INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS PROCESSING

Almost every manufactured product (or component of a product) goes through a series of activities that include
(1) design, defining what we want to produce, (2) material selection, (3) process selection, (4) manufacture, (5) inspection
and evaluation, and (6) feedback
 Previous studies have presented the fundamentals of materials engineering, the study of the structure, properties,
processing, and performance of engineering materials and the systems interactions among these aspects.
 A primary objective of materials processing is the production of a desired shape in the desired quantity. Shape-
producing processes are often grouped into four basic “families,” as indicated in Figure- 1.
 Casting processes exploit the properties of a liquid as it flows into and assumes the shape of a prepared
container, and then solidifies upon cooling.

FIGURE -1: The four materials processing families, with subgroups and typical processes.

 When selecting the process or processes to be used in obtaining a desired shape and achieving the desired properties,
decisions should be made with the knowledge of all available alternatives and their associated assets and limitations
INTRODUCTION TO CASTING:
 In the casting processes, a material is first melted, heated to proper temperature, and sometimes treated to modify
its chemical composition. The molten material is then poured into a cavity or mold that holds it in the desired
shape during cool-down and solidification.
o In a single step, simple or complex shapes can be made from any material that can be melted.
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 o By proper design and process control, the resistance to working stresses can be optimized and a
pleasing appearance can be produced.
o Cast parts range in size from a fraction of a centimeter and a fraction of a gram (such as the individual
teeth on a zipper) to over 10 meters and many tons (as in the huge.
o casting processes have distinct advantages when the production involves complex shapes, parts having
hollow sections or internal cavities, parts that contain irregular curved surfaces (except those that can be
made from thin sheet metal), very large parts, or parts made from metals that are difficult to machine.
 The variety of casting processes use different mold materials (sand, metal, or various ceramics) and pouring methods
(gravity, vacuum, low pressure, or high pressure).
 All share the requirement that the material should solidify in a manner that will maximize the
properties and avoid the formation of defects, such as shrinkage voids, gas porosity, and trapped
inclusions.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF CASTING PROCESSES

1. A container must be produced with a mold cavity, having the desired shape and size, with due allowance for
shrinkage of the solidifying material. Any geometrical feature desired in the finished casting must be present in
the cavity
 The mold material must provide the desired detail and also withstand the high temperatures and not
contaminate the molten material that it will contain.
2. A melting process must be capable of providing molten material at the proper temperature, in the desired quantity,
with acceptable quality, and at a reasonable cost.
3. A pouring technique must be devised to introduce the molten metal into the mold.
 Provision should be made for the escape of all air or gases present in the cavity prior to pouring,
 As well as those generated by the introduction of the hot metal.
 The molten material must be free to fill the cavity, producing a high-quality casting that is fully dense
and free of defects.
4. The solidification process should be properly designed and controlled. Castings should be designed so that
solidification and solidification shrinkage can occur without producing internal porosity or voids.
5. It must be possible to remove the casting from the mold (i.e., mold removal).
 With single-use molds that are broken apart and destroyed after each casting, mold removal presents no
serious difficulty.
 With multiple-use molds, however, the removal of a complex-shaped casting may be a major design
problem.
6. Various cleaning, finishing, and inspection operations may be required after the casting is removed from the
mold.
 Extraneous material is usually attached where the metal entered the cavity, excess material may be
present along mold parting lines, and mold material may adhere to the casting surface. All of these
must be removed from the finished casting.

CASTING TERMINOLOGY:
© It is helpful to first become familiar with a bit of casting vocabulary. Figure-2 shows a two-part mold, its cross
section, and a variety of features or components that are present in a typical casting process.
© To produce a casting, we begin by constructing a pattern, an approximate duplicate of the final casting.
© Molding material will then be packed around the pattern and the pattern is removed to create all or part of the
mold cavity.
© The rigid metal or wood frame that holds the molding aggregate is called a flask.
 The top half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core is called the cope.
 The bottom half of any of these features is called the drag
 A core is a sand (or metal) shape that is inserted into a mold to produce the internal features of a
casting, such as holes or passages for water cooling.
 Cores are produced in wood, metal, or plastic tooling, known as core boxes
© The mold material and the cores then combine to produce a completed mold cavity, a shaped hole into which the
molten metal is poured and solidified to produce the desired casting

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 FIGURE -2 Cross section of a typical two-part sand mold, indicating various mold
components and terminology.

