Chapter 5
Effect of Climatic Conditions on Quality
of Virgin Olive Oil
María-Paz Romero and María-José Motilva
Department of Food Technology CeRTA-TPV, Escuela Téccnica Superior de Ingeniería Agraria, Universidad de Lleida, Lleida, Spain
5.1  Introduction
The Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) ‘Les Garrigues’
is located in southern Lleida, a province of north-eastern
Spain in the autonomous community of Catalonia. The
climate of the area is continental Mediterranean, char-
acterized by warm summers and long, cold winters. The
important thermal difference between winter and summer,
with annual minimum temperatures of 8°C and maxi-
mum temperatures above 40°C, distinguishes this area
from other olive-growing areas with a more temperate
climate due to their proximity to the Mediterranean Sea.
Rainfall in the area is scarce and very irregular, being more
abundant in the spring and lowest in summer (July) and
winter (January and February). The rainfall pattern differs
from one year to another, a feature of the Mediterranean
climate. Arbequina is the native olive tree cultivar in this
area, and it is characterized by frost resistance, low vigor,
small fruit size, and high productivity. Oil obtained from
Arbequina is well known in the international oil market for
its excellent taste and flavor. The olive harvest period in
this area takes place from November to January, with the
aim of finishing harvesting before the arrival of the frosts
that are very common in this region.
The Oil Laboratory of the Department of Food
Technology has monitored olive oils from PDO Les
Garrigues since 1995 and has analyzed more than 2000
olive oil samples and obtained more than 500 olive oils
from the pilot plant. Throughout these years there has been
a wide range of climatic conditions that have permitted the
study of the effects of climatic conditions on virgin olive oil
composition and quality indices as well as effects of dam-
age to oil quality due to the freezing of olives, a cause of
concern in this area where high-quality oils are produced.
Of special relevance are the changes in minor components,
such as chlorophylls, carotenoids and phenolic compounds
and the sensory attributes that play an important role in the
organoleptic characteristics and antioxidant properties of
virgin olive oils.
Olives and Olive Oil in Health and Disease Prevention.
ISBN: 978-0-12-374420-3
5.2  The effects of climate
conditions on quality of olive oil
Olive oil composition has been studied for Arbequina culti-
var over nine years to develop an understanding of seasonal
variation.
5.2.1  Influence of Crop Season on the
Composition of Virgin Olive Oil
The first experiment was designed to characterize oils from
several locations in the PDO Les Garrigues. A total of 130
olive oils from Arbequina cultivar obtained in 13 industrial
oil mills were analyzed through two consecutive seasons.
Results had shown that oils from the same crop season and
variety, extracted with similar technologies but obtained
from olive trees grown at different locations inside this
area, could present important differences in composition.
The traditional oil quality parameters like peroxide value,
acidity and K270 of olive oils did not present differences
within crops seasons, however an important difference has
been observed in the fatty acids profile. Taking the most
extreme observations for location variable (Table 5.1) these
differences could be over 5% for oleic acid. The differences
for fatty acid profile between locations have been observed
every crop season. In general, oils from location A contain
more oleic acid than those from location B. Agroclimatic
studies could explain the differences. So, Llasat (1997)
splits the PDO Garrigues area into three clusters and while
location A belongs to the coldest cluster, with the lowest
minimum and maximum temperatures, location B belongs
to a hot area with long summers. According with other
studies (Aguilera et al., 2005) the high temperature and low
altitude could be associated with an increased polyunsatu-
ration and the lowest oleic percentage. A complete analysis
was published in Motilva et al. (2001).
A second experience was designed from 1996 to 1999.
These years presented several differences in patterns
Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc.
43 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
44
Table 5.1  Percentage of several fatty acids in two Garrigues locations.
This table summarizes the differences in the main fatty acids of olive oil. Each value is the mean of fatty acid
