance) and several
tionnaire included two questions that assessed the demographic characteristics (e.g., sales turnover, years
respondent's level of ( 1 ) involvement in the firm's export of exporting). Again using independent sample t-tests,
venture market operations and (2) knowledge about the we found no significant differences between the two
firm's sustainability activities. A seven-point rating scale groups at the .05 level.
(1 = "very low," and 7 = "very high") captured responses
for both questions. We eliminated any questionnaire Field Interviews and Measurement Procedures
with a response lower than the midscale point of 4 on
either question. After exclusion of 12 questionnaires, the We conducted in-depth field interviews, lasting between
mean composite rating for informant quality of the study 60 and 90 minutes, with seven export managers familiar
sample (n = 217) was 5.82, which lends confidence in the with sustainable marketing practices deployed in their
validity of the key informant data. firms' exporting operations and industry in general. The
aim of the prestudy interviews was to scrutinize the phe-
In the final sample, respondent positions of export sales nomenon investigated, as well as our conceptualization
manager (27.2%), chief executive officer (19.8%), mar- and operationalization, among exporters. The discus-
keting manager/director (18.0%), financial controller/ sions helped ensure that the core constructs and the
logistics manager/quality manager (12.9%), and sales links between them depicted in our conceptual model
manager/director (11.5%) were the most commonly held. made sense to practicing export managers. For example,
The mean number of years that respondents had been the interviewees indicated that an appropriate degree of
with the exporting firm was 10.84, and 62.2% of the sustainable export marketing strategy adaptation can be
sample had more than five years of service at the firm. chosen and deployed by accounting for external envi-
ronmental imperatives with respect to sustainability,
The spread of the 217 sample firms across the nine man- which commonly differ in the home and export markets.
ufacturing industries is broadly comparable to the rela-
tive sizes of these industries in our overall sampling The prestudy field interviews also helped us appraise the
frame. Within the industries, 76.5% of the responding measures of the study constructs to ensure that all items
exporters assigned their chosen export venture product and response scales were fully understood by export
to the industrial product category, with only 23.5% managers. Although we adopted measurement scales
exporting finished consumer goods. The most common from previous research whenever possible, the novelty
export venture country market was in Western Europe of the study constructs necessitated the modification of
(37.3%), followed by Asia (19.4%), North America existing measures from previous research based on the
(16.1%), Africa and the Middle East (12.0%), and East- interviews themselves. We used reflective, multi-item
ern Europe, including Russia (8.3%). More than half measures for all the study constructs (for items, response
(55.8%) the firms had been exporting for 21 years or scales, and scale reliability scores, see Table 1).
longer, with a mean of 28.3 years. The mean duration of
the focal export venture was 16.6 years. The sample We captured economic conditions using five items from
mostly comprised small and medium-sized firms. The Chung (2003); Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas
median number of full-time employees was 50, and (2009); Katsikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou (2006); and
88.5% of the sample had fewer than 250 employees. Theodosiou and Katsikeas (2001). We tapped regula-
tory conditions using a five-item scale adapted from
We tested nonresponse bias in two ways. First, we com- Banerjee, Iyer, and Kashyap (2003); Chung (2003);
pared 50 randomly selected, nonresponding firms with Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas (2009); Katsikeas,

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Table 1. Measures and Measurement Model Results
Standardized
Factors and Items Loadings'1
Economic Conditions (a = .88, CR = .83

market is similar to or different from
and 7 = "very different").
Econ 1 - Purchasing power of customers .78 (11.46)
Econ 2 - Level of industrial development .76 (11.00)
Econ 3 - Communications infrastructure .81 (11.95)
Econ 4 - Income distribution .82 (11.22)
Econ 5 - Inflation rates .73 (10.37)
Regulatory Conditions (a = .93, CR = .88): Pl
market is similar to or different from the d
Reg 1 - Laws and regulations concerning sustainability issues .90 (14.25)
Reg 2 - Company-focused laws and regulations concerning environmental/social protection .87 (13.53)
Reg 3 - Customer-focused laws and regulations concerning environmental/social protection .90 (14.18)
Reg 4 - Technical standards concerning sustainability issues .82 (12.46)
Reg 5 - Taxation policies concerning sustainability issues .83 (12.61)
Sociocultural Conditions (a = .87, CR = .86): Please indicate the extent to which your cho
market is similar to or different from the domestic market with regard to the elements b
Soc 1 - Values, beliefs and attitudes concerning sustainability issues .92 (14.72)
Soc 2 - Aesthetics preferences associated with sustainability issues .86 (13.23)
Soc 3 - Levels of education and knowledge concerning sustainability issues .56 (7.68)
Soc 4 - Cultural customs and traditions concerning sustainability issues .84 (12.76)
Soc 5 - Religious traditions concerning the environment and society .81 (12.28)
Technological Conditions (a = .90, CR = .85): Please indicate the extent to which your chosen export vent
market is similar to or different from the domestic market with regard to the elements below (1 = "very
Tech 1 - Pace in the development of sustainable technologies .86 (13.29)