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 © A riser is an additional void in the mold that also fills with molten metal. Its purpose is to provide a
reservoir of additional liquid that can flow into the mold cavity to compensate for any shrinkage that
occurs during solidification
 By designing so the riser contains the last material to solidify, shrinkage voids should be
located in the riser, not the final casting.
© The network of connected channels used to deliver the molten metal to the mold cavity is known as
the gating system
© The pouring cup (or pouring basin) is the portion of the gating system that receives the molten metal
from the pouring vessel and controls its delivery to the rest of the mold.
© Additional channels, known as vents, may be included in a mold or core to provide an escape for the
gases that are originally present in the mold or are generated during the pour.
© The parting line or parting surface is the interface that separates the cope and drag halves of a mold,
flask, or pattern, and also the halves of a core in some core-making processes.

THE SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS

Casting is a solidification process where the molten material is poured into a mold and then allowed to freeze
into the desired final shape. Many of the structural features that ultimately control product properties are set during
solidification. Furthermore, many casting defects, such as gas porosity and solidification shrinkage, are also
solidification phenomena, and they can be reduced or eliminated by controlling the solidification process.
Solidification is a two-stage, nucleation and growth, process, and it is important to control both of
these stages. Nucleation occurs when stable particles of solid form from within the molten liquid. When a
material is at a temperature below its melting point, the solid state has a lower energy than the liquid.
Nucleation occurs at temperature below the melting temperature of the material. The difference between the
melting point and the actual temperature of nucleation is known as the amount of undercooling.

FIGURE -3 Cooling curve for a pure metal

or eutectic composition alloy (metals with
a distinct freezing point), indicating major
features related To solidification.

 Cooling curves can be one of the most useful tools for studying the solidification process. Figure-3
shows a typical cooling curve for a pure or eutectic-composition material (one with a distinct melting
point) and is useful for depicting many of the features and terms related to solidification.
 The pouring temperature is the temperature of the liquid metal when it first enters the mold.
 Superheat is the difference between the pouring temperature and the freezing temperature of the
material.
 Most metals are poured at temperatures of 100–200°C (200–400°F) above the temperature where
solid begins to form. The higher the superheat, the more time is given for the material to flow into the
intricate details of the mold cavity before it begins to freeze.
 The cooling rate is the rate at which the liquid or solid is cooling and can be viewed as the slope of the
cooling curve at any given point.

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  The thermal arrest is the plateau in the cooling curve that occurs during the solidification of a
material with fixed melting point. At this temperature, the energy or heat being removed from the
mold comes from the latent heat of fusion that is being released during the solidification process
 The time from the start of pouring to the end of solidification is known as the total solidification time
 If the metal or alloy being cast does not have a distinct melting point, such as the one shown in
Figure-4, solidification will occur over a range of temperatures. The liquidus temperature is the lowest
temperature where the material is all liquid, and the solidus temperature is the highest temperature
where it is all solid. The region between the liquidus and solidus temperatures is known as the
freezing range. The onset and termination of solidification appear as slope changes in the cooling
curve.

FIGURE 4 Phase diagram and

companion cooling curve for an
alloy with a freezing range. The
slope changes indicate the onset
and termination of solidification.

 PREDICTION OF SOLIDIFICATION TIME: CHVORINOV’S RULE:

Chvorinov’s rule, which states that the total solidification time, ts, can be computed by:

n
ts = B (V/A) where n = 1.5 to 2.0 where,
 ts, is the time from pouring to the completion of solidification.
 V is the volume of the casting;
 A is the surface area through which heat is extracted; and
 B is the mold constant.
© The mold constant, B, incorporates the characteristics of the metal being cast (heat capacity and heat of
fusion), the mold material (heat capacity and thermal conductivity), the mold thickness, initial mold
temperature, and the amount of superheat.
© Test specimens can be cast to determine the value of B for a given mold material, casting material, and
condition of casting. This value can then be used to compute the solidification times for other castings
made under the same conditions.
© Different cooling rates and solidification times can produce substantial variation in the structure and
properties of the resulting casting. Die casting, for example, uses water cooled metal molds, and the
faster cooling produces higher-strength products than sand casting, where the mold material is more
thermally insulating

