Proceedings of the 20th World Congress

Proceedings
The of
of the
International
Proceedings 20th
20th World
Federation
the Worldof Congress
Automatic Control
Congress
Proceedings
The
Toulouse, of the
The International
France,
International 20th9-14,
July World
Federation
Federation of Congress
of Automatic
2017
Automatic Control
Control
The International
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Toulouse,
Toulouse, France,Federation
France, July
July 9-14, of Automatic Control
9-14, 2017
2017
Toulouse, France, July 9-14, 2017
ScienceDirect
IFAC PapersOnLine 50-1 (2017) 12563–12568
Energy-Optimal
Energy-Optimal Adaptive
Adaptive Cruise
Cruise Control
Control
Energy-Optimal
Energy-Optimal Adaptive
Adaptive Cruise
Cruise Control
Control
based
based on
on Model
Model Predictive
Predictive Control
Control
based on Model Predictive Control
based on Model Predictive Control
Andreas Weißmann, Daniel Görges and Xiaohai Lin
Andreas
Andreas Weißmann, Weißmann, Daniel Daniel Görges
Görges and and Xiaohai
Xiaohai Lin Lin
Andreas Weißmann, Daniel Görges and Xiaohai Lin
Juniorprofessorship for Electromobility, University of Kaiserslautern,
Juniorprofessorship
Juniorprofessorship
Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße for
for Electromobility,
12, 67663 University
Electromobility, University
Kaiserslautern, of
of Kaiserslautern,
Kaiserslautern,
Germany
Juniorprofessorship
Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße for Electromobility,
12, 67663 University
Kaiserslautern, of Kaiserslautern,
Germany
Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße
E-mail: 12, 67663 Kaiserslautern,
weissmann|goerges|lin@eit.uni-kl.de Germany
Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße
E-mail: 12, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
weissmann|goerges|lin@eit.uni-kl.de
E-mail: weissmann|goerges|lin@eit.uni-kl.de
E-mail: weissmann|goerges|lin@eit.uni-kl.de
Abstract: In this paper an approach for an energy-optimal adaptive cruise control based
Abstract:
Abstract:
on In
In this
model predictive this paper
paper
control an approach
an (MPC)
approach for
for anan energy-optimal
is presented. energy-optimal
The approach adaptive
adaptive
uses the cruise
cruise control
control of
knowledge based
based
the
Abstract:
on model In this paper
predictive control an (MPC)
approach is for an energy-optimal
presented. The approach adaptive
uses thecruise control of
knowledge based
on model
given route predictive
to control
precalculate a (MPC) is presented.
position-dependent The approach
energy-optimal speed uses the knowledge
trajectory using of the
dynamic the
on model
given predictive control (MPC) is presented. The approach uses the knowledge of the
given route
route to
programming precalculate
to while
precalculate
taking aaadditional
position-dependent
position-dependent
information energy-optimal
energy-optimal
like speed speed
speedroad
limits, trajectory
trajectory
slope using
using
and dynamic
dynamic
travel time
given route to while
programming precalculate aadditional
position-dependent energy-optimal speedroad trajectoryand using dynamic
programming
into account during while taking
taking additional information
the optimization. The model like
information like speed
speed limits,
predictive limits,
controller roadisslope
slope
usedand travel
travel time
to control time
the
programming
into account while taking
during the additional information
optimization. The model like speed limits,
predictive controller roadisslopeused and
to travel time
control the
into account
traction force during
of the the vehicle
host optimization.such The
that the model
vehicle predictive
speed controller
follows the is usedspeed
optimal to control
trajectory the
into
tractionaccount during the optimization. The model predictive controller is used to control the
as good force
traction
traction
force of
of the
as possible
force
the host
host
while
of the host
vehicle
vehicle
ensuring
vehicle
such that
that the
the vehicle
such constraints
such constraints
that the vehicle like speed
vehicle speed
distance
speed
follows
to athe
follows
follows
the
the
optimal speed
speed trajectory
optimal vehicle
preceding
optimal vehicle
trajectory
or speed
speed trajectory
as
as good
good
limits. To as
as possible
possible
show the while
while
benefits ensuring
ensuring
of the constraints
approach, a like
like
comparisondistance
distance of to
to
the a
a preceding
preceding
energy vehicle
consumption or
or speed
speed
between
as goodToasshow
limits. possible
the while ensuring constraints like distance to a preceding vehicle or speed
limits.
the To showvehicle
controlled the benefits
benefits
and the of the
the approach,
of preceding
approach,vehicleaa comparison
comparison
on the same of the
the energy
ofroute energy
is consumption
consumption
performed. For thebetween
between
speed
limits.
the To showvehicle
controlled the benefits
and the of preceding
the approach, vehicle a comparison
on the same ofroute
the energyis consumption
performed. For thebetween
speed
the controlled
profile vehicle andvehicle,
of the preceding the preceding data ofvehicle
real test on thedrivessame is route
used. is performed.show
Simulations For the thatspeed
the
the controlled
profile vehicle andvehicle,
the preceding vehicle on the same route is performed.show For the speed
profile of
approach the
the preceding
of leads preceding
to a vehicle,
significant data
data of
reduction ofofreal
real
the test
test
energy drives
drives is
is used.
consumptionused. Simulations
Simulations
compared toshow
the that
that the
preceding the
profile of leads
approach the preceding
to vehicle, data ofofreal test drives is used. Simulations showpreceding
that the
approach
vehicle on leads
the to aa route.
same significant
significant reduction
reductionthe
Furthermore the
the energy
energy consumption
of simulations consumption
indicate that compared
compared
the approach to
to the
the preceding
achieves high
approach
vehicle on leadssameto a significant reductionthe of the energy consumption compared to the preceding
energy on the
vehicle savings the sameevenroute.
with aFurthermore
route. Furthermore
poor prediction the simulations
simulations
model for the indicate
indicate
preceding that
that car.the
the approach
approach achieves
achieves high high
vehicle savings
energy on the same even route.
with Furthermore
a poor predictionthe simulations
model for indicate
the preceding that car.the approach achieves high