Tech 2 - Information technology concerning sustainable solutions .81 (12.11)
Tech 3 - Sustainability in transportation technology .80 (11.87)
Tech 4 - Skills associated with sustainable technologies .81 (12.24)
Tech 5 - Product and production technology obsolescence rate .75 (10.83)
Competitive Intensity (a = .89, CR = .84): Please indicate the extent to which your chosen export
is similar to or different from the domestic market with regard to the elements below (1 = "very
7 = "very different").
Comp 1 - Pace of new competitive moves based on sustainability in this product area .81 (12.06)
Comp 2 - Frequency of promotion wars centering on sustainability in our industry .74 (10.62)
Comp 3 - Frequency of new sustainable product introductions by competitors .81 (12.18)
Comp 4 - Aggressiveness of competition based on sustainability (e.g., products, pricing) in our industry .8
Comp 5 - Extent of price competition for sustainable products in our industry .81 (12.15)
Customer Characteristics (a = .89, CR = .82): Please indicate the extent to which your chosen export venture
market is similar to or different from the domestic market with regard to the elements below (1 = "very similar,"
Cust 1 - Customers' price sensitivity to sustainable product attributes - b
Cust 2 - Sustainability issues in product/service evaluation criteria .83 (12.48)

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Table 1. Continued
Standardized
Factors and Items Loadings3
Cust 3 - Importance of sustainability issues in target market segments .80 (11.93)

Cust 4 - Customers' sensitivity to sustainable purchasing criteria (e.g., recyclability, sourcing, efficiency) .82 (12
Cust 5 - Usage patterns of sustainable products/services .80 (11.16)
Market Munificence (a = .91, CR = .85): Please indicate the extent to which your chosen export v
is similar to or different from the domestic market with regard to the elements below (1 = "very
7 = "very different").
Mun 1 - Demand conditions and potential for sustainable products/services .83 (12.58)
Mun 2 - Market growth for sustainable products/services .78 (11.55)
Mun 3 - Profitability potential for sustainable products/services .85 (12.95)
Mun 4 - Market size for sustainable products/services .80 (11.79)
Mun 5 - General demand for sustainable products/services .82 (12.35)
Stakeholder Pressures (a = .89, CR = .83): Thinking of your firm's stakeholders (e.g., employees, sh
industry regulators, nongovernmental organizations), please indicate the extent to which the foll
are similar or different in the home and export venture markets (1 = "very similar," and 7 = "very
Stake 1 - Our stakeholders' feelings about the importance of environmental/soc
Stake 2 - Our stakeholders' concerns about environmental destructions and social injustices .80 (11.65)
Stake 3 - Our stakeholders' demands for sustainable products/services .80 (11.83)
Stake 4 - Our stakeholders' expectations about our firm's sustainability efforts .86 (13.02)
Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Adaptation (a = .95, CR = .92): Please indicate the extent to which the
following elements of your overall sustainable export marketing strategy are similar to or different from the
domestic market (1 = "very similar," and 7 = "very different").
Mark 1 - Environmental/social concerns in our product practices .91 (14.64)
Mark 2 - Environmental/social concerns in our promotion practices .89 (14.08)
Mark 3 - Environmental/social considerations in our distribution practices .89 (14.05)
Mark 4 - Environmental/social aspects in our pricing practices .89 (14.00)
Mark 5 - Environmental/social considerations in our market segmentation procedures .75 (11.04)
Mark 6 - Environmental/social considerations in our market targeting approach .77 (11.38)
Mark 7 - Environmental/social considerations in our market positioning .78 (11.63)
Mark 8 - Environmental/social elements in the marketing strategy .76 (11.24)
Mark 9 - Sustainability elements integrated into the marketing strategy .85 (13.10)
Export Performance (a = .84, CR = .80): Please think of your chosen export venture market and evaluate how
satisfied you are with its performance over the past 12 months (1 = "not at all satisfied," and 7 = "very
satisfied").
Perf 1 - Export venture profitability .61 (8.00)
Perf 2 - Export venture margins -65 (8.59)
Perf 3 - Reaching export venture financial goals .74 (10.04)
Perf 4 - Sales growth .71 (9.66)
Perf 5 - Market share growth .70 (9.35)
Perf 6 - Sales from new products (launched in the past three years) .71 (9.53)
Fit indices: x2(l>280) = 1,601.30, p < .01; normed fit index = .97; nonnormed fit index = .99; comparative fit
index = .99; incremental fit index = .99; root mean square error of approximation = .03; average off-diagonal
standardized residual = .04
at-values are reported in parentheses.