 THE CAST STRUCTURE

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 The products that result when molten metal is poured into a mold and
permitted to solidify may have as many as three distinct regions or zones.
1. The rapid nucleation that occurs when molten metal contacts the cold mold walls results
in the production of a chill zone, a narrow band of randomly oriented crystals on the
surface of a casting.
2. The favorably oriented crystals continue to grow, producing the long, thin columnar grains
of a columnar zone. The properties of this region are highly directional, since the selection
process has converted the purely random structure of the surface into one of parallel
crystals of similar orientation. (Figure -5a shows a cast structure containing both chill and
columnar zones).
3. In many materials, new crystals then nucleate in the interior of the casting and grow to
produce another region of spherical, randomly oriented crystals, known as the
equiaxed zone figure-5b. Low pouring temperatures, alloy additions, and the addition of
inoculants can be used to promote the formation of this region, whose isotropic properties
(uniform in all directions) are far more desirable than those of columnar grains.

Figure-5 show the different cast structures according to different conditions of initials melting
temperatures, type of mold material, and rate of cooling.

 MOLTEN METAL PROBLEMS

 Castings begin with molten metal, and there are a number of chemical reactions that can occur
between molten metal and its surroundings. These reactions and their products can often lead to
defects in the final casting. Example reaction of metals with oxygen and formation of Oxides.(non metallic
materials and ceramic) known as slag.
 Liquid metals can also contain significant amounts of dissolved gas. When these materials solidify,
the solid structure cannot accommodate the gas, and the rejected atoms form bubbles, or gas

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 porosity within the casting. Figure -6 shows a small demonstration casting that has been made from
aluminum that has been saturated with dissolved hydrogen.

FIGURE -6 Demonstration casting made

from aluminum that has been saturated in
dissolved hydrogen. Note the extensive gas
porosity

 FLUIDITY AND POURING TEMPERATURE:

The ability of a metal to flow and fill a mold, its “runniness,” is known as fluidity, and casting
alloys are often selected for this property. If the metal begins to freeze before it has completely filled the
mold, defects known as misruns and cold shuts are produced. Fluidity affects the minimum section
thickness that can be cast, the maximum length of a thin section, the fineness of detail, and the
ability to fill mold extremities.
 Fluidity is dependent on the composition, freezing temperature, and freezing range of the metal or
alloy as well as the surface tension of oxide films.
 The most important controlling factor, however, is usually the pouring temperature or the amount
of superheat. The higher the pouring temperature, the higher the fluidity
THE ROLE OF THE GATING SYSTEM
When molten metal is poured into a mold, the gating system conveys the material and
delivers it to all sections of the mold cavity figure-7. The speed or rate of metal movement is important as
well as the amount of cooling that occurs while it is flowing.
 Slow filling and high loss of heat can result in misruns and cold shuts.
 Rapid rates of filling, on the other hand, can produce erosion of the gating system and
mold cavity, and might result in the entrapment of mold material in the final casting.
 It is imperative that the cross-sectional areas of the various channels be selected to
regulate flow.
 The shape and length of the channels affect the amount of temperature loss. When
heat loss is to be minimized, short channels with round or square cross sections
(minimum surface area) are the most desirable
 The gates are usually attached to the thickest or heaviest sections of a casting to
control shrinkage and to the bottom of the casting to minimize turbulence and
splashing
 For large castings, multiple gates and runners may be used to introduce
metal to more than one point of the mold cavity.

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 FIGURE -7 typical gating system for a
horizontal parting plane mold, showing
key components involved in controlling
the flow of metal into the mold cavity.

 SOLIDIFICATION SHRINKAGE
Once they enter the mold cavity and begin to cool, most metals and alloys undergo a
noticeable volumetric contraction. Figure 11-11 shows the typical changes experienced by a metal column as
the material goes from superheated liquid to room-temperature solid.
There are three principal stages of shrinkage: (1) shrinkage of the liquid as it cools to the
temperature where solidification begins, (2) solidification shrinkage as the liquid turns into solid, and (3) solid
metal contraction as the solidified material cools to room temperature.
 The amount of liquid metal contraction depends on the coefficient of thermal contraction
(a property of the metal being cast) and the amount of superheat.
 The actual amount of shrinkage varies from alloy to alloy, as shown in Table -1
o Metals and alloys with short freezing ranges, such as pure metals and eutectic alloys, tend to form
large cavities or pipes. This can be avoided by designing the casting to have directional solidification
where freezing begins farthest away from the feed gate or riser and moves progressively toward it.
o Alloys with large freezing ranges have a period of time when the material is in a slushy (liquid plus
solid) condition. As the material cools between the liquidus and solidus, the relative amount of solid
increases and tends to trap small, isolated pockets of liquid. It is almost impossible for additional
liquid to feed into these locations, and the resultant casting tends to contain small but numerous
shrinkage pores dispersed throughout