energy savings even with a poor prediction model for the preceding car.
© 2017, savings
energy even with aFederation
IFAC (International poor prediction
of Automatic model for the
Control) preceding
Hosting car. Ltd. All rights reserved.
by Elsevier
Keywords: Adaptive cruise control, Model predictive control, dynamic programming, cloud,
Keywords:
Keywords: Adaptive
prediction Adaptive cruisecruise control,
control, Model
Model predictive
predictive control,
control, dynamic
dynamic programming,
programming, cloud, cloud,
Keywords: Adaptive cruise control, Model predictive control, dynamic programming, cloud,
prediction
prediction
prediction
1. INTRODUCTION interface for control of the vehicle speed and acceleration
1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION interface
interface
has inspired for control
for control
researchof oftothe
the vehicleACC
vehicle
combine speedfunctionality
speed and acceleration
and acceleration
with
1. INTRODUCTION interface
has inspired for control
research oftothe vehicleACC
combine speedfunctionality
and acceleration with
In recent years the reduction of the energy consumption in has inspired
different control research to combine
strategies to improve ACC functionality
energy efficiency with
and
In
In recenthas
recent years
years the reduction
the reduction of
of the energy
the energy consumption
consumption has inspired
in different
in different control research to combine
strategies to improve
improve ACC functionality
energy efficiencywith
and
vehicles
In recenthasyears become a
the reductionmajor research
of the energytopic. Reducing
consumption the safety
in safety control
alike. strategies to energy efficiency and
vehicles
vehicles become
has become aais major
major research
research topic. Reducing and the different control strategies to improve energy efficiency and
alike.
energy consumption
vehiclesconsumption
has become ais appealing
major fromtopic.
research topic.
Reducing
an economical
Reducing and
the
the safety alike.
energy
energy consumption appealing
is appealing from an economical safety
In (Turrialike. et al., 2016) an approach was proposed that
environmental
energy consumption perspective due tofrom
is appealing from
an economical
increasing energy costs
an economical
and In (Turri et
and In al., 2016) an approach wasspeedproposed that
environmental
environmental
and perspective
perspective due
emission requirements due to
andto increasing
increasing
from energy costs
energy point
a functional costs uses uses (Turri
MPC etto al.,
follow2016) an an approach
energy optimal was proposed that
trajectory
environmental perspective due tofrom
increasing energy point
costs uses In (TurriMPC etto al.,
follow2016) an an approach
energy optimal wasspeedproposed that
trajectory
and
and
of emission
emission
view, e.g. requirements
requirements
for increasing and
andrange
the from of a functional
a electric
functional point derived
vehicles. derived MPC by to to follow
dynamic an energy
programming. optimal speed
For both, trajectory
MPC and
andview,
emission requirements andrange
from of a electric
functional point deriveduses MPC by follow
dynamic an energy
programming. optimalFor speed
both, trajectory
MPC and
of
of e.g. for
view, e.g.
Considerable for increasing
increasing
research has the
the
been range
devoted of electric
to vehicles.
vehicles.
constructive dynamic byprogramming,
dynamic programming. informationFor both,
about MPClimits
speed and
of view, e.g. for increasing the range of electric vehicles. dynamic derived
dynamic by dynamic
programming, programming.
information For both,
about MPC
speed limitsand
limits
Considerable
Considerable
approaches research
likeresearch
more efficienthas been
has been
enginedevoted
devoted
designsto to(‘downsizing’)
constructive
constructive and
dynamic road programming,
slope are regarded
programming,
information
during about
information about
speed
optimization.
speed limitsThe
Considerable
approaches likeresearch
more has
efficient been
enginedevoted
designs to constructive
(‘downsizing’) and
and road
road
considered slope
slope
scenario are
are isregarded
regarded
platooning during
during
of optimization.
optimization.
heavy-duty The
The
vehicles.
approaches
or lightweight like more
materials.efficient engine more
Another designsrecent(‘downsizing’)
research considered
and road slope scenario are isregarded
platooning during optimization.
of heavy-duty
heavy-duty The
vehicles.
approaches
or lightweight like materials.
more efficient engine more
Another designsrecent(‘downsizing’)
research considered
The resultsscenario
show that is platooning
this approach of leads to good vehicles.
fuel
or lightweight
direction is materials.
focused on the Another
benefits more
that recent
can be research
obtained considered
The results scenario
show is
that platooning
this approach of heavy-duty
leads to vehicles.
good fuel
or lightweight
direction materials.
is focused
focused theAnother
oncomplete benefits more
that recent obtained
can research The results show Turri that this et al.approach leads
not to good fuel
direction
by the is
control of the on the benefits that One
vehicle. can be be obtained
widely used savings.
The
savings.
However,
results
However,show that this
Turri traffic
et al.
(2016) do
approach
al. (2016)
(2016) leads consider
to
doapplication good
not consider
consider
the
fuel
the
direction
by the is focused
control of the oncomplete
the benefits that One
vehicle. can be obtained
widely used savings.
influence However,
of interfering Turri et and the do not of the
by the control
approach to reduceof the thecomplete vehicle. Oneiswidely
energy consumption used influence
the adjust- savings. However,of interfering Turri traffic
et al. (2016)
and the thedoapplication
not consider
application of the
by the control
approach to reduceof the
reduce the complete vehicle. Oneiswidely
energy consumption
consumption used influence
the adjust-
adjust- approach of
to interfering
other vehicle traffic and
classes. of the
approach
ment of to
the driving the energy
behavior in an efficient is way,
the which influence
approach of
to interfering
other vehicle traffic and
classes. the application of the
approach
ment to reduce
of the
the driving the energy consumption
behavior in an an efficient
efficient is way,
the adjust-
which approach to other vehicle classes.
ment
has of
been showndriving
to behavior
be very in
promising in way, which
reducing the approach
In this paper to other vehicle approach
a similar classes. based on MPC and
mentbeen
