BSWE-001/2019-20

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL WORK

1) Discuss social justice and social policy as social work concepts. 20

With our country ever more diverse, the United States is torn with issues surrounding social
justice. In some cases, the arrest or shooting of a person of color by a white policeman has
resulted in rioting and in widespread demonstrations. That is a result of perceived racial
injustice. People who are under-insured and can't afford healthcare are sometimes denied
access to medications or procedure they need. That is injustice in healthcare. Women are
sometimes not given the same business opportunities or paid the same wages as men in the
same positions, and that is gender injustice. It is difficult to arrive at an all-inclusive definition of
social justice, and examples like these may come close to pinpointing the term.

The Miriam Webster definition is egalitarianism. That means everything equal, and that is a
difficult state at which to arrive. Additionally, there is a difference between justice and social
justice. The term justice means that people are treated in accordance with their deserts.
Puritanism, for instance, held that people who were poor were merely slackers, and they did
not deserve help. Nativism has rationalized the subjugation of American Indians and black
people for the same reasons.
Justice involves concepts of right and wrong and people receive positive or negative sanctions
based on their past performance. Social justice, however, maintains that all people deserve and
should have access to the same rights and resources. Most people accept that premise, but
differ in how to achieve that equality. Social justice looks for equality in and out of the court
system.

Achieving Social Equity

There are two main views in the US of how to achieve social equity. The leftist view prescribes
legislated programs to even the playing field. These programs result in policies like the college
quota system that mandates schools to admit a certain number of people of diverse races,
genders and those with mental of physical challenges. The objection to this type of program is
that is creates another inequity. Students without the challenges are penalized by having less
access to schools that are filling their quotas to qualify for federal funding. The leftist view also
advocates levying more taxes on the wealthy to pay for programs for the poor. Taken to the
extreme, that view becomes socialism.

Right-wing philosophies try to solve the problem in another way. They say the wealthy should
not be penalized, but encouraged to be philanthropic. Suppose, asks the right wing, that the
wealthy pay 35 percent taxes while the middle class pays 25 percent. Then, if there is a general
refund, should everyone receive the same rebate, or should the most go to those who have
paid the highest taxes? Plus, do the poor, who have paid nothing in taxes, receive an equal
share of the refund? The right-wing philosophy also quotes studies supporting the theory that
things like college quotas only do more harm and promote racial unrest.

Of course there are other types of inequalities in our society. Besides economic and racial
inequality there are gender and healthcare issues. At its foundation, the concept of social
justice involves making everything equal and leveling the playing field for everyone. Social
workers deal with the problem of deprivation every day. In addition to how social justice is
seen, and to what remedies are recommended by different parties, one injustice often leads to
another. Poverty leads to inadequate healthcare which creates a greater burden of securing
funds to pay for medical treatments for the poor. College quotas may lead to under-prepared
students entering programs and failing out. Like a line of falling dominoes, one problem often
causes another to emerge.
Even so, legislators and social work professionals encourage society to keep working on the
problems. Social justice may be a difficult state to achieve, maybe even an impossible one, but
it doesn't mean we shouldn't strive to give everyone opportunity and respect.

The term "social policy" seems simplistic at first. Could it be defined as the parameters within
which society works for the benefit of its people? That definition is absolutely correct, but it
opens a complete subset of other queries. For one thing, what benefits people? For another, do
the parameters change from one society to another? When the idea is examined at close range,
it becomes a complex and multi-faceted issue.

Wikipedia offers this definition: it is "various areas of policy, usually within a government or