FIGURE-7 dimensional changes

experienced by a metal column as the
material cools from a superheated liquid to a
room-temperature solid. Note the significant
shrinkage that occurs upon solidification.

Table-1 solidification shrinkage of

some common engineering metals
as % (expressed in percent)

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  RISERS AND RISER DESIGN:
Risers are added reservoirs designed to fill with liquid metal, which is then fed to the casting
as a means of compensating for solidification shrinkage.
 To effectively perform this function, the risers must solidify after the casting.
 If the reverse were true, liquid metal would flow from the casting toward the solidifying riser and
the casting shrinkage would be even greater.
 Hence, castings should be designed to produce directional solidification that sweeps from the
extremities of the mold cavity toward the riser. In this way, the riser can continuously feed molten
metal and will compensate for the solidification shrinkage of the entire mold cavity.figure-8
o Various types of risers are possible. A top riser is one that sits on top of a casting. Because of their
location, top risers have shorter feeding distances and occupy less space within the flask. They give
the designer more freedom for the layout of the pattern and gating system. Side risers are located
adjacent to the mold cavity, displaced horizontally along the parting line. Figure -9 depicts both a top
and a side riser.
o If the riser is contained entirely within the mold, it is known as a blind riser. If it is open to the
atmosphere, it is called an open riser. Blind risers are usually larger than open risers because of the
additional heat loss that occurs where the top of the riser is in contact with mold material
o Live risers (also known as hot risers) receive the last hot metal that enters the mold and generally do
so at a time when the metal in the mold cavity has already begun to cool and solidify. As shown in
Figure -9, top risers are almost always dead risers. Risers that are part of the gating system generally
live risers.

FIGURE -8 A three-tier step-block aluminum

casting made with (top) and without (bottom) a
riser. Note how the riser has moved the shrinkage
void external to the desired casting.

FIGURE -9 Schematic of a sand casting mold,

showing (a) an open-type top riser and (b) a
blind-type side riser. The side riser is a live
riser, receiving the last hot metal to enter the
mold. The top riser is a dead riser, receiving
metal that has flowed through the mold cavity.

 The minimum size of a riser can be calculated from Chvorinov’s rule by setting the total solidification
time for the riser to be greater than the total solidification time for the casting. Since both cavities
receive the same metal and are in the same mold, the mold constant, B, will be the same for both
regions. Assuming that n 2 and that a safe difference in solidification time is 25% (the riser takes 25%
longer to solidify than the casting), we can write this condition as

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As riser’s geometry is generally of cylindrical form surface area A is shown above.

 PATTERNS:
Casting processes can be divided into two basic categories: (1) those for which a new mold must be created
for each casting (the expendable-mold processes) and (2) those that employ a permanent, reusable mold
 Most of the expendable-mold processes begin with some form of reusable pattern—a
duplicate of the part to be cast,

modified dimensionally to reflect both the casting process and the material being
cast.
 Patterns can be made from wood, metal, foam, or plastic, with urethane now being
the material of choice for nearly half of all casting patterns.
 The dimensional modifications that are incorporated into a pattern are called
allowances, and the most important of these is the shrinkage allowance.
o shrinkage allowance:
 Following solidification, a casting continues to contract as it cools to room temperature, the
mount of this contraction being as much as 2% or 1/4 in a foot.