has of theshowndriving
to behavior
be in an efficient
very promising
promising in et way, which
reducing the In this paper
paper
has
fuel
has
been
been
shown
consumption
shown
to
andbe
to be
very
emissions
very in (Mierlo
promising
in
in
reducing
al., 2004).
reducing
the
the In this
dynamic programming aa similar
similar is approach The
approach
proposed. basedMPC
based on is
on MPC
MPC and
usedand for
fuel
fuel
Such consumption
consumption
an adjustment andcan
and emissions
emissions
be done in
in
by (Mierlo
(Mierlo
using anet eco-driving
et al., 2004).
al., 2004). dynamicIn this paper programming a similar approach The
is proposed.
proposed. basedMPC on isMPCused and
for
fuel consumption and emissions in (Mierlo et al., 2004). dynamic
following programming
an energy-optimal is speed The MPC
trajectory is used
while for
addi-
Such
Such an adjustment
an
assistance, adjustment
which is used can be
can be done
to done
make by by usingefficient
using
energy an eco-driving
an eco-driving dynamic programming
following
driving following an energy-optimal
energy-optimal is proposed.
speed The MPCwhile
trajectory is used for
addi-
Such an adjustment can be tionally an
regarding preceding speed traffic trajectory
and ensuring whilevarious
addi-
assistance,
assistance,
strategies, which
which
e.g. is used
is used
shifting to done
to make by
make
strategies
usingefficient
energy
energy
or speed
an eco-driving
efficient
proposalsdriving
driving
for followingregarding
tionally an energy-optimalpreceding speed
traffic trajectory
and ensuringwhilevarious
addi-
assistance, e.g.which is usedstrategies
to make energy efficient driving tionally
constraints. regarding
This optimalpreceding speedtraffic and ensuring
trajectory various
is calculated
strategies,
strategies,
astrategies, shifting
e.g. shifting
certain route, accessible strategies
to theor ordriver
speed
speed proposals
proposals
via a human- for constraints.
for tionally regarding This preceding
optimal speedtraffic and ensuring
trajectory various
is calculated
calculated
e.g. shifting strategies or speed proposals for constraints.
offline for theThis given optimal
route speed
before trajectory
the trip is
using DP and
a certain
amachine route,
certaininterface accessible
route, accessible
(HMI). Eco-drivingto the driver
to the driver via a human-
via a systems
assistance human- offline constraints.
offline for theThis given optimal
route speed
before trajectory
the trip is
using calculated
DP and
a certain route, accessible to the driver via a human- is then for
used theonline
given for routethe before
MPC. the
The trip using DP and
precalculation al-
machine
machine
using interface
interface
dynamic (HMI). Eco-driving
(HMI).
programming Eco-driving
(DP) to assistance
assistance
derive an systems
systems
energy- offline
is then for
used theonline
given for routethe before
MPC. the
The trip using DP and
precalculation al-
machine interface (HMI). Eco-driving assistance systems is
lowsthen a used
higher online
complexity for the
of MPC.
the DP The precalculation
optimization problem al-
using dynamic programming (DP) to to vehicles
derive an an energy- is then
lows used online for the MPC. DPThe precalculation al-
using
optimal dynamic
using dynamic
programming
speed profile
programming
(DP)
for conventional
(DP) to vehicles
derive
derive an have energy-
been lows
energy- (i.e. aa higher
higher
high accuracy complexity
complexityof energy of the
of the DP
consumption optimization
optimization problem
problem
representation)
optimal
optimal
investigatedspeed
speede.g. profile
profile
in (Luu for conventional
for conventional
et al., 2010) vehicles
and for have
have been
been (i.e.
electric lows
(i.e. a higher
high accuracy complexityof energy
energyof the DP
consumption optimization problem
representation)
optimal speede.g. profile for conventional vehicles have been while while high accuracy
keeping the onlineof consumption
optimization problemrepresentation)
of the MPC
investigated
investigated
vehicles e.g. e.g.
in in et
in
(Dib (Luu
(Luual., et al.,
et al.,2012;
2011, 2010)
2010) Linand
andet for
for
al., electric
electric
2014). (i.e. high accuracy
keeping the of energy
online consumption
optimization problemrepresentation)
of the
the speed
MPC
investigated e.g. in et (Luu et al.,2012;2010) and for 2014).
electric very while
very keeping
simple. A the online
method tooptimization
derive the problem
energy-optimal of MPC
vehicles e.g. in (Dib al., 2011,
vehicles e.g. in (Dib et al., 2011, 2012; Lin et al., 2014). Lin et al., whilesimple.
keepingAthe onlinetooptimization
method derive the problem of the speed
energy-optimal MPC
vehiclesadvanced
With e.g. in (Dib driveret al., 2011, 2012;
assistance systemsLin et(ADAS)
al., 2014). like very simple.
trajectory
very simple.
trajectory
viaA
via
method programming
dynamic
Adynamic
to derive the energy-optimal
method programming
to derive the energy-optimal
for an electric
speed
for an electric vehicle
speed
vehicle
With
With
adaptive advanced
advanced driver (ACC)
driver
cruise control assistance
assistancemany systems
systems (ADAS)
vehicles(ADAS) are by now like trajectory
like has alreadyvia beendynamic programming
introduced in (Lin et foral.,
an electric
2014) and vehicle
will
With advanced driver (ACC) assistance systems (ADAS) like has trajectory
has already viabeendynamic programming
introduced in (Lin foral.,
et an electric
2014) and vehicle
and will
adaptive
adaptive
endowed cruise
cruise
with the control
control
technical (ACC) many
many
equipment vehicles
vehicles are
are
for implementingby
by now
now be already
used in been
this introduced
work as well. in
It (Lin
should et al.,
be 2014)
mentioned will
that
adaptive cruise control (ACC) many vehicles are by now be hasused
be alreadyin thisbeen
this introduced
work well. in
as trajectoryIt (Lin
should et be
al.,mentioned
2014) and thatwill
endowed
endowed
these with strategies
with
driving the
the technical
technical equipment
equipment
without direct for
for implementing
implementing
interaction with for used in
this optimal work
speed as well. It should
a furtherbe mentioned that
constraintthat on
endowed with strategies
the technical equipment for implementing be
for used
this in this
optimal work
speed as well.
trajectoryIt should
a be
further mentioned
constraint on
these
these
the driving
driving
driver. ACC strategies without
provideswithout additional direct
directsafetyinteraction
interaction with
benefits with
due the for
the this
trip optimal
time is speed