bItem omitted during purification.
Notes: a = Cronbach's alpha; CR = composite reliability.

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Samiee, and Theodosiou (2006); and Menon et al. of each item on its prespecified construct reinforces con-
(1999). We captured sociocultural conditions through vergent validity.
five items modified from Chung (2003); Hultman, Rob-
son, and Katsikeas (2009); and Katsikeas, Samiee, and We assessed discriminant validity using chi-square dif-
Theodosiou (2006). Finally, we tapped technological ference tests (Anderson and Ger bing 1988) and, in turn,
conditions using five items modified from Cavusgil and estimated a series of pairwise CFA models. In each of
Zou (1994); Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas (2009); these analyses, the investigator estimated two models:
Katsikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou (2006); and Samiee one fixing the correlation between a pair of constructs
and Roth (1992). to unity and one setting the parameter free. A signifi-
cantly lower chi-square value for the freed model versus
the unity model (Ax2(l) > 3.84, p < .05) indicates that
We assessed competitive intensity using a five-item scale
adapted from Banerjee, Iyer, and Kashyap (2003); Chung the two constructs are not equivalent, and thus discrim-
(2003); Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas (2009); Kat- inant validity is evident. For every pair of constructs, the
sikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou (2006); Leonidou et al. freed model produced the better fit (Ax2(l) > 6.05). For
(2013); and Menon et al. (1999). We captured customer example, the chi-square difference test statistic was sig-
characteristics using five items modified from Banerjee, nificant for the three most highly correlated constructs
Iyer, and Kashyap (2003); Chung (2003); Hultman, Rob- in the study: regulatory and sociocultural conditions
son, and Katsikeas (2009); Katsikeas, Samiee, and Theo- (Ax2(l) = 9. 25, p < .01), regulatory and technological
dosiou (2006); Leonidou et al. (2013); and Menon et al. conditions (Àx2(l) = 54.78, p < .001), and competitive
(1999). We assessed market munificence through five intensity and customer characteristics (Ax2(l) = 6.06,
items modified from Akaah (1991); Aragón-Correa and p < .05). These results provide evidence of discriminant
Sharma (2003); Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas (2009); validity between the study constructs. The correlation
Katsikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou (2006); Kim, Stump, matrix and descriptive statistics of the construct meas-
and Oh (2009); and Menon et al. (1999). Finally, we cap- ures appear in Table 2.
tured stakeholder pressures with four items adapted from
Banerjee, Iyer, and Kashyap (2003); Buil-Carrasco, Fraj- Common Method Bias
Andrés, and Matute- Valle jo (2008); Chan (2010); and
Menon et al. (1999). Because we collected the independent and dependent
variables employed for the study from the same infor-
We captured sustainable export marketing strategy adap- mants at the same time, it is possible that common
tation using a nine-item scale modified from Banerjee method bias (CMB) affected the results. We used a com-
(2002); Banerjee, Iyer, and Kashyap (2003); Fraj-Andrés, bination of ex ante procedural and ex post statistical
Martinez-Salinas, and Matute- Valle jo (2009); and approaches to limit and detect CMB, respectively (Pod-
Leonidou et al. (2013). Finally, we measured export per- sakoff et al. 2003). The procedures taken were as fol-
formance through six items from Hultman, Robson, and lows: First, we phrased construct measures in a concise
Katsikeas (2009); Hultman, Katsikeas, and Robson and simple way and tried to avoid ambiguous and unfa-
(2011); Katsikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou (2006); Mor- miliar terms. Second, we verified the questionnaire with
gan (2012); and Morgan, Katsikeas, and Vorhies (2012). academics and managers external to the study and pilot-
tested it with several executives in exporting firms to
ensure that all the questions were clear and easily under-
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS stood. Third, we assured study informants of complete
anonymity and confidentiality - not only during the ini-
Measure Validation
tial telephone conversation but also in the questionnaire
We assessed construct validity through confirmatory
and its cover letter. Fourth, to minimize the possibility
factor analysis (CFA). We conducted the CFA testof using
informants determining links between measures, we
EQS software and the elliptical reweighted least squares
organized survey items in the questionnaire under gen-
method.2 Although the chi-square value is significant
eral topic sections rather than by construct. Regardless,
(X2( 1,280) = 1,601.30, p < .01), all other fit indexes
our focus on strategic fit and its impact on performance
(normed fit index = .97, nonnormed fit index =made .99, it difficult for informants to predict how the study
comparative fit index = .99, root mean square errorconstructs
of are interrelated.
approximation = .03, average off-diagonal standardized
residual = .04) suggest that the model exhibits a good fit
We employed two ex post statistical procedures. First, we
to the data. The significant standardized loadingused(>.55)
the Harman single-factor test and included all study