To produce the desired final dimensions, the pattern must be slightly larger than the
room-temperature casting
 The exact amount of this shrinkage compensation, which depends on the metal that is being cast can
be estimated by the equation
 where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion and ΔT is the difference
between the freezing temperature and room temperature
© Typical allowances for some common engineering metals are:

Shrinkage allowances are often incorporated into a pattern through use of special shrink rules—measuring
devices that are larger than a standard rule by an appropriate shrink allowance. For example, a shrink rule for brass
would designate 1 foot at a length that is actually 1 foot 3/16 inch, since the anticipated 1.5% shrinkage will reduce the
length by 3/16 inch. A complete pattern made to shrink rule dimensions will produce a proper size casting after cooling.
 Some casting shapes require an additional allowance for distortion. As shown in figure-10

FIGURE -9 various allowances

incorporated into a casting pattern.

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  METAL CASTING PROCESSES
As we begin to survey the various casting processes, it is helpful to have some form of process
classification. One approach focuses on the molds and patterns and utilizes the following three
categories:
1. Single-use molds with multiple-use patterns
2. Single-use molds with single-use patterns
3. Multiple-use molds casting
Categories 1 and 2 are often combined under the more general heading expendable- mold casting processes.
Sand, plaster, ceramics, or other refractory materials are combined with binders to form the mold.
1-Sand Casting
 Patterns and cores, molds making, operation.
2. Expendable Mold Casting Processes
 shell, expended polystyrene, investment, plaster and ceramic
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
 permanent mold, variation of permanent mold casting, die casting
 Since the casting processes are primarily used to produce metal products, the emphasis of the
casting will be on metal casting.
Metals for Casting:

o Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather than pure metals
o Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of product are better
o Casting alloys can be classified as:
 Ferrous
 Nonferrous
 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron
 Most important of all casting alloys
 Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of all other metals combined
 Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3) white cast iron, (4) malleable
iron, and (5) alloy cast irons
 Typical pouring temperatures 1400Co (2500Fo), depending on composition

 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel

 The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive engineering material
 The capability to create complex geometries makes casting an attractive shaping process
 Difficulties when casting steel:
 Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most other casting metals 1650 Co (3000 Fo)
 At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten metal must be isolated from air
 Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum
 Generally considered to be very castable
 Pouring temperatures low due to low melting temperature of aluminum
 Tm= 660C o(1220 Fo)
 Properties:
 Light weight
 Range of strength properties by heat treatment
 Easy to machine

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 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys
 Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze
 Properties:
o Corrosion resistance
o Attractive appearance
o Good bearing qualities
 Limitation: high cost of copper
 Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades, pump components, ornamental jewelry
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys
 Highly cartable, commonly used in die casting
 Low melting point –melting point of zinc Tm= 419Co (786Fo)
 Good fluidity for ease of casting
 Properties:
o Low creep strength, so castings cannot be subjected to prolonged high stresses
 Solidification of Metals
o Transformation of molten metal back into solid state
o Solidification differs depending on whether the metal is
 A pure element or
 An alloy
 Solidification of Pure Metals
o Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin skin of solid metal is formed at the interface
immediately after pouring
o Skin thickness increases to form a shell around the molten metal as solidification progresses
o Rate of freezing depends on heat transfer into mold, as well as thermal properties of the
metal
Solidification of Pure Metals
Figure 12 Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal,
showing randomly oriented grains of small size near the mold wall, and
large columnar grains oriented toward the center of the casting.

Shrinkage in Solidification
and cooling (Figure 13)
Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting
during solidification and cooling:
(0) starting level of molten metal
immediately after pouring; (1)
reduction in level caused by liquid
contraction during cooling
(dimensional reductions are
exaggerated for clarity)..

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 Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling
Figure -14) reduction in height and formation
of shrinkage cavity caused by solidification
shrinkage; (3) further reduction in height and
diameter due to thermal contraction during
cooling of solid metal (dimensional reductions
are exaggerated for clarity).)..

 Shrinkage Allowance
o Patternmakers account for solidification shrinkage and thermal contraction by making mold
cavity oversized
o Amount by which mold is made larger relative to final casting size is called pattern shrinkage
allowance
o Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so allowances are applied accordingly
 Directional Solidification
o To minimize damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable for regions of the casting most
distant from the liquid metal supply to freeze first and for solidification to progress from these
remote regions toward the riser(s)
o Thus, molten metal is continually available from risers to prevent shrinkage voids
o The term directional solidification describes this aspect of freezing and methods by which it is
controlled