considered.trajectory
The a further
results in constraint
this paper on
are
thesedriver.
driving strategies without direct interaction with for this
tripto optimal
time speed trajectory
is considered.
considered. Thecan a further
results constraint
in this
this paper areon
are
the
the
to thedriver.
distanceACC
ACC provides
provides
control additional
additional
functionality. Thesafety
safety benefitsof
benefits
availability due
due
an the
relatedtrip time is
electric vehicles, but The results in
be easily paper
extended for
thethedriver. ACC provides additionalThe safety benefitsofdue the
relatedtrip time
to is
electric considered.
vehicles, The
but canresults
be in
easily this paper
extended are
for
to
to distance
the distance control
control functionality.
functionality. availability
The availability an related to electric vehicles, but can be easily extended for
of an
to the distance control functionality. The availability of an related to electric vehicles, but can be easily extended for
Copyright
2405-8963 ©© 2017,
2017 IFAC 13074
IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Copyright
Copyright © 2017
©under IFAC
2017 responsibility
IFAC 13074
13074
Peer review
Copyright © 2017 IFAC of International Federation of Automatic
13074Control.
10.1016/j.ifacol.2017.08.2196
Proceedings of the 20th IFAC World Congress
12564
Toulouse, France, July 9-14, 2017 Andreas Weißmann et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 50-1 (2017) 12563–12568
Cloud
Dynamic programming Geographical information
- Speed limits vmax,vmin
Optimal speed trajectory vref - Altitude profile α
Communication vref,α,vmax,vmin
Host vehicle
vref,α,vmax,vmin Ft Vehicle
vp,d MPC
Controller
Position x
Measurement
vp,d
e.g. Radar,Lidar
Preceding vehicle
Fig. 1. Considered scenario with host and preceding vehicle
use in conventional vehicles by additionally considering the
shifting strategy. For the online part, namely the MPC, the
main goal is to control the traction force of the vehicle in
a way that the vehicle speed follows the energy-optimal
speed trajectory if there is no preceding traffic or keep the
distance in a safe range if there is any interfering traffic.
During the optimization further constraints, e.g. maximum
traction and brake force, are used to ensure a feasible
vehicle behavior. To evaluate the MPC, several simulations
are performed where the host vehicle follows a preceding
vehicle on the same fixed route. The considered host ve-
hicle in this work is a Nissan Leaf. The speed profile of
the preceding vehicle is based on real test drives on the
considered route. The energy consumption and trip time
for the controlled vehicle and the preceding vehicle are
compared to each other.
The main contribution of this work consist in uniquely
combining an offline optimization using dynamic program-
ming with a precise model to derive an optimal speed pro-
file and an online optimization implementing ACC func-
tionality using MPC together with a simple model which
provides a compromise between accuracy and complexity.
The resulting new ADAS framework provides a combina-
tion of ACC functionality with the capability of following
an energy optimal reference speed profile. This framework
is evaluated by comprehensive simulations based on real
world data.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section II the
optimization problem is formulated and an outline of the
optimization problem used for dynamic programming is
given. In Section III the test scenario and the simulation
results of the proposed MPC are presented. Conclusions
are finally provided in Section IV.
2. PROBLEM FORMULATION
In Fig. 1 the considered scenario with the host vehicle and
a preceding vehicle is illustrated. The proposed approach
can be divided into an offline and an online part. The
offline part, as shown in the upper dotted box of Fig. 1,
includes the communication of data between the host and
a cloud. Specifically the host sends his desired route to
Offline
the cloud or alternatively a desired destination if routing
should be done in the cloud. The cloud then derives
the speed limits and altitude profile along the route for
use in dynamic programming and the MPC later on.
After that the optimal speed trajectory is determined via
dynamic programming. The geographical information as
well as the optimal speed trajectory is sent to the host
Route
vehicle for use in the online part, namely the MPC. The
online part includes following the optimal speed trajectory
while ensuring a safe distance to a potential preceding
v vehicle. The online part is illustrated in the lower dotted
box in Fig. 1. It is worth mentioning that solving a DP
problem for a certain route can take very long due to
the high complexity that increases with the length of the
route. To solve this issue, the calculated optimal speed
trajectories are stored in the cloud to avoid a recalculation
upon the next request, which is especially beneficial when
Online
considering commuters. If a calculation cannot be avoided,
it is possible to simply use the conventional ACC until the
optimal speed trajectory is received.
2.1 System dynamics
The system dynamics for the considered scenario can be
expressed as
dk+1 = dk − vk Ts + vp,k Ts (1)
vk+1 = vk + ak Ts (2)
where v and a are the velocity and acceleration of the
controlled vehicle and Ts is the sampling time. d describes
the distance between the host and the preceding vehicle
which depends on the prediction of the velocity of the
preceding vehicle vp . To include the traction force Ft as
the controlled variable and the driving resistances, the
longitudinal dynamics are used to replace a in (2). The
longitudinal dynamics are given by
meq a = Ft − Fr − Fa − Fg (3)
with meq = mv + mr being the equivalent mass including
the vehicle mass mv and the influence of the rotating
masses mr . The considered driving resistance forces are:
aerodynamic resistance force Fa = 21 cf Af ρa v 2 with the air
density ρa , the air drag coefficient cf and the projected
frontal area Af , neglecting the influence of the wind speed,
rolling resistance force Fr = mv gcr with the gravitational
acceleration g and the rolling resistance coefficient cr , and
grading resistance force Fg = mv gα with the road angle α.
It should be mentioned that in Fg and Fr the small-angle
approximations sin(α) = α and cos(α) = 1 are used
instead of the trigonometric functions.
By substituting (3) into (2) and rearranging, the equation
describing the velocity can be written as
 
