Impacts of marine exhaust emissions on human health and the environment

A1.1 Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour

CO2 and water vapour will be formed in all combustion processes in which complete or
near complete combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel takes place. As such, the production of
CO2 and water vapour is a function of the quantity of fuel burnt. Climate change
resulting from increased concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere is a well documented
global concern. The input of water vapour (also a principal greenhouse gas) to the
atmosphere is currently of little concern since the global average concentration is not
changing and it has a relatively short lifespan.

A1.2 Sulphur oxides (SOx)

Sulphur oxides derive directly from the sulphur content of the fuels used. The sulphur in
the combustion chamber is oxidised, principally forming sulphur dioxide (SO2) with a
minor proportion of sulphur trioxide (SO3).

Relatively close to the source and in the absence of rain, fog and snow, the ‘dry
precipitation’ of gaseous SO2 and acidic sulphate containing particulate matter is
detrimental to human health and the environment, causing respiratory problems and
damaging vegetation.

At sometimes considerable distances from the source the ‘wet precipitation’ of acid rain,
fog or snow can have a directly negative impact on plant life and indirect effects on
wider ecosystems. Damage to minerals used in the construction of buildings and other
architecture can also occur.

A1.3 Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

The formation of nitrogen oxides occurs as a result of oxidisation of molecular nitrogen in
the combustion air or, to a lesser extent, in the fuel. Adverse effects due to NOx are
diverse. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) causes respiratory problems and damage to vegetation,
as well as contributing significantly to acid deposition. In addition, NOx and non-
methane hydrocarbons(nMHCs) are involved in a series of photochemical reactions
leading to increased tropospheric ozone, which in turn may adversely affect human
health, crop yield and natural vegetation.

A1.4 Hydrocarbons
The gaseous hydrocarbon fraction of exhaust gas will predominantly consist of unburned
or partially combusted fuel and lubricating oils. Individual components may be present in
either vapour or particulate phases. The diverse nature of hydrocarbon fraction
components makes it difficult to both quantify the emissions and identify specific health
and environmental problems. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are of particular
note in this respect and are present in particulate emissions from all types of combustion
sources.

As regards wider environmental effects, the non-methane hydrocarbons (nMHCs) are of

concern on account of their involvement in photochemical reactions leading to the
formation of tropospheric ozone (see nitrogen oxides above).Additionally, any significant
methane emissions will be of concern because of both stratospheric ozone depletion and
(as methane is a principal greenhouse gas) global climate change.

A1.5 Particulate matter (PM)

The particulates fraction of exhaust emissions represents a complex mixture of sulphate
with associated water, non- or partially combusted hydrocarbon components, black
carbon and heavy metals as represented by the ash fraction. Some flakes or deposits
from the exhaust system may also be present. With the exception of the latter the
majority of diesel particulates are likely to be less than 1μm in diameter and readily
transportable by air currents. Potentially detrimental effects may thus be encountered
outside the immediate vicinity of the exhaust gas stack.

Although study of marine diesel particulate exhaust composition is limited, extrapolation

of results from other diesel applications would suggest that general respiratory problems
as well as more serious toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects might be encountered.

Black carbon is detrimental to human health (fine particles can penetrate deep into the
lungs causing increased respiratory and heart problems) and is now recognised as being
of concern in terms of global warming. When deposited on to snow and ice, particularly
in Arctic regions, light surfaces are darkened, albedo (reflectivity) is reduced and there is
an increase in heat energy absorbed. Similarly, airborne black carbon particles absorb
heat from sunlight, so warming the atmosphere.

In 2011, IMO MEPC 62 agreed a work plan to consider the impact on the Arctic of black
carbon emissions from international shipping by:
 developing a definition of Black Carbon
 identifying the most appropriate measurement method for international shipping;
and
 investigating appropriate control measures.
Final agreement on the definition has yet to be made.