concentration in five olive oils.
Crop season Fatty acid Location A
% Standard error
1995/96 Palmitic acid 11.6
1996/97 11.9
1995/96 Oleic acid 75.9
1996/97 76.3
1995/96 Linoleic acid 8.7
1996/97 8.3
for air temperatures and rainfall. The weather in 1996 was
characterized by a very dry summer and occasional frost in
November and December. Total cumulative rainfall in 1996
was 513 mm, markedly higher than the average for this
area, and accumulated at harvest period. The crop season in
1997/98 was characterized by low temperatures and less sun-
shine than other seasons and there was also an excess of rain
during the maturation period. The main climatic characteris-
tics in 1998 were the persistent frost during November and
December and the scarce rainfall, especially during the sum-
mer. Accumulative rainfall in this year was 342 mm, 64 mm
of which fell in summer. The weather in 1999 was character-
ized by very severe frost (below 5°C) and a total absence of
rainfall during the harvest period (November and December).
Maximum accumulated rainfall was during September (total
accumulated rainfall in this year was 397 mm).
Oils from the 1997/98 season showed a significant dif-
ference (p  0.001) in fatty acid composition in relation
to oils from the other seasons studied (Table 5.2). The per-
centage of estearic and oleic acids were lowest, and on the
other hand palmitic, palmitoleic and linoleic acids were
highest. This could be attributed to a modification of lipid
biosynthesis coinciding with the wet summer. The metabo-
lism and lipid levels of the olive fruit are affected by envi-
ronmental factors, such as light, temperature, and water
stress, and it has been observed by some authors that oleic
acid, some triacylglycerides, and the oleic/linoleic acid
ratio are connected to the rainfall in the summer period.
The rainfall regime in 1997 could have affected the de novo
fatty acid biosynthesis that occurs in plant plastids and that
needs the concerted activity of two enzymes, acetyl-CoA
carboxylase and fatty acid synthase, to regulate a further
chain elongation cycle in de novo fatty acid biosynthesis.
This step is particularly relevant because it determines the
C16/C18 ratio, and this is directly related to the degree of
unsaturation of the final oil product. The highest C16/C18
Section  |  I  The Plant and Production
Location B
% Standard error
0.2 14.3 0.2
0.3 14.4 0.4
0.3 70.0 0.2
0.4 69.4 0.4
0.1 11.2 0.2
0.1 11.5 0.2
ratio was observed in oils from 1997/98. This ratio seems
to be related to the accumulated rainfall regime in the sum-
mer of each year. In considering the accumulated rainfall
during June–August, the maximum corresponds to 1997,
with 167 mm, in front of 39, 33 and 29 mm for 1996, 1998
and 1999, respectively. These climatological conditions
could cause the modification in the degree of unsaturation
of the oils.
Also the influence of crop season on color has been
studied. The color of the oil affects the consumer’s per-
ception of quality. It is related to pigment content and
decreases with the olives’ ripeness. In order to analyze the
influence of climatic conditions, the oils analyzed were
grouped together by harvest period, first and second. The
effect of harvest period on the loss of chlorophyll and caro-
tenoid pigments does not show the same pattern in every
crop season (Figure 5.1). Thus, the main differences were
observed in oils from the 1997/98 and 1999/00 seasons.
This is probably a consequence of frosts in November 1997
and 1999 that led to deterioration of the olive fruit and pig-
ment degradation, mainly in the chlorophyll fraction. Oils
from the 1998/99 crop season showed no significant dif-
ferences between the first and second harvest periods.
The minimum air temperature during the harvest period
(November 1998) remained around 0°C without heavy
frosts that could have produced pigment degradation in the
olive fruit. Oils from the 1999/00 crop season showed the
lowest chlorophyll content. As mentioned above, the 1999
harvest period was characterized by frequent, heavy frosts
that may have initiated the degradation of the olive pig-
ments, mainly the chlorophyll fraction. Thus, with respect
to pigment content the main effect was the minimum
air temperature during the harvest period (November–
December); rainfall regime was a secondary effect.
The amount of phenolic compounds in virgin olive oil
is another important factor when evaluating its quality,
Chapter  |  5  Effect of Climatic Conditions on Quality of Virgin Olive Oil 45