 Achieving Directional Solidification

o Desired directional solidification is achieved using Chvorinov's Rule to design the casting itself, its
orientation in the mold, and the riser system that feeds it
o Locate sections of the casting with lower V/Aratios away from riser, so freezing occurs first in these
regions, and the liquid metal supply for the rest of the casting remains open
o Chills-internal or external heat sinks that cause rapid freezing in certain regions of the casting

Classification of solidification processes

.
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 Two Categories of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes-mold is sacrificed to remove part
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
o Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to make mold rather than casting itself

2. Permanent mold processes-mold is made of metal and can be used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
o Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold

 Open Molds and Closed Molds:

Figure-11 Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of
the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex
and requires a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity.
 Foundry Sands
o Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
o Good refractory properties-capacity to endure high temperatures
o Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part
o Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to escape during pouring
o Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to interlocking, compared to round grains
 Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability
 Binders Used with Foundry Sands
o Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
o Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
 Organic resins(e g , phenolic resins)
o Inorganic binders(e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
o Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to increase strength and/or permeability
 PROPERTIES OF MOUDLING SAND
o PERMEABILITY-give way gases to escape, water and steam vapor
o COHESIVENESS-Ability of sand particles to stick together
o ADHESIVENESS –Sand particles must be capable of sticking to other bodies particularly to
molding box. Capable of adhering to another body
o PLASTICITY –acquiring pre-determined shape under pressure and to retain it when the
pressure is removed.
o Collapsibility-Free contraction of mold
o REFRACTORINESS-ability to withstand high heat without breaking down or fusing.
o CHEMICAL RESISTIVITY-sand should not chemically react or combine with molten metal so
that it can be used again and again.
o BINDING PROPERTY-Binder allows sand to flow take up pattern shape
o FLOWABILIY-This is similar to plasticity. It is the ability of sand to take up the desired
shape. Ability to behave like a fluid. Flowability increases as clay and water content
increased.
o Porosity-Allow gas to escape

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  Advantages and Disadvantages
o More intricate geometries are possible with expendable mold processes
o Part shapes in permanent mold processes are limited by the need to open the mold
o Permanent mold processes are more economic in high production operations

Sand Casting Mold

Figure -15 (b) Sand casting mold

 Forming the Mold Cavity

o Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern, which has the shape of the part
o When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity of the packed sand has desired shape of
cast part
o The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal during solidification and
cooling
o Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to maintain its shape
 Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity
o The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of the cast part
o In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces, determined by a core, placed inside the
mold cavity to define the interior geometry of part
o In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand
 Gating System
o Channel through which molten metal flows into cavity from outside of mold
o Consists of a downsprue, through which metal enters a runner leading to the main cavity
o At the top of downsprue, a pouring cup is often used to minimize splash and turbulence as the
metal flows into downsprue
 Riser
o Reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid metal to compensate for shrinkage of the
part during solidification
o The riser must be designed to freeze after the main casting in order to satisfy its function

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 Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
 Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve metallurgical properties
 Making the Sand Mold
o The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern, then separating
the mold into two halves and removing the pattern
o The mold must also contain gating and riser system
o If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be included in mold
o A new sand mold must be made for each part produced
 Sand Casting Production Sequence
Figure -16 Steps in the production sequence in sand casting. The steps include not only the casting
operation but also pattern-making and mold-making.

 The Pattern
o A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for shrinkage and
machining allowances in the casting
o Pattern materials:
o Wood-common material because it is easy to work, but it warps
o Metal- more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
o Plastic-compromise between wood and metal
o Types of Patterns Figure -17 Types of patterns used in sand casting:
o (a) solid pattern
o (b) split pattern
o (c) match-plate pattern
o (d) cope and drag pattern

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 Core
o Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
o It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
o The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity and the core to form the
casting's external and internal surfaces
o May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during pouring, called chaplets.
Core in Mold

Figure -18 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible chaplet design,
(c) casting with internal cavity.

 Desirable Mold Properties

o Strength -to maintain shape and resist erosion
o Permeability-to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids in sand
o Thermal stability-to resist cracking on contact with molten metal
o Collapsibility-ability to give way and allow casting to shrink without cracking the casting
o Reusability-can sand from broken mold be reused to make other molds.
 Types of Sand Mold
o Green-sand molds-mixture of sand, clay, and water;
 ―Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring
o Dry-sand mold-organic binders rather than clay
 And mold is baked to improve strength
o Skin-dried mold-drying mold cavity surface of a green-sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm,
using torches or heating lamps
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 Expendable Mold Processes
oShell Molding
oExpanded Polystyrene Process
oInvestment Casting
oPlaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
o Shell Molding: Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand held together by
thermosetting resin binder.