Ts 1
vk+1 = vk + Ft − mv gcr − ρa Af ca vk2 − mv gαk .
meq 2
(4)
To handle the nonlinear term vk2 resulting from the aerody-
namic resistance force in (4), the predicted state sequence
resulting from the last optimization is used instead of
vk2 , assuming that the deviations of the predicted state
sequence between two subsequent optimization steps are
very small.
13075
 Proceedings of the 20th IFAC World Congress
Toulouse, France, July 9-14, 2017 Andreas Weißmann et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 50-1 (2017) 12563–12568 12565

2.2 Cost function

7000
F
t,max
y1=c 1 v + c 2
For the desired objective of following an energy-optimal 6000
speed trajectory vref it is a reasonable approach to use

Traction force Ft (N)

a cost function that punishes the deviation of the vehicle 5000

speed from its energy-optimal reference speed. A quadratic 4000

cost function
N
 −1 3000
J= q(vk − vref,k )2 + pFbrake,k
2
, (5) 2000
k=0
is chosen which represents the weighted deviations to 1000
the reference speed vref over the control horizon N . The 0
2
additional term Fbrake is used to punish the usage of 0 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162
v (km/h)
hydraulic brake force Fbrake as the regenerative braking
of the electric vehicle is favorable over hydraulic braking.
In (5) q > 0 and p > 0 denote weighting factors. Fig. 2. Maximum traction force over velocity diagram
Another important constraint follows from the ACC func-
2.3 Constraints
tionality, which provides a safe distance to the preceding
vehicle. In this approach a constant headway h and a fixed
To ensure realizable results of the optimization, several
minimum distance dmin is used, leading to
constraints need to be considered. From the physical
limitations of the electric motor a maximum traction force dmin + hvk ≤ dk . (10)
arises. For the considered electric vehicle this constraint is
derived by transforming the maximum torque over angular In addition, speed limits can be addressed by
velocity diagram Tmax (ωmotor ) into maximum traction vmin,k ≤ vk ≤ vmax,k , (11)
force over velocity diagram Ft,max (v). The transformation
with 0 ≤ vmin,k mainly used to prevent driving backwards
follows from Ft,max (v) = Tmax (ωRmotor
w
)γη
and v = ωmotor
γ
Rw
if the distance gets too small. The upper speed limit vmax,k
with the wheel radius Rw , the gearbox efficiency η, and is based on the admitted speed along the route and is
the gear ratio γ. The resulting diagram is shown in Fig. 2. derived during the offline part as indicated in Fig. 1.
To obtain a convex constraint the maximum traction force However, it also can be easily derived online, using GPS
is approximated as indicated by the red dotted line in Fig. and map data.
2. From this
Ft,k,max = c1 vk + c2 (6) 2.4 MPC optimization problem
follows with c1 and c2 being identified constants.
The braking system of the car has limitations in terms With the system dynamics, the cost function, and the
of the maximum deceleration. The limitations can be constraints the online optimization problem for MPC,
divided into the regenerative braking capability of the which is solved at every time instance can be summarized
electric motor and the braking capability of the hydraulic as
N
 −1
brake for modeling. As a permanent magnet synchronous min q(vk − vref,k )2 + pFbrake,k
2
(12)
motor is used in the particular electric vehicle, it is Ft,k ,Fbrake,k
k=0
reasonable to describe the regenerative braking limits in
subject to
the generator mode, which are expressed by a negative
traction force Ft , in the same way as in the motor mode Ts 1
vk+1= vk+ (Ft− mv gcr− ρa Af ca vk2− mv gαk ) (13a)
by mirroring the diagram in Fig. 2 to the generator mode. meq 2
The hydraulic brake force Fbrake is only included as a soft dk+1 = dk − vk Ts + vp,k Ts (13b)
constraint, allowing the use of additional braking force − c1 vk − c2 − Fbrake,k ≤ Ft,k ≤ c1 vk + c2 (13c)
if the regenerative braking limits are exceeded to ensure
0 ≤ Fbrake,k ≤ Fbrake,max (13d)
safety constraints. The usage of the hydraulic brake force is
unfavorable considering the energy efficiency and its usage dmin,k + hvk ≤ dk (13e)
therefore punished in the cost function (equation (12)). vmin,k ≤ vk ≤ vmax,k (13f)
The limits for regenerative braking (−Ft,k,max ) and the 2.5 Optimal speed trajectory
hydraulic brake force Fbrake result from
Ft,k,brake,max = −c1 vk − c2 − Fbrake,k . (7) In transportation it is in general a problem to find a
suitable compromise between the energy consumption and
The hydraulic brake force also has limits which simply trip time. Dynamic programming (DP) is used to address
follow from the technical specification as this problem in the proposed approach. The used problem
0 ≤ Fbrake ≤ Fbrake,max . (8) formulation for DP and a precise model of the electric
Summarizing (6) to (8) the overall constraint resulting vehicle has been introduced in (Lin et al., 2014) and will
from the traction force and the braking system limitations be briefly reviewed in the following.
can be formulated as
Due to the position-dependent nature of the road angle
−c1 vk − c2 − Fbrake,k ≤ Ft,k ≤ c1 vk + c2 . (9) α and speed limits vmin/max , it is convenient to use