Table 5.2  Influence of the crop season on fatty acid profile (%) of monovarietal virgin olive oil from Arbequina cultivar
at two locations.
This table shows the profile of some fatty acid in two of 13 locations studied. Each value is the mean of fatty acid
concentration of five olive oils.
Fatty acid (%) 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/2000

Location A Location B Location A Location B Location A Location B Location A Location B

Palmitic acid 11.9 14.4 14.5 15.7 11.6 14.3 11.7 14.2
Palmitoleic acid 1.20 1.41 1.4 1.7 1.1 1.5 1.0 1.4
Estearic 1.68 2.09 1.6 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.0 2.1
Oleic acid 76.3 69.4 71.1 67.9 75.9 70.0 76.0 70.1
Linoleic acid 8.3 11.5 10.7 12.3 8.7 11.2 8.3 11.0
C16/C18 ratio 0.152 0.191 0.191 0.213 0.146 0.189 0.147 0.188
C16 is palmitic and palmitoleic acids and C18 is estearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids.

Pigments content Total phenols

(mg kg−1) (mg kg−1)
14
300

12 250

10 200

8 150

6 100

4 50

2 0
1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00
0
1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 Figure 5.2  Total phenol content (mg kg as caffeic acid) in relation
1

Figure 5.1  Oil pigments content (chlorophyll and carotenoid) in rela-
tion to crop season and harvest period. This figure shows the average
value for pigment content. Chlorophylls are expressed as mg of pheophy-
tin kg1 of oil and carotenoids are expressed as mg of luteolin kg1 of
oil. The order of serials is: chlorophyll first harvest, chlorophyll second
harvest, carotenoid first harvest and carotenoid second harvest.
given that the natural phenols improve its oxidative sta-
bility and, to a certain extent, are responsible for its bitter
taste. The total phenols in the oils analyzed in this study
varied considerably and a significant ( p  0.001) effect of
the season could be observed (Figure 5.2). Thus, oils from
the 1997/98 crop season had the lowest total phenol con-
centration (106 to 84 mg kg1), and the highest values were
in oils from the 1996/97 and 1998/99 seasons (from 272 to
215 and from 242 to 172 mg kg1 for each year and harvest
period, respectively).
A relationship was observed between the total phenols
content of the oil and accumulated rainfall by year. Thus,
the weather in 1997, which corresponded to the year with the
lowest polyphenol content in the olive oils, was characterized
to crop season and harvest period. The first column corresponds to first
harvest, and the second one to second harvest.
by nearly 400 mm accumulated rainfall during the sum-
mer period (June–August), above the average for the area.
In contrast, during this period, there was very low rainfall
accumulation in 1996 and 1998, and the oils from these
years showed the highest polyphenol contents. It has long
been known that the level of phenolics in plant tissues can be
influenced by environmental factors such as ambient temper-
ature and water availability. With regard to the latter factor, a
water deficiency generates a stress situation that induces the
production of phenolics, and this factor could be related to
the increase in the polyphenol content of the oils from the
1996/97 and 1998/99 seasons. Oils from the second period
of harvest in 1999/00 season showed a significant decrease
in phenolic compounds that could be attributed to frost.
Bitter taste is one of the characteristic attributes of vir-
gin olive oil. In our study, the bitter index (K225) was ana-
lyzed in oils from the 1998/99 and 1999/00 crop seasons
with values from 0.19 to 0.15 and from 0.17 to 0.12 in
46
the first and second harvest period and each crop season,
respectively. There were no differences in K225 between
seasons, and the effect of harvest period was only signifi-
cant ( p  0.001) during the 1999/00 season, similar to that
observed in oil phenol content. The mentioned decrease
in phenols gave rise to a loss in bitterness. Gutiérrez et al.
(1992) suggested that K225 values of the order of 0.14 or
lower correspond to oils with slight bitterness intensity, cor-
responding to oils from the area of the PDO ‘Les Garrigues’,
and values close to 0.36 correspond to quite bitter oils.
5.2.2  Effect of Freeze Injuries in Olive on
Virgin Olive Oil Composition
The harvest period for the 2001–02 crop season is remark-
able because a cold front from Siberia moved to the south
of Europe and arrived in Catalonia (Spain) on 15 December
bringing snowfalls, together with an important drop in tem-
perature. Trees were covered by snow for more than 10
days because of the persistent cold. Climatic data obtained
from the weather station situated at La Granadella, in the
geographical center of ‘Les Garrigues’, showed that max-
imum temperatures were below 5°C for more than 110
consecutive hours, reaching minimum values of 12.5°C.
As a consequence of these exceptional weather conditions,
about 40% of Arbequina olive oil production in the PDO