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Table 2. Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations for the Study Constructs
Construct MSD 1 2 3 45678 9 10
1. Economic conditions 3.37 1.58 1
2. Regulatory conditions 3.66 1.72 .83 1

3. Sociocultural conditions 3.67 1.67 .80 .88 1
4. Technological conditions 3.41 1.51 .79 .85 .84 1

5. Competitive intensity 3.40 1.55 .79 .76 .75 .81 1
6. Customer characteristics 3.45 1.53 .77 .76 .77 .79 .85 1
7. Market munificence 3.59 1.59 .72 .77 .76 .77 .79 .79 1
8. Stakeholder pressures 3.17 1.58 .64 .67 .66 .69 .68 .72 .69 1
9. Sustainable export
marketing strategy
adaptation 3.16 1.47 .62 .56 .56 .63 .65 .65 .53 .58 1
10. Export performance 4.32 1.26 -.01 -.08 -.04 -.04 .00 -.10 .00 -.08 -.07 1
Notes: Coefficients greater than or equal to .53 are significant ( p < .01); N = 217.
strategy
measures in a principal component analysis. adaptation (Hj and H2), we estimated t
Six separate
factors with 18 values greater than 1.0 nary
emergedleast squares
within regression: Yj = + ßjXj + +
the unrotated factor solution, collectively
ß3X3 +explaining
ß4X4 + ß5X5 + ß6X6 + ß7X7 + ß8X8 + El, where
Yj is sustainable
68.5% of the total variance; no dominant factor emerged. export marketing strategy adaptation,
Second, we employed the more rigorous Xļ are economic
marker conditions, X2 are regulatory condi-
variable
test. Here, we used the second-smallest positive
tions, X3 arecorrela-
sociocultural conditions, X4 are technologi-
tion between study variables (i.e., .004) as an acceptable
cal conditions, X5 is competitive intensity, X¿ are cus-
proxy for CMB (Malhotra, Kim, and Patii tomer2006). Using
characteristics, X7 is market munificence, and Xg
this marker variable, we computed CMB-adjusted
are stakeholder corre-
pressures. As Table 3 (first part of Panel
A) reveals,
lations between all the variables in the study. the mar-
The value of the relevant F-statistic is 26.66
ginal differences between the original (p < .01),
and theandCMB-
the adjusted R-square is .49. We assessed
whether
adjusted correlations made no difference to multicollinearity might cause problems in our
the statistical
significance of the correlations. We reestimated
data by calculating
our meas- the variance inflation factors. All fac-
urement model using the CMB-adjusted torscorrelations.
are well below Athe traditional cutoff point of ten
(Mason
chi-square comparison of the original and and Perreault 1991), suggesting that multi-
CMB-adjusted
models suggested no tangible differencecollinearity
(Hultman, is notRob-
an issue affecting our regression results.
son, and Katsikeas 2009). These results indicate that
CMB is not a major concern and does not
Forthreaten the factors,
macroenvironmental differences in economic
interpretation of the study findings. conditions (ß = .22, p < .05) and technological conditions
(ß = .23, p < .05) are positively associated with sustain-
Hypothesis Testing able export marketing strategy adaptation, lending sup-
port to Hla and H1(j, respectively. In contrast, and
Hlc are
We used regression analysis to test the study not supported; regulatory conditions (ß = -.15,
hypotheses.
p > .05)of
We first examined the factors driving the level andsustain-
sociocultural conditions (ß = -.03, p > .05)
able export marketing strategy adaptation and then
are not significantly linked to sustainable export market-
ing strategy
assessed whether the presence of fit influences export adaptation.
per- Among the microenvironmental
formance. To test the impact of the macro-
factors,and micro-
competitive intensity (ß = .22, p < .05), customer
environment factors on sustainable export
characteristics
marketing
(ß = .25, p < .05), and stakeholder pres-