political setting. It can refer to guidelines, principles, legislation or activities that affect the living
conditions, conducive to human welfare, such as a person's quality of life." Human welfare is a
complicated idea as well. It depends upon the things people choose to have. That is, equal pay
for women may be a welfare issue in some societies, but not a part of welfare in others where
most women are not a part of the workforce. There are some factors that all cultures have in
common; these include things like good health and individual freedoms.
In its broadest sense, according to an article by Paul Spicker on the website Introduction to
Social Policy, it is a study, not a discipline. It involves policies, administration of social service
programs, public health, housing, income maintenance, education and social work. It also deals
with the issues of people who receive these services like old age, poverty, disability and others.
Again, the idea of welfare depends upon the things people choose to have. In wealthy countries
this could include the ability to possess means of transportation and even access to medicinal
herbs like marijuana. Articles on a website dealing with policies in society recently touched
upon the legalization of recreational marijuana, cyber bullying and striking restaurant workers,
among other subjects. In some countries, policies of welfare are made and administered
completely by the government. In others, like many western European countries, government
agencies work in concert with private organizations and entities to comprise a welfare system.
In other words, how does the concept of welfare spur governments and political entities to
devise the guidelines and principles that we understand as policy? For one thing, the policies or
societal guidelines have to be paid for. That brings the issues of raising revenue, taxation and
redistribution of wealth into the picture. There must be a clear idea of which people qualify for
services addressed by the guidelines. In America, the government is grappling with required
medical insurance and how to ensure that everyone can afford it, because health is a priority
that is included in our understanding of welfare. In many countries, taxes are higher than they
are in the US so that the government can provide health services to the population, but in
America, the citizens also see lower taxes as an issue of their welfare, so other means of raising
revenue must be considered. Crime impacts the delivery of services and also is a societal
burden because of the financial impact of prisons, and so societal policies must be devised to
deal with crime.

The whole issue of societal control over the welfare of its citizens is complex and as diverse as
the kinds of societies that exist today. The primary ideas of what is good for people and what
systems must be in place to ensure that welfare are complicated by the factors that create
barriers to the delivery of services in those systems. Social Policy must address the idea of what
it considers "welfare" and how to provide it by having guidelines and principles for its
administration, as well as methods to control things that interfere with that administration.

2) What is ‘Caste’? Explain the 6 characteristics of caste as given by G.S Ghurye. 20

Caste is a form of social stratification characterized by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a

style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary
social interaction and exclusion based on cultural notions of purity and pollution. Its
paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of India's Hindu society into rigid social
groups, with roots in India's ancient history and persisting to the present time. However, the
economic significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization
and affirmative action programs. A subject of much scholarship by sociologists and
anthropologists, the Hindu caste system is sometimes used as an analogical basis for the study
of caste-like social divisions existing outside Hinduism and India. The term "caste" is also
applied to morphological groupings in female populations of ants and bees.

The Important Characteristics of Indian Caste System as described by Dr. G.S. Ghurye are:
(1) Segmentation of society into various divisions:

Caste system according to Dr. Ghurye, divides whole society into separate groups in which
status, social duties and rights are different. In such a society caste feeling amongst the
individual is more dominant than social feeling. Each caste has its own rules and regulations and
if a member breaks these, he is expelled from the caste.

He further states that in such caste bound society the amount of community feeling must have
been restricted and that the citizens owed moral allegiance to their caste first, rather than to
the community as a whole.

(2) Hierarchy:

There is a well defined stratification in the arrangement of various castes, with Brahmin at the
top. Next to Brahmins come Kshatriya then Vaishya and then Shudra. As this system is based
upon the birth of an individual, change from one caste to another is very difficult. But there are
exceptions.

In Indian villages this characteristic of caste is still present in its rigid form but in big cities where
industries have gripped persons of all caste, into one lot, this rigid form of hierarchical form of
caste system is gradually losing its conservation.

(3) Restrictions on feeding, drinking and other social interactions:

There are sets of rules by which a person belonging to caste is forbidden to take food with the
members of another caste. There are other sub-rules in which it has been defined that which
kind of food can be taken with the other caste. Thus a Brahmin cannot take food cooked with
water in a Kshatriyas’ house but he can take food prepared and cooked in full ghee.

(4) Restrictions on marriages:

According to Westermarck restriction on inter-caste marriages is the main characteristics of any

caste system. Inter-caste marriage is strictly prohibited in Hindu society. In fact each of the
main castes of Hindus is sub-divided into such castes and marriage outside one’s own sub-
castes is not favoured.

In the same manner individuals are checked from marrying to member of other region though
he or she may belong to the same caste. Thus we see that marriages are restricted with
endogamous merits of such caste belonging to a particular region.

(5) Disabilities and privileges of different castes:

Each caste is socially desired to perform certain occupations. Thus Brahmin cannot choose the
profession of weeper and vice versa. Some castes are debarred from certain social privileges
while others are given extra privileges. In Hindu caste system, Brahmins are the most
priviledged castes and Shudra are worst priviledged casts.