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^
v(t),d(t)
a position-dependent representation of the system. This ^ ^
requires a transformation of the velocity v(t) and position vref(t),α(t)
Stored Data v^max(t),v^min(t)
x(t) into v(x) with a discretization step of ∆x instead of vref(x),α(x) ^ ^
Ft(t) System
vp(t) v(t),d(t)
Ts . This discretization leads to a partition of the route vmax(x),vmin(x) Prediction MPC
Model
with the overall length xmax into M segments of length vp(t) x(t)
^
∆x for which the optimal speed trajectory is calculated.
The desired optimal speed trajectory results from the Fig. 3. Block diagram of the simulation structure
optimization problem
M−1
140 Urban Interurban Highway
min tk (vk )Pbattery,total,k (vk )+βtk (vk )+λ(Tmotor,k (vk ))2
vk
k=0 120
(14)
100

Velocity v (km/h)
subject to
80

v0 = vinit
SOD0 = SODinit
vM ∈ [vmin,M , vmax,M ]
SODM ∈ [SODmin,M , SODmax,M ]
SODk ∈ [SODmin,k , SODmax,k ]
vk ∈ [vmin,k , vmax,k ]
Tmotor,k ∈ [Tmin,k , Tmax,k ]
where SOD denotes the state of discharge of the battery of
the electric vehicle. In (14) the term tk (vk )Pbattery,total,k (vk )
is the representation of the energy consumption for a single
segment, with tk (vk ) being the trip time for ∆x in seg-
ment k. Pbattery,total,k (vk ) represents the power drawn from
the battery including electric motor, electrified auxiliary
units and so on. The terms βtk (vk ) and λ(Tmotor,k (vk ))2
are used to tune the trip time and the ride comfort re-
spectively by weighting the trip time and motor torque
Tmotor . An increase of β leads to a reduction in the trip
time and an increase of λ improves the ride comfort by
punishing the usage of high torque for accelerating and
braking. However, in the following only the trip time and
therefore β is considered and tuned.
Equations (15a) and (15b) represent the initial state for
the trip. The constraints (15c)-(15e) are used to keep the
SOD of the battery in safe boundaries during the trip and
to set defined final values for the SOD and the final velocity
at the end of the trip. The constraints (15f) and (15g)
are the same as in (9) and (11), addressing the system
limitations on maximum traction force and maximum
braking force as well as the speed limits. The result of
the optimization is the optimal speed trajectory v ∗ (x) as
well as the overall trip time Tduration which is calculated
M −1
from Tduration = k=0 tk . It is worth mentioning that
dynamic programming already considers the maximum
speed limit vmax and passes this to the MPC in form of
v ∗ (x) and therefore does not need to be considered in the
optimization problem of the MPC.
3. SIMULATION AND RESULTS
3.1 Simulation setup
The simulation setup is shown in Fig. 3. In the figure a
hat on a variable ˆ∗ indicates that the predicted sequence
over the horizon N is passed on to the next block. The
prediction block contains the prediction of vp over the hori-
zon N which will be described later. The conversion from
(15a) 60
(15b)
40
(15c)
20 Optimal speed trajectory vref
(15d) Upper speed limit vmax
(15e) 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000
(15f) Position x (m)
(15g)
Fig. 4. Optimal speed trajectory vref
discrete-position data to discrete-time data is performed
by means of the predicted position sequence x̂ which is
derived from the system model and the solution of the
optimization problem (12).
For the speed profile vp data acquired from real trips
is used. The data was gathered from a commuter on a
route from Kaiserslautern to Landstuhl in Germany with
a length of 17.8 km. This route contains urban and interur-
ban segments as well as a highway. The data amounts to
85 trips in total and therefore contains a wide variety of
possible traffic conditions. To obtain a realistic trip time
for the optimal speed trajectory vref , the mean value over
all 85 trips is used which results in a desired trip time of
868 s.
The dynamic programming is implemented with the open-
source software DPM which was developed at the ETH
Zürich (Elbert et al., 2013). Solving the optimization
problem (14) with DPM takes 38.5 s per run. It must
be mentioned that several runs are necessary to reach
the desired trip time of 868 s by tuning the parameter β.
However, in practice this procedure needs to be done only
once and the information can then be stored in the cloud
and sent to the host upon the next request for that route.
The resulting position-dependent optimal speed trajectory
vref is shown in Fig. 4 together with the road type and the
upper speed for each segment. It can easily be seen that
most of the time the speed is close to the speed limit vmax
so that the desired trip time of 868 s can be achieved. The
final speed boundaries defined by (15c) range from 60 km/h
to 120 km/h for the different trips and leads to the braking
maneuver which can be observed near the end position at
17.8 km. This braking maneuver indicates the behavior to
drive as slow as possible for minimum energy consumption.
This also shows the necessity to punish the trip time. The
speed trajectory vref is stored for use in the MPC.
In the simulated scenario the host vehicle should follow the
reference trajectory vref while ensuring a safe distance to