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Table 3. Regression Analysis
A: Macro- and Microenvironment Analysis
Dependent Variable: Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Adaptation
Independent Variables Coefficient t- Value Hypothesis Results
Intercept .74 3.85**

Economic conditions .22 2.27* Hla Supported
Regulatory conditions -.15 -1.26a Not supported
Sociocultural conditions -.03 -.26a Hlc Not supported
Technological conditions .23 2.08* Hlcļ Supported
Competitive intensity .22 1.95* H.2a Supported
Customer characteristics .25 2.33* H2b Supported
Market munificence -.16 -1.68a H2C Not supported
Stakeholder pressures .17 2.33* Hid Supported
Adjusted R2 = .49; F-statistic = 26.66
Dependent Variable: Export Performance
Coefficient t-Value Hypothesis Results
Intercept 4.60 35.27**

¡Standardized residualsl -.19 -2.80** H3 Supported
B: Macroenvironment Analysis
Dependent Variable: Sustainable Export Marketing St

Economic conditions .32 3.82** Hla Supported
Technological conditions .38 4.47** Hlcj Supported

Standardized residualsl -.22 -3.38** H3 Supported

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Table 3. Continued
C: Microenvironment Analysis
Dependent Variable: Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Adaptation
Coefficient t- Value Hypothesis Results

Competitive intensity .31 3.15** H2a Supported
Customer characteristics .27 2.62** H2b Supported
Stakeholder pressures .18 2.43* H2cj Supported
Coefficient t- Value Hypothesis Results

(Standardized residuals I -.21 -3.18** H3 Supported
*p < .05.
**p < .01.
ap > .05.
sures (ß = .17, p < .05) are positively associated with sus- The results in Table 3 (second part of Panel A) show an
tainable export marketing strategy adaptation, in sup- inverse relationship between absolute standardized resid-
port of H2a, H2b, and H2cj, respectively. The exception is uals and export performance (ß = -.19, p < .01). As such,
market munificence (H2c), which produced no significant small positive or negative residuals, which indicate fit, are
relationship to sustainable export marketing strategy connected with relatively high levels of performance, and
adaptation (ß = -.16, p > .05). vice versa. To enhance confidence in this result, we sepa-
rated the macro- and microenvironmental effects and
Consistent with the study's theoretical foundation, testing reran the residual analysis test (see Table 3, first parts of
of H3 requires developing a measure that assesses fit Panels B and C). Building on first-stage regression models
between strategic response and contingency variables and of significant macro- or microenvironmental variables,
then examining whether fit has a positive effect on our per- we again find that high absolute standardized residuals
formance variable. We incorporated only environmental are negatively associated with export performance
variables found to be significantly related to sustainable (macroenvironment model: ß = -.22, p < .01; microenvi-
export marketing strategy adaptation in the calculation of ronment model: ß = -.21, p < .01). Taken together, these
fit (Venkatraman and Prescott 1990). We employed resid- results provide support for our prediction in H3 of a fit-
ual analysis to capture such fit and to assess its impact on performance relationship.3
export performance (Katsikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou
2006). We regressed the "absolute" standardized residuals
resulting from the estimation of the regression model (i.e., DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
comprising significant contingency variables) on perform-
ance. High levels of such residuals indicate misfit between This study contributes new international marketing
the degree of sustainable export marketing strategy adap- knowledge in three main ways. First, the recent upsurge
tation and contingency variables, which should negatively in strategy sustainability research has focused on corpo-
influence performance, and vice versa. rate (e.g., Mengue, Auh, and Ozanne 2010) or market-