A Shudra cannot even touch an individual of higher caste. He cannot go to a temple or open a
provision store. Besides these there are some kinds of restriction in the choice of occupations
amongst various casts. In traditional Hindu caste system there was clear-cut division of
occupations amongst the four castes.

3) Answer any two of the following questions in about 250 words each:

a) Define groups. Explain the characteristics of group. 10

Groups are a fundamental part of social life. As we will see they can be very small – just two
people – or very large. They can be highly rewarding to their members and to society as a
whole, but there are also significant problems and dangers with them. All this makes them an
essential focus for research, exploration and action. In this piece I want to examine some of the
key definitions of groups that have appeared, review central ways of categorizing groups,
explore important dimensions of groups, and look briefly at the group in time.
The development of thinking about groups
Just how we define ‘group’ and the characteristics or ideas we use has been a matter of debate
for many years. The significance of collectivities like families, friendship circles, and tribes and
clans has been long recognized, but it is really only in the last century or so that groups were
studied scientifically and theory developed (Mills 1967: 3). In the last decade of the nineteenth
century, Émile Durkheim established just how wrapped up individual identity was with group
membership, and Gustave Le Bon argued that people changed as they joined groupings such as
crowds. Soon North American sociologists such as Charles Horton Cooley (1909) began to
theorize groups more closely – and this was followed by others looking at particular aspects or
types of group. Two well-known examples are Frederic Thrasher’s (1927) exploration of gang
life and Elton Mayo’s (1933) research on the informal relationships between workers in teams.
A further, critical, set of interventions came from Kurt Lewin (1948; 1951) who looked to the
dynamic qualities of groups and established some important parameters with regard to the way
they were to be studied.
As interest in group processes and group dynamics developed and accelerated (most
particularly since the 1980s) the research base of the area strengthened. Not unexpectedly, the
main arenas for the exploration of groups, and for building theory about them, have continued
to be sociology, anthropology and social psychology – but they have been joined by
contributions from biology, physics, management and organizational studies, and political
science. As well as trying to make sense of human behaviour – why people join groups and
what they get from them (both good and bad) – the study of groups has had a direct impact on
practice in a number of areas of life. Perhaps the most obvious is work – and the contexts and
practices of teams. But it has also acted as a spur to development in those fields of education,
therapy, social care and social action that use groups to foster change.
characteristics of group
 Size: To form a group, it must be having at least two members. Practically, the number
of group members ranges from 15 to 20. The more the members in the group, the more
complex it is to manage.
 Goals: Every group has certain goals, that are the reasons for its existence.
 Norms: A group has certain rules, for interacting with the group members.
 Structure: It has a structure, based on the roles and positions held by the members.
 Roles: Every member of a group has certain roles and responsibilities, which are
assigned, by the group leader.
 Interaction: The interaction between the group members can occur in several ways, i.e.
face to face, telephonic, in writing or in any other manner.
 Collective Identity: A group is an aggregation of individuals, which are separately called
as members, and collectively called as a group.
Furthermore, a group climate is an emotional setting of the group, that relies on participative
spirit, coordination, trust and bonding among the members, open communication and other
similar factors.

b) What do you understand by ‘Public Opinion’? Write about its relevance to the society. 10

Public opinion is the measure of what the public thinks about a particular issue, party, or
individual political figure. Historically, it's been pretty difficult to accurately measure what the
public thinks about a particular issue. However, most forms of democracy are based on the
understanding that the government will function with the interests of their people in mind. We
can find an acknowledgment of the people's role in many historical documents, including the
Constitution of the United States, which begins with the phrase 'We, the People.' This 1940s
poster from the National Archives highlights the importance of public opinion in policymaking
(see video).
There's a lot of things that come into play when discussing how people form opinions.
Developing your opinions about issues affecting the world around you is a lifelong process that
social scientists call political socialization. You'll have different life factors than everyone else,
but for most people, factors like family beliefs, peer beliefs, education, religious beliefs, and
media depictions have the greatest impact on their political opinions.
The primacy tendency, or the theory that impressions acquired during childhood are the most
long-lasting and influential, guides many studies of public opinion. For example, if your parents
or other authority figures, like teachers, regularly included you in patriotic activities such the
Fourth of July or the Pledge of Allegiance, social scientists would conclude that you are more
likely to be patriotic and supportive of the U.S. government as an adult.
There's a lot of ways to measure public opinion, and there's usually a lot of disagreement about
which method is the most accurate.
One way to measure public opinion is through examining voter records, but not everyone is
eligible to vote, and among those who are eligible to vote, not everyone will vote in a given
election. For example, you might have voted in the 2008 election but skipped the 2010 midterm
election for various reasons.
In addition to voting, people can also participate in meetings, protests, and assemblies
regarding a particular issue. While it's probably interesting to those involved, this kind of public
opinion expression can be pretty hard to measure. Like voting, measuring public opinion by the
number of people involved doesn't account for those who were unable to participate. Think
about this way: not everyone at a rally necessarily supports the goals of those running the rally.
They might just be there to show support for their friends and family.
By far the most-used method of measuring public opinion is the public opinion poll, a survey of
a small group of people regarding their opinions about a particular policy area. For example,
this graph shows the change in public opinion regarding interracial marriage based on public
opinion data from Gallup, Inc (see video). There are many different ways of conducting a public
opinion poll, but the most accurate method is to take a random sample. In a random sample,
social scientists attempt to create an unbiased grouping to study by asking a randomly selected
group to participate in public opinion polling.