‘Les Garrigues’ was affected and negative effects have
also been forecast for the coming crop seasons as a result
of the high number of olive trees damaged by the extreme
temperatures. These climatic conditions allow us to ana-
lyze oils derived from olives growing in the same orchard
before and after the frost.
The values for the quality indices, free fatty acid con-
tent and peroxide value of after-frost oils showed slightly
higher values. In fact, they are related to the degree of
deterioration of the oil, determined by the state of the fruit
and its manipulation before and during oil processing.
However, it is not significant because the average values of
free fatty acid content, peroxide value and K270 were con-
siderably below the limit established by EEC legislation for
virgin olive oil. A possible explanation for the low increase
observed in the peroxide value of oils obtained after frost
could be that the olives were harvested and processed
within 24 h after thaw, as soon as it was possible to harvest
them. Neither -tocopherol content nor fatty acid profile
have shown significant differences between oils obtained
before and after freeze damage.
However, the chlorophyll and carotenoid concentra-
tion and chromatic ordinates of oils obtained before and
after frosts were different. Oil pigment content decreased
slightly after freeze damage ( p  0.05). The chlorophyl-
lase and lypoxygenase enzymes could be involved in this
loss of chlorophyllic and carotenoid pigments, favored by
deterioration of the olive fruit (Mínguez-Mosquera, 1997).
The chromatic ordinates a* and b* were not affected by the
Section  |  I  The Plant and Production
low temperatures reached while luminosity (L*) negatively
correlated with total pigment content, and increased in oils
obtained after freeze damage.
In addition to pigment differences, a remarkable differ-
ence between oils obtained before and after frost was the
total phenol content, showing significant decrease in those
oils obtained from fruits under freeze conditions. The olive
tissue destruction caused by the ice crystals formed inside
parenchyma cells may encourage the oxidative degrada-
tion of phenolic compounds in PPO-catalyzed reaction. It
has been reported that the main agent responsible for enzy-
matic browning in fruits and vegetables is polyphenol oxi-
dase (PPO; 1.14.18.1). It catalyzes two different reactions
in the presence of molecular oxygen: the hydroxylation of
monophenols to o-diphenols and the oxidation of o-diphe-
nols to o-quinones which polymerize non-enzymatically
and give rise to heterogeneous black, brown or red pig-
ments, commonly called melanins (Tomás-Barberán and
Espín, 2001). The bitter index (K225) and oxidative stabil-
ity of oils followed the same pattern as total phenol content.
Figure 5.3 shows the chromatographic profile of the
phenolic extracts from Arbequina virgin olive oils from the
same mill but obtained before and after frost, respectively.
Table 5.3 shows the average concentrations of the quanti-
fied phenolic compounds in the oils examined in this study.
Peaks 1–8 and Peak 10 were identified according to a pre-
vious article (Tovar et al., 2001). There is a larger number
of compounds in the phenolic fraction than in those already
defined. Peaks 9, 11 and 12 represent unknown complex
phenolic compounds found in all olive oils analyzed, with a
spectrum similar to that of secoiridoid derivatives, showing
two maxima at 210 and 278 nm. Peak 13, however, shows a
UV spectrum similar to that of trans-cinnamic acid, with a
maximum at 276 nm.
The main phenolic compounds found in oils from PDO
‘Les Garrigues’ analyzed in this trial were the secoiridoid
derivatives, a dialdehydic form of elenolic acid linked to
hydroxytyrosol (3,4-DHPEA-EDA), oleuropein aglycone
(3,4-DHPEA-EA) and the dialdehydic form of elenolic acid
linked to tyrosol (p-HPEA-EDA), followed in order of quan-
titative importance by lignans and the phenolic compound
4-(acetoxyethyl)- 1,2-dihydroxybenzene (3,4-DHPEA-AC).
Low levels of the simple phenols 3,4-DHPEA, p-HPEA,
vanillin and vanillic acid were found, while ferulic and p-
coumaric acids were identified but could not be quantified.
The concentrations of most olive oil phenolic compounds
were affected by the freeze conditions. The three secoiridoid
derivatives and the compound 3,4-DHPEA-AC decreased
in the oils obtained after the freeze damage suffered by
the olive fruit. Secoiridoid derivatives are compounds of
major interest since their antioxidant activity has already
been evaluated and has been shown to extend the shelf-life
of olive oil (Baldioli et al., 1996; Gennaro et al., 1998).
Good correlations have also been found between them and
the bitter index (Tovar et al., 2001). The concentration of
the unknown phenolic compounds, Peak 9 and Peak 12,
Chapter  |  5  Effect of Climatic Conditions on Quality of Virgin Olive Oil 47