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the preceding vehicle with the speed profile vp starting at a 25.1 s. To further evaluate the controller performance, it
distance of d = 150 m ahead. A sampling time of Ts = 0.2 s is beneficial to split the results into two datasets. The
and a horizon of N = 100 is used for the simulation. The first dataset contains the results for which the host vehicle
initial speed of the host vehicle is chosen to be the same can completely follow the reference trajectory vref . This
as the initial speed of the preceding vehicle vp,init . The dataset contains 45 of the simulation results. This is the
simulation is performed for all 85 profiles of vp . To predict case if the preceding vehicle has a higher speed than the
vp over the horizon N , a prescient MPC (PMPC) and a host vehicle and hence there is never the necessity to leave
frozen-time MPC (FTMPC) approach is used for the sim- the reference trajectory due to the distance constraint
ulations. PMPC assumes full knowledge of the preceding (13e). The second dataset contains the data in which a
car’s velocity over the horizon N and represents the best deviation from the reference trajectory vref is necessary to
achievable prediction. FTMPC uses only knowledge from fulfill the distance constraint (13e). This dataset contains
the present measurements of vp (known e.g. from a recent 40 of the simulation results. The results for the first dataset
measurement with radar/lidar/camera) and assumes this are shown in Table 2 and those for the second dataset in
to be constant over the horizon N . It represents therefore Table 3.
a very simple to implement and rather poor prediction. Table 2. Results first dataset
To show the energy saving potential of this approach, the
difference in energy consumption between the controlled δ̄ δmin δmax ∆T̄ ∆Tmin ∆Tmax
and the preceding vehicle for every profile vp is calculated PMPC -7.2% -16.9% 0.4% 39.9s 5.2s 84.2s
using the electric vehicle model introduced in (Lin et al., FTMPC -7.2% -16.9% 0.4% 39.9s 5.2s 84.2s
2014).
Table 3. Results second dataset
3.2 Results δ̄ δmin δmax ∆T̄ ∆Tmin ∆Tmax
PMPC -7.8% -18.4% 3.7% 8.5s 0.8s 55.8s
The proposed control structure and control strategy as FTMPC -7.2% -17.9% 3.6% 8.5s 0.8s 55.8s
shown in Fig. 3 is implemented and simulated in MATLAB
and evaluated with an electric vehicle model in Simulink. From Table 2 it can be seen that the results are the
To evaluate the performance of the proposed approach, the same for PMPC and FTMPC. This is not unexpected
relative energy consumption difference δ of the host (Ehost ) as in both cases the same speed trajectory is followed
and the preceding vehicle (Eprec ) is computed from and therefore the trip time and energy consumption are
Ehost − Eprec the same. For this dataset the preceding vehicle is faster
δ= . (16) and therefore has a shorter trip time than the controlled
Eprec
vehicle. However, as the speed trajectory is followed the
The overall results for the simulations with PMPC and desired trip time of 868 s (vref ) can nearly be reached with
FTMPC are shown in Table 1. In the table δ̄ is the mean an offset of approximately +2.4 s that results from the fact
value over the simulation results for the 85 vp profiles. The that the controlled vehicle starts at a different speed than
minimum and maximum of the achieved relative energy vref,init . Table 3 shows the results of the second dataset.
consumption difference for all results is denoted by δmin The mean value of the trip time difference (8.5 s) is now
and δmax , respectively. In addition the difference in trip fairly small as we partially have to follow the slower speed
time ∆T = thost − tprec is considered. The mean values of vp in certain sections due to the distance constraint.
over all datasets as well as the minimum and maximum The mean values of the energy consumption reduction are
are presented. As a following scenario is considered, the with 7.8% for PMPC and 7.2% for FTMPC very close and
host vehicle is always slower than the preceding vehicle. indicates that the proposed approach is only influenced
Table 1. Overall results slightly by the used prediction model for vp .