35.154.245.7 on Tue, 30 Mar 2021 07:36:16 UTC
ing (e.g., Cronin et al. 2011) strategies and policies not directly linked to export performance. Our results
within domestic settings, whereas international work confirm that a set of external environmental factors
has largely centered on corporate sustainability strate- behaved as predicted in shaping fit between the level of
gies inside subsidiary networks (e.g., Tatoglu et al. sustainable export marketing strategy adaptation and
2014). Despite the growing relevance of sustainable performance. The influential contingency variables stem
marketing to exporters (e.g., in helping them resist cus- from both the macroenvironment (i.e., economic and
tomer animosity in the foreign market; Engardio et al. technological conditions) and the microenvironment
2007; Leonidou et al. 2013), the development and exe- (i.e., competitive intensity, customer characteristics, and
cution of sustainable export marketing strategies is stakeholder pressures). It is worth dwelling on the influ-
masked by considerable ambiguity. This study targets ential role of economic conditions, especially because
this theoretical ambiguity by examining sustainable two previous studies on international marketing strategy
marketing strategies with international reach. adaptation (Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas 2009; Kat-
sikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou 2006) have found that
Second, notable international marketing scholars (e.g., economic conditions have no significant effects. Our
Kolk and Margineantu 2009) have explored drivers of finding is not surprising, considering the backdrop of
sustainable export marketing strategy adaptation, but sustainability work that has often reported a strong link
such work stops short of offering a systematic examina- between national economic circumstances and the
tion of drivers. Moreover, studies have not addressed salience of environmentally and/or socially friendly activ-
whether and under what contingent conditions such adap- ities to customers (Becker-Olsen et al. 2011; Marta and
tation affects performance. Using contingency theory, we Singhapakdi 2005). In our prestudy field interviews, an
heed the call of Leonidou et al. (2013) for scholars to export manager from a beauty industry firm discussed
examine factors responsible for the effective adaptation of the firm's responsiveness (using segmentation, product,
firms' sustainable marketing strategies in export markets. and pricing decisions) to whether customers in emerging
Specifically, this study assesses the macro- and microenvi- markets can afford to purchase environmentally friendly
ronmental drivers, together with export venture perform- products with premium prices.
ance outcomes, of sustainable export marketing strategy
adaptation. Our model adopts sustainability arguments to Three contingency variables failed to produce signifi-
provide fresh insights into the enduring export marketing cant effects - namely, regulatory and sociocultural con-
strategy adaptation/standardization debate. ditions and market munificence. The nonsignificant
macroenvironmental effects are surprising, given that
Third, although both market targeting and marketing Kolk and Margineantu (2009) observe that regulatory
program elements potentially affect export performance and sociocultural factors both play a role in the sustain-
(Diamantopoulos et al. 2014; Katsikeas, Leonidou, and able marketing strategy adaptation of globalizing
Morgan 2000), the export marketing strategy adaptation accountant firms. Although regulation might be a good
literature has thus far overlooked the former in favor of predictor for sustainability strategy formulation and
the latter. This study is novel in conceptualizing sustain- implementation at the corporate level, this is not always
able export marketing strategy to include market target- the case at the marketing level (Banerjee, Iyer, and
ing and marketing program elements in a single global Kashyap 2003; Chan 2010). In addition, regulatory
scale. We postulate that inclusive framing of marketing compliance is now considered a reactive, rather than a
strategy can contribute especially to a clearer under- productive, approach in dealing with sustainability
standing of marketing adaptation in the sustainability issues. Firms today take a more proactive approach to
context (Özsomer and Simonin 2004). Indeed, we find such issues and introduce policies and practices that not
support for our overall sustainable export marketing only might be ahead of regulatory standards but also, in
strategy model, which parsimoniously accounts for a some cases, could help shape standards. Research find-
range of contingency contexts by considering simultane- ings show that these proactive sustainability approaches
ous and holistic patterns of the interlinkages between can bring performance benefits to firms (Aragón-Correa
overall strategy and external environmental factors, in and Rubio-Lopez 2007). Furthermore, the exporting lit-
line with Venkatraman and Prescott's (1990) classic the- erature indicates that because regulatory conditions are
orization of environment-strategy coalignment. relatively easy for firms to interpret and do not involve
much in the way of active, ongoing learning, their influ-
The evidence reported here reinforces contingency theory ence tends to occur during the initiation stages of an
that sustainable export marketing strategy adaptation is export venture (Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas

35.154.245.7 on Tue, 30 Mar 2021 07:36:16 UTC
2009); our export ventures have a mean duration of drivers of sustainable export marketing strategy adapta-
16.6 years. tions (i.e., economic and technological conditions, com-
petitive intensity, customer characteristics, and stake-
Usually, MNEs have access to abundant resources with holder pressures) that together shape the nature of
which to scan, locate, and analyze foreign markets. Such strategic fit and its performance relevance. Exporting
resources provide MNEs with background knowledge firms that disregard the three nonsignificant environmen-
of sociocultural idiosyncrasies in overseas markets, tal factors (i.e., regulatory and sociocultural conditions
which can facilitate strategy and practice adaptations in and market munificence) in developing and executing
relation to sustainability, when required (Kolk and Mar- sustainable export marketing strategies should achieve
gineantu 2009). In contrast, smaller exporters, with equal performance with firms that do consider them.
fewer resources at their disposal, often end up with lim- One implication is that managers responsible for sustain-
ited information about societal expectations in their able export marketing strategies need to be able to
overseas target markets (Leonidou 1995). Exporters develop proactive approaches rather than simply follow-
may lack the ability to act on sociocultural differences ing local sustainability regulation. Furthermore, the non-
between the home and local markets. significant findings for sociocultural conditions and mar-
ket munificence might stem from exporters lacking the
A possible explanation for the nonsignificant influence willingness or ability to diagnose and act on such differ-
of market munificence pertains to the nature of the ences between the home and local markets.
home market and the export venture market selected by
each firm. We collected data from exporters operating in The finding that strategic fit is connected with relatively
the United Kingdom, a developed country with favor- high levels of performance influence endorses our thesis
able conditions for ethical and sustainability strategies that sustainable export marketing strategy decisions, as
to take seed and grow. On the one hand, faced with sim- with other forms of sustainable strategy decision making
ilar market growth conditions, it might be possible for (Mengue, Auh, and Ozanne 2010), need to be made holis-
exporters to standardize their sustainability marketing tically and consistently. Exporting firms face the risk of
strategies to maximize scale economies because such being considered opportunistic with their sustainability
practices can be costly and time consuming (Leonidou, activities in the local marketplace when they vary market-
Katsikeas, and Morgan 2013). On the other hand, sig- ing strategy constituents (e.g., positioning the brand as
nificant home and local market differences might also sustainable in the export market but not designing prod-
push exporters to standardize their approach because in ucts and packaging in an environmentally friendly way)
a market with low growth for sustainable products and across the adaptation-standardization continuum.
services, firms that already have a sustainable export
marketing strategy in place might be better able to use Limitations and Future Research Implications
this as a vehicle for differentiation advantage (Porter
and Van der Linde 1 995; Rueda-Manzanares, Aragón- The study faces a set of limitations. First, the possibility
Correa, and Sharma 2008). Given the amount of that CMB exists in our key informant study remains,
resources needed to develop a sound sustainable export despite our emphasis on recruiting and retaining appro-
marketing strategy, it is also unlikely for a firm with no priate informants and use of procedures and analyses to
sustainability presence in the home market to pursue curb it. Second, from a review of the literature and
such a path for a specific foreign market. Examining this prestudy field interviews, the study developed scales for
unexpected effect in greater depth in the context of macro- and microenvironmental conditions relevant to
firms operating in home markets with less favorable the current sustainability focus. For example, we tapped
conditions for sustainability issues represents an intrigu- differences between the home and export markets with
ing direction for further research. respect to regulatory and legal aspects pertaining to sus-
tainability, rather than regulatory and legal aspects per
Managerial Implications se. Specifying sustainability within the environmental
constructs, when appropriate, yielded a predictive con-
Managers should realize that the appropriateness of a tingency model. Still, building on this study's first step,
particular sustainable export marketing strategy, research testing the generalizability of the findings might
whether adapted, standardized, or somewhere in attempt to determine whether there are greater differ-
between, hinges on its fit with external environmental ences in contingency variable effects when using "gen-
factors. Indeed, our results caution that managers should eral" environment scales. Such scales could reduce the
concentrate their limited attention and resources on five correlations among the contingency variables. However,