0.20

0.15 7

6 8
AU 0.10
13
12
5 1011
0.05
4 9
1 2
3
0.00

10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00

A Minutes

0.20

8
0.15

11
AU 0.10 7

12 13
0.05
10
4 6
2 9
1 3 5
0.00

10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00

B Minutes
Figure 5.3  HPLC chromatograms (at 278 nm) of phenolic extracts from olive oil. (A) Before frost damage; (B) After frost damage. (Reprinted from
Morelló et al., 2003, with permission). This figure showed two chromatograms of olive oil phenolic profile. See Table 5.3 to identify the peaks.

decreased, as did the earlier-mentioned compounds, which
may indicate that they are biochemically related.
Wounding of olive fruit, caused by the formation of ice
crystals, induces cellular recompartmentalization which
would allow mixing of phenolic substrates and PPO. Thus,
the decrease in the level of those compounds could be due
to an enzymatic oxidation that would result in the brown-
ing of the olive fruit.
Despite showing a UV spectrum similar to that of Peaks
9 and 12, Peak 11 followed a different pattern. Its content
in the oils increased significantly after freeze damage, as
it was a compound resulting from the oxidative process.
The contents of lignans and Peak 13 remained practically
unchanged while the 3,4-DHPEA, vanillic acid and vanillin
concentrations increased in oils obtained after freeze dam-
age. The increase in 3,4-DHPEA content may be a con-
sequence of the degradation of secoiridoid derivatives in
their structure. On the other hand, vanillic acid and vanil-
lin are considered to be lignin degradation compounds
(Fernández-Bolaños et al., 1998) (Figure 5.4).
One of the aims of this study was to examine the rela-
tionship between the sensory attributes of virgin olive oil
and the freeze conditions and to connect these to chemical
composition. Differences are detected between oils in aroma,
and mouthfeel perceptual differences are detected between
oils. The sensory notes of artichoke, tomato and almond were
perceived in before-frost oils, and no unpleasant aroma or fla-
vor was detected. After-frost olive oils were qualified as non-
extra virgin olive oil. Defects were defined as frozen olives
by some panelists, while others defined these oils as thicker,
softer, and with the term rancid tallow. A less bitter and pun-
gent taste should be related to the noticeable reduction of oil
phenolic compounds, especially secoiridoid compounds.
5.2.3  Influence of Seasonal Conditions on
Phenolic Profile Of Olive Oils
During four successive seasons, corresponding to 2000/01
to 2003/04, the effect of the climatological conditions of the
olive crop season on the composition of phenolic fractions
and related properties such as bitterness and oxidative sta-
bility were studied. Seventy virgin oils obtained in various
industrial olive mills were analyzed. Profile of the phenolic
48 Section  |  I  The Plant and Production

Table 5.3  Phenolic compounds (mg kg1) of virgin olive oil obtained from olive fruits harvested before and after frost
damage (n  10).
This table shows the concentration of phenolic compounds of olive oil before and after frost damage.
Peak Phenolic compounds Before frost damage After frost damage Significance level
**
 1 3,4-DHPEA    0.12   0.21
 2 p-HPEA    0.95   0.42 NS
*
 3 Vanillic acid    0.08   0.15
**
 4 Vanillin    0.17   0.42
**
 5 3,4-DHPEA-AC   22  1
**
 6 3,4-DHPEA-EDA 116 17
 7 p-HPEA-EDA   44 28 NS
 8 Lignans   80 80 NS
*
 9 Peak 9    5.21   1.20
**
10 3,4-DHPEA-EA   79 33
*
11 Peak 11    6.50 22
**
12 Peak 12    9.30   5.24
13 Peak 13    7.36   4.54 NS
* **
Significance level: NS Non significant (p  0.05), p  0.05, p  0.01. (Reprinted from Morelló et al., 2003, with permission.)

80

DHPEA-EDA DHPEA-EA p-HPEA-EDA DHPEA-AC Lignans Others

70

60

50
Percentage (%)

40

30

20

10

0
2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04
Season
Figure 5.4  Percentage distribution of the main phenolic compounds on monovarietal olive oil phenolic fraction for crop seasons 2000/01 to 2003/04.
This figure shows the average concentration of main secoiridoids.