4) Answer any four of the following questions in about 150 words each:

a) Discuss the origin of social work education in Europe. 5

Responses to profound contemporary transformation processes are characterised by

‘situationalism’ as the expression of resignation in the face of overwhelming complexity. An
overemphasis on personal autonomy accompanied by a withdrawal to the seeming security of
‘given boundaries’ undermines programmes of social solidarity, which had been a means of
creating stability and social integration at national and European levels. Social work’s origins as
an academic discipline and as a profession reach back to the crisis phenomena that
accompanied the early ‘project of modernity’, and reflection on that history can help to identify
a critical role of social work education in view of what could be described as the current crisis of
modernity. A future vision of social work education centres on the conventional mandate of this
profession to ‘make a critical difference’ with regard to the deepening of social divisions
through rampant individualism as well as concerning trends to impose uniformity as a
substitute for equality.
b) Explain the ‘principle of Confidentiality’ with relevant examples from your fieldwork. 5

In essence, confidentiality in the relationship between researcher and research subject is to be

regarded as an obligation for the researcher and a right for the research subject. Everyone has a
right to restrict the access of others to certain types of information about their person. Respect
for the individual must be borne in mind here, because personal data can be actively misused.
Even in the absence of such misuse, it can be both disagreeable and harmful if sensitive
information goes astray. This applies first and foremost to individuals and their families, but
groups and institutions also require consideration.

In addition to this general respect for rights, special obligations regarding confidentiality arise in
view of the understanding that exists between researcher and research subject with regard to
how the information is to be used and who is to have access to it. This applies whether this
relationship is based on trust or a written agreement.

Respect for confidentiality is also important in the interests of the research. Breach of
confidentiality undermines the trust and credibility enjoyed by the research, and in a wider
perspective will make it difficult to engage in research in the future. This does not apply only to
the researcher who has been in breach of confidence, of course. The research community as a
whole will suffer.

In addition to confidentiality in the relationship between researcher and research subject, there
is also another aspect to confidentiality in research. A researcher may, for example, be ordered
not to disseminate results that others have obtained and/or are working on. These results may
also concern information that is not related to an individual or a group. The motivation for the
confidentiality may, for example be publication rights, or the development of patents.

c) How is conflict different from competition? Specify. 5

Conflict involves discord and disagreement whereas competition can take place without any
clash or hard feelings.

• A competition indicates a contest where participants vie for the top spot whereas a conflict
indicates a scuffle or a skirmish.

• Competition is a healthy process that encourages intelligence, innovation, and

entrepreneurship whereas conflict crushes all such concepts.

• In real life, conflict is inevitable because all people are different from one another and
different viewpoints lead to conflict.
• Organizing a competition to choose the best painter, singer, or a player encourages
excellence among individuals as participants want to beat others to get top honors.