35.154.245.7 on Tue, 30 Mar 2021 07:36:16 UTC
high correlations may also stem from the nature of con- NOTES
structs dealing with similarities of macro- and micro-
environmental factors between the home and export 1. To realize this conceptualization, we follow estab-
markets (see Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas 2009). lished precedent in the sustainability literature (e.g.,
Banerjee, Iyer, and Kashyap 2003; Martín-Tapia,
Third, it would be insightful for research to consider the Aragón-Correa, and Senise-Barrio 2008) to adopt a
direction of the differences (rather than just the magni- global scale to capture across-marketing-strategy
tude) between the home and export venture markets on facets.
the micro- and macroenvironmental forces. In doing so,
studies might reveal more nuanced results regarding the 2. The maximum likelihood estimation procedure
intersection between marketing strategy and sustain- assumes multivariate normal distribution, while the
ability in international settings. For example, going from elliptical reweighted least squares technique adopts a
low to high (vs. from high to low) market munificence multivariate elliptical distribution (Mohr and Sohi
may have a differential effect on the degree of sustainable
1996). In general, the latter provides more reliable
export marketing strategy adaptation. The deployment results than the former across normal and nonnormal
of such an approach would provide closer scrutiny of
data, and for this reason, we preferred it for this
any nonsupported contingency variable effects (e.g., our
study (Sharma, Durvasula, and Dillon 1989).
predictions of regulatory and sociocultural conditions).
3. We ran two additional regressions, including industry

Fourth, although the use of a global sustainability export
dummies (for nine industries), to test whether any
marketing strategy scale follows clear precedent in the
industry effects are evident in our sample. The first
sustainability literature, the measure could be decom-
regressed sustainable export marketing strategy adap-
posed to check for separate and interaction effects. In
tation on the environmental factors and industry dum-
particular, further research on sustainable export mar-
keting strategy adaptation might separate market target- mies, and the significance of our independent variables
ing aspects from marketing program characteristics, remained the same. In the second regression, we exam-
given that the sustainability literature (Gurau and Ran- ined the impact of fit and the industry dummies on per-
chod 2005) has put greater emphasis on targeting than formance. The coefficient of misfit remained highly sig-
previous exporting work (Leonidou, Katsikeas, and nificant. These results enhance confidence in the
Samiee 2002). Indeed, incorporating different compo- stability of the model and minimize any possibility of
nents of sustainable export marketing strategy adapta- industry-specific effects influencing our results.
tion (e.g., strategy process vs. content [Christmann
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Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Fit and Performance

Author(s): Athina Zeriti, Matthew J. Robson, Stavroula Spyropoulou and Constantinos

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43966928

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mance (Chan 2010; Tatoglu et al. 2014). Likewise,

44 Journal of International Marketing

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emerging markets are imposing regulations on market-

Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Fit and Performance 45

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46 Journal of International Marketing

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Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Fit and Performance 47

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• Market munificence Export

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Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Fit and Performance 4

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50 Journal of International Marketing

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Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Fit and Performance 51

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Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Fit and Performance 5

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Economic Conditions (a = .88, CR = .83

Tech 1 - Pace in the development of sustainable technologies .86 (13.29)

54 Journal of International Marketing

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Cust 3 - Importance of sustainability issues in target market segments .80 (11.93)

at-values are reported in parentheses.

Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Fit and Performance 55

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56 Journal of International Marketing

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Construct MSD 1 2 3 45678 9 10

1. Economic conditions 3.37 1.58 1

2. Regulatory conditions 3.66 1.72 .83 1

4. Technological conditions 3.41 1.51 .79 .85 .84 1

Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Fit and Performance 57

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A: Macro- and Microenvironment Analysis

Dependent Variable: Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Adaptation

Independent Variables Coefficient t- Value Hypothesis Results

Intercept .74 3.85**

Dependent Variable: Export Performance

Coefficient t-Value Hypothesis Results

Intercept 4.60 35.27**

Dependent Variable: Sustainable Export Marketing St

Coefficient t-Value Hypothesis Results

Intercept .90 4.72**

Dependent Variable: Export Performance

Coefficient t-Value Hypothesis Results

58 Journal of International Marketing

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Dependent Variable: Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Adaptation

Coefficient t- Value Hypothesis Results

Dependent Variable: Export Performance

Coefficient t- Value Hypothesis Results

Sustainable Export Marketing Strategy Fit and Performance 5

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