δ̄ δmin δmax ∆T̄ ∆Tmin ∆Tmax 130

PMPC -7.5% -18.4% 3.7% 25.15s 0.8s 84.2s
FTMPC -7.2% -17.9% 3.6% 25.17s 0.8s 84.2s
100
Velocity v (km/h)

From Table 1 it can be seen that a good overall energy

reduction of 7.5% for PMPC and 7.2% for FTMPC can be 70
achieved considering all datasets with the best achievable
50 (PMPC)
reduction of 18.4% and 17.9%, respectively. It is to be v
host
vp
mentioned that only four profiles of vp led to an increased 30
v (PMPC)
energy consumption for the host vehicle in comparison to ref
vhost(FTMPC)
the preceding vehicle, with three of them being < 0.5% and 0
one of them being 3.7%. This results from the fact that a 0 200 400 600 800 1000
human driver and therefore vp does not always fulfill the Time t (s)
speed limits, allowing to take a more beneficial working
point than the constrained reference trajectory vref and Fig. 5. Simulation result for bad traffic conditions
thus resulting in an overall lower energy consumption for
To highlight the advantages and drawbacks of the ap-
the preceding vehicle.
proach as well as the influence of the prediction model,
The difference of the trip time for PMPC and FTMPC the results of a simulation with very bad traffic conditions,
is for both cases almost identical with a mean value of namely stop and go traffic in the urban section of the

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route, is presented. In Fig. 5 the implemented velocity over
the trip time is shown for the preceding vehicle vp , the
host vehicle with PMPC and FTMPC, and the reference
trajectory vref for PMPC.
In this case we have δ = −11.2% for PMPC and δ =
−10% for FTMPC. Furthermore ∆T = 55.8 s for both
prediction models. The reason for the difference in δ can
be seen in Fig. 5 between 200 s and 500 s. It is obvious
that PMPC (blue line) with full knowledge over the
horizon N recognizes braking and acceleration maneuvers
of vp (red line) beforehand and leads to a smoother
behavior. FTMPC (black line) has only knowledge of
the current velocity vp and therefore has no smoothing
behavior but rather follows the velocity of the preceding
vehicle, resulting in a higher energy consumption than
PMPC due to more and stronger acceleration maneuvers.
From the figure it can also be seen that in a major part of
the trip the host vehicle can follow the reference trajectory
vref (green line) very well for both prediction models, which
finally leads to a high energy saving. Deviations to slower
speeds only appear when the distance constraint becomes
active at some point. This is shown in Fig. 6 (PMPC).
The figure shows the result of the optimization applied to
the system model over the horizon N with the velocity
in the top subplot and the distance to the preceding car
in the bottom subplot. From this it can be seen that the
host velocity v (blue line) stays as close as possible to
the reference trajectory vref (green dotted line), which
follows from the problem formulation of the MPC (12)
with the goal of minimizing the deviation to vref . It follows
that a deviation from vref only occurs when the distance
constraint becomes active during the optimization. This
is the main reason why FTMPC is fairly close to the
performance of PMPC as the prediction model only is
taken into account in the explained scenario.
However, the deviation from the reference trajectory,
which is necessary to fulfill the distance constraint, leads to
an increase in the trip time. The reason is straightforward
as vref is precalculated for a trip time of 868 s and a
deviation at any position will lead to an increased trip
time > 868 s. A possibility to deal with this could be
a mechanism which is trying to catch up the ‘lost’ time
by increasing the remaining reference trajectory such that
the desired trip time can still be fulfilled at the cost of
reducing the achievable energy savings. Another drawback
is resulting from the fact that the cost function does not
include any representation of the energy consumption in
order to keep the online optimization problem simple. All
energy-related information is included in the optimal speed
trajectory vref derived by DP. Therefore after deviations
from vref no aspects regarding the energy consumption are
considered during the online optimization.
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper an energy-optimal adaptive cruise control
based on MPC has been proposed. Dynamic program-
ming is used to precalculate and store an energy-optimal
speed trajectory for a given route, considering geograph-
ical information and constraints like speed limits, which
then is submitted to a host vehicle upon request. The
precalculation is done offline in a cloud before the trip,
13079
60
Velocity v (km/h)
vk vref,k vp,k
40
20
0
0 25 50 75 100
prediction step k
300
dmin,k + h vk
Distance d (m)
dk
200
100
0
0 25 50 75 100
prediction step k
Fig. 6. Optimization result at t=210 s
which allows the usage of a complex and very accurate
representation of the energy consumption in DP. A simple
MPC framework is then used online in the host vehicle
to follow the optimal speed trajectory while ensuring a
safe distance to the preceding vehicle. To ensure realizable
inputs, limitations on the traction and braking force are
included in the optimization as linear constraints. Simula-
tions in a following scenario with speed profiles of real test
drives for the preceding vehicle have shown a significant
reduction of the energy consumption, using either FTMPC
or PMPC as prediction model for the preceding vehicle.
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