• Conflict and competition are two different types of social interaction that are, in addition to
cooperation and accommodation.

e) Write a note on ‘Fixation’. 5

In the field of anatomy, fixation is the preservation of biological tissues from decay due

to autolysis or putrefaction. It terminates any ongoing biochemical reactions and may also
increase the treated tissues' mechanical strength or stability. Tissue fixation is a critical step in
the preparation of histological sections, its broad objective being to preserve cells and tissue
components and to do this in such a way as to allow for the preparation of thin, stained
sections. This allows the investigation of the tissues' structure, which is determined by the
shapes and sizes of such macromolecules (in and around cells) as proteins and nucleic acids. In
performing their protective role, fixatives denature proteins by coagulation, by forming additive
compounds, or by a combination of coagulation and additive processes. A compound that adds
chemically to macromolecules stabilizes structure most effectively if it is able to combine with
parts of two different macromolecules, an effect known as cross-linking. Fixation of tissue is
done for several reasons. One reason is to kill the tissue so that postmortem decay (autolysis
and putrefaction) is prevented. Fixation preserves biological material (tissue or cells) as close to
its natural state as possible in the process of preparing tissue for examination. To achieve this,
several conditions usually must be met.
First, a fixative usually acts to disable intrinsic biomolecules—particularly proteolytic enzymes—
which otherwise digest or damage the sample.
Second, a fixative typically protects a sample from extrinsic damage. Fixatives are toxic to most
common microorganisms (bacteria in particular) that might exist in a tissue sample or which
might otherwise colonize the fixed tissue. In addition, many fixatives chemically alter the fixed
material to make it less palatable (either indigestible or toxic) to opportunistic microorganisms.
Finally, fixatives often alter the cells or tissues on a molecular level to increase their mechanical
strength or stability. This increased strength and rigidity can help preserve
the morphology (shape and structure) of the sample as it is processed for further analysis.
Even the most careful fixation does alter the sample and introduce artifacts that can interfere
with interpretation of cellular ultrastructure. A prominent example is the bacterial mesosome,
which was thought to be an organelle in gram-positive bacteria in the 1970s, but was later
shown by new techniques developed for electron microscopy to be simply an artifact of
chemical fixation. Standardization of fixation and other tissue processing procedures takes this
introduction of artifacts into account, by establishing what procedures introduce which kinds of
artifacts. Researchers who know what types of artifacts to expect with each tissue type and
processing technique can accurately interpret sections with artifacts, or choose techniques that
minimize artifacts in areas of interest.

5) Write short notes on any five of the following questions in about 100 words each:

b) Clinical social work approach 4

Clinical social work is characterized by a holistic, person-in-environment approach, meaning

that clinical social workers not only assess and help to address their clients' mental and
emotional challenges, but also work to understand how clients' challenges interact with their
family, financial, and social lives.
Clinical social work is a specialty practice area of social work which focuses on the assessment,
diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illness, emotional, and other behavioral
disturbances. Individual, group and family therapy are common treatment modalities. Social
workers who provide these services are required to be licensed or certified at the clinical level
in their state of practice. 
Clinical social workers perform services in a variety of settings including private practice,
hospitals, community mental health, primary care, and agencies. NASW advocates for clinical
social workers through the legislative and regulatory process.

c) Social Control 4

Roodenburg identifies the concept of social control as a classical concept.

While the concept of social control has been around since the formation of organized sociology,
the meaning has been altered over time. Originally, the concept simply referred to society's
ability to regulate itself. However, in the 1930s, the term took on its more modern meaning of
an individual's conversion to conformity. Academics began to study Social control theory as a
separate field in the early 20th century.
The term social control as defined by Merriam Webster is known as certain rules and standards
in society that keep individuals bound to conventional standards as well as the use of
formalized mechanisms The concept of social control is related to the notion of social order, a
concept identified as existing in the following areas of society:

 The education system
 Policing and the law
 Psychiatry
 Social work
 The welfare state
 The working environment
The term social control has also been linked to the term delinquency, defined as deviancy,
which is the violation of established mores, social norms, and laws. More serious acts of
delinquency are defined as consensus crimes and conflict crimes that are determined by society
and the law to inhibit unwanted or negative behavior as a form of social control.

d) Rights and Duties 4

Generally, a duty is an obligation and a right is a entitlement. They may exist as a moral or a
legal matter. For example, morally, a person may have a duty not to hurt another's feelings.
However, case law and statutes provide the legal framework or parameters defining when
harmful communications constitute defamation and the procedures governing obtaining
redress.