fraction is characterized by low levels of simple phenols (2003) for Arbequina grown in southern Spain, which aver-
[hydroxytyrosol(3,4-DHPEA), tyrosol (p-DHPEA), vanillic aged about 5 ppm, and other varieties, such as Picual,
acid, and vanillin], with concentrations between 0 and 2 ppm. Hojiblanca, and Cornicabra having values of 17, 12, and
These values are different from those obtained by García et al. 9 ppm, respectively (García et al., 2002; Beltrán et al., 2005).
Chapter  |  5  Effect of Climatic Conditions on Quality of Virgin Olive Oil
The main phenols present in olive oil are the 4-(acetoxy-
ethyl)-1,2-dihydroxybenzene (3,4-DHPEA-AC) and secoiri­
doid derivatives, such as the dialdehydic form of elenolic
acid linked to hydroxytyrosol (3,4-DHPEA-EDA); the dial-
dehydic form of elenolic acid linked to tyrosol (p-HPEA-
EDA); the aldehydic form of elenolic acid linked to tyrosol
(p-HPEAEA); the aldehydic form of elenolic acid linked to
hydroxytyrosol (3,4-DHPEA-EA; oleuropein aglycone) and
lignans. Flavonoid aglycones such as apigenin and luteolin
were also present in small amounts.
Although no qualitative differences were observed in
the phenolic fraction between crop seasons, quantitative
differences were observed between phenolic compounds.
The main differences were observed in secoiridoid deriva-
tives (3,4-DHPEA-EDA, p-HPEA-EDA, p-HPEA-EA, and
3,4-DHPEAEA). The main phenolic compound quanti-
fied in the olive oil phenolic fraction, 3,4-DHPEA-EDA,
showed a significantly different concentration between crop
seasons 2000/01 and 2001/02 and crop seasons 2002/03
and 2003/04. The oils from the 2000/01 and 2001/02 crop
seasons showed average concentrations of between 30 and
223 ppm, whereas the values for oils from the 2002/03 and
2003/04 crop seasons rose to between 427 and 610 ppm. In
December 2001 olive drupes froze on the trees because low
temperature (below 5°C). The large decrease in the 3,4-
DHPEA-EDA concentration observed in olive oils from
the second harvest period of the 2001/02 crop season may
be due to this. The concentrations of the remaining secoiri-
doid derivatives, such as p-HPEA-EDA, p-HPEA-EA,
and 3,4-DHPEA-EA, increased in the 2002/03 and
2003/04 crop seasons after the frost damage that occurred
in the 2001/02 crop season. However, no significant dif-
ferences in lignans (pinoresinol and acetoxypinoresinol)
were observed between the first and second harvesting
period during the four crop seasons studied. The percent-
ages of the main phenols in the total fraction showed that
the secoiridoid derivatives varied between crop seasons as
reflected in the level of 3,4-DHPEA-EDA, the main secoir-
idoid derivative in all the crop seasons, and this percent-
age depended on the year’s weather changes, including the
frost damage from December 2001. In the 2001/02 crop
season, a significantly different percent composition of the
phenolic profile was observed. This was characterized by
a lower amount of secoiridoid derivatives and especially
of 3,4-DHPEA-EDA, which decreased significantly, while
the percentage of lignans increased owing to their high sta-
bility, although their concentration remained practically
constant over the four crop seasons. The decrease in the
percentage of 3,4-DHPEA-EDA in olive oils extracted
from olives after frost damage was probably caused by its
antioxidant activity, as reported in Morelló et al. (2003).
This antioxidant activity is due to the presence of a
3,4-dihydroxy moiety linked to an aromatic ring, and the
effect depends on the polarity of the compound (open or
closed ring in elenolic acid). Another change observed
in the phenolic fraction of the oil was the increase in the
49
3,4-DHPEA-EDA percentage in the 2002/03 and 2003/04
crop seasons. Olive trees that were frost damaged in
December 2001 were more sensitive to stress caused by
water deficit during the summer in the two last crop sea-
sons, particularity in 2002/03. This fact may have caused
this increase. Although temperatures and rainfall during
the four crop seasons were similar (except for December
2001), higher levels of phenolic compounds were detected
in olive oils from the two last crop seasons.
Summary points
The virgin olive oil composition is greatly influenced
l
by climatic conditions.
l In a limited area, small differences in maximum and
minimum temperatures could be the cause of significant
differences in fatty acid profile.
l The high cumulate rainfall causes a significant decrease
in oleic acid.
l No differences were found in the traditional quality
indices of oils affected by freeze injuries, since olives
were harvested and processed in a short time period.
l Frost damage caused two main changes in virgin
olive oil composition. These were slight decreases in
chlorophyll and carotenoid contents and an important
decrease in the concentration of secoiridoid derivatives
and 3,4-DHPEA-AC which play an important role in
oil stability and the sensory attributes.
l After frost, oils showed lower stability and suffered
important changes in their sensory attributes, leading to
absence of the bitter taste and less pungent taste. After
the freeze conditions, there were slight rises in the con-
centrations of simple phenols, such as vanillic acid and
vanillin, giving rise to sweeter oils.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Centre de Referencia de Tecnologia
d’Aliments (CeRTA) of the Catalan Government and the grants ALI1999-
0760 and AGL2002-00289 from the Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnologia
(Spanish Government). We wish to thank the Regulator Organism of the
PDO ‘Les Garrigues’ (Catalonia, Spain).
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