Rights may also exist on a moral or legal matter. For example, an employee has a moral right to
be treated with appreciation and respect by an employer. Employment and discrimination laws
provide the legal framework defining an employee's rights to freedom from being
disadvantaged by an employer's discriminatory intent based on certain grounds, such as age,
sex, handicap, or religion. A moral right cannot be the basis for seeking relief through the legal
system. There must be a law creating a right before that right can be enforced through the legal
sytem.

e) Emotions during late childhood 4

The common emotional patterns of late childhood are – fear, jealousy, curiosity, affection and

joy. Fear: Objects, situation, animals and people which terrify young children are accepted
calmly by older children. ... It is greater in children who are unpopular and among girls than
boys

Emotional pattern of late childhood

After the child becomes adjusted to the social units outside the home the hightend
emotionality tends to subside because

• The roles of the child are well defined and he knows how to play them.

• He has a ready outlet for any pent up emotional energy through games & sports.

• Of the improvement of skills the child no longer experiences the frustrations he formerly
experienced due to failures.

The common emotional patterns of late childhood are – fear, jealousy, curiosity, affection and
joy.
1. Fear: Objects, situation, animals and people which terrify young children are accepted
calmly by older children. On the other hand fears of fire, darkness, disease, doctors, dentists,
operations, being hit by a car and being bitten by a dog, sources of fears are common at this
age. Girls show more fear than boys.

Fear aroused by concrete stimuli decreases with age and there is a marked increase in the
degree of fear of imaginary, fanciful, supernatural or remote dangers and of matters associates
with corpses and death. They are also afraid of being different of being a failure in what they
undertake.

School worries include failing a test being late for school or being left behind in school.
Generalized anxiety which is a painful uneasiness, concerning anticipated illness is more
common than any specific worry. It is greater in children who are unpopular and among girls
than boys. It increases as the child grows older and as he faces more pressures.

2. Anger: More situations provoke anger in late childhood than in early childhood, because
the older child has a stronger desire for independence. He becomes angry when an activity is
interrupted; constantly criticized and unfavorable comparisons with other children are made.
He is annoyed when he is blamed or punished for something he did not do, when he sees
someone cheating, telling lies or do unfair things. He also becomes angry when his
achievements fall short of his goals.

Some children experience more frustrations or feeling of helplessness when a drive is blocked.
Some treat in an aggressive way and some in a passive way by withdrawing themselves.

3. Jealousy: Sibling jealousy continues even when the child enters school. Sometimes it is
intensified because of his imagination that younger child might be getting mothers attention
during his absence at home. He may transfer his jealousy to his classmates especially towards
those who are popular or who excel in studies or sports. He will show his jealousy directly
through quarrelling, crying, telling tales, teasing, bullying, criticizing or instigating quarrels. He
may express his jealousy indirectly by ignoring, sarcastic comments, lying and cheating. As child
progresses, indirect expressions of jealousy are more common than direct expressions.

4. Curiosity: Curiosity is as strong in the older child as in the younger. He examines things
that mystify him and he frequently takes them apart to see how they work. In addition to direct
explorations, he asks innumerable questions to supplement what he has learnt by himself. He
reads well enough to understand what he needs. Reading becomes increasingly a source of
information to him.

5. Affection: Affection is expressed only slightly by older children. Boys feel that they are
too old to be sissied or hugged. They are likely to be embarrasses if such demonstrations are
made in public. They even resent being addressed by words of endearment while girls are not
so restrained; they too dislike demonstration of affection openly. Their affection is shown
indirectly by their desire to be constantly with those whom they love to do things for them
which they can.

6. Joy: children derive joy from things which roused pleasant emotions when they were
young like laughing at slight calamities sudden or unexpected noises or anything that seems out
of place in a situation. Now during this late childhood period the child gets more pleasure from
play and jokes. Anything that gives him a feeling of superiority such as practical jokes & eating
forbidden foods gives him pleasure.

g) Society 4

A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social

group sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the
same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by
patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a
distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such
relationships among its constituent of members. In the social sciences, a larger society often
exhibits stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups.
Societies construct patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or speech as acceptable or
unacceptable. These patterns of behavior within a given society are known as societal norms.
Societies, and their norms, undergo gradual and perpetual changes.
Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would
otherwise be difficult on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can
thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap. A society can also consist of like-
minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant, larger society. This
is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology.
More broadly, and especially within structuralist thought, a society may be illustrated as
an economic, social, industrial or cultural infrastructure, made up of, yet distinct from, a varied
collection of individuals. In this regard society can mean the objective relationships people have
with the material world and with other people, rather than "other people" beyond the
individual and their familiar social environment.