Figure -18 Steps in shell-molding:

(1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag metal
pattern is heated and placed over a box
containing sand mixed with thermosetting
resin.

Figure 19 Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell;
(3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop away;

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to
complete curing; (5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern;

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 Figure 21 Steps in shell-molding:
(6) Two halves of the shell mold are
assembled, supported by sand or
metal shot in a box, and pouring is
accomplished; (7) the finished
casting with sprue removed.

 Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages of shell molding:
o Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal and better surface finish
o Good dimensional accuracy-machining often not required
o Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
o Can be mechanized for mass production
o Special cores may be eliminated
o Thin sections can be cast.
o Permeability of the shell is high and no gas inclusions
o Mechanisms is readily is possible, it is simple process
 Disadvantages
o Patterns are very expensive
o Size is limited. Up to 200kg may be used.
o Highly complicated shape cannot be produced.
o More sophisticated equipment is needed for handling.
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
o Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam patternwhich vaporizes when molten metal is
poured into mold
 Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process, evaporative-foam process, and full-mold
process
o Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
o Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections.

Expanded Polystyrene Process

Figure -21-1 Expanded polystyrene casting

process: (1) pattern of polystyrene is coated
with refractory compound;

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 Figure 21-2 Expanded polystyrene
casting process: (2) foam pattern is
placed in mold box, and sand is
compacted around the pattern;

Figure 21-3 Expanded polystyrene casting process: (3) molten

metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms the
pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold, the
polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid,
thus the resulting mold cavity is filled.;

 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:
o Pattern need not be removed from the mold
o Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two mold halves are not required as in a conventional
green-sand mold
 Disadvantages:
o A new pattern is needed for every casting
o Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on cost of producing patterns
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
pplications:
o Mass production of castings for automobile engines
o Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting operation
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)
o A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make mold, after which wax is
melted away prior to pouring molten metal
o "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of "invest" -"to cover completely," which
refers to coating of refractory material around wax pattern
o It is a precision casting process -capable of producing castings of high accuracy and intricate
detail

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 Figure- 22 Steps in investment casting:
(1) wax patterns are produced;
(2) Several patterns are attached to a
sprue to form a pattern tree

Figure -23 Steps in investment casting:

(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin
layer of refractory material, (4) the full
mold is formed by covering the coated
tree with sufficient refractory material to
make it rigid

Figure - Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the wax
and permit it to drip out of the cavity, (6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is
poured, and it solidifies: (7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting and the parts are separated
from the sprue

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 Advantages
o Complex shapes which are difficult to produce by any other method are possible
o Very fine details and thin section scan be produced
o Very close tolerance and better finish can be produced
o Very little or no machining required
o Since no parting line, dimensions across it would not affect
 Disadvantages
o Size is limited to weight of the casting
o More expensive process because manual labor is required
Plaster Mold Casting*
o Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of Paris (gypsum -CaSO4-2H2O)
o In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured over plastic or metal pattern and
allowed to set
o Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact with water
o Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing its fine details and good surface finish
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages of plaster mold casting:
o Good accuracy and surface finish
o Capability to make thin cross-sections
 Disadvantages:
o Mold must be baked to remove moisture, which can cause problems in casting
o Mold strength is lost if over-baked
o Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so limited to lower melting point alloys
 Ceramic Mold Casting*
o Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is made of refractory ceramic material that
can withstand higher temperatures than plaster
o Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other high-temperature alloys
o Applications similar to those of plaster mold casting except for the metals cast
o Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also similar
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes
o Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new mold is required for every casting
o In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many times
o The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting
 The Basic Permanent Mold Process
o Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for easy, precise opening and closing
o Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are commonly made of steel or cast iron
o Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures

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 Figure 24- Steps in permanent mold
casting: (1) mold is preheated and
coated

Figure 25 Steps in
permanent mold casting:
(2) cores (if used) are
inserted and mold is
closed, (3) molten metal
is poured into the mold,
where it solidifies.

 Advantages and Limitations

 Advantages of permanent mold casting:
o Good dimensional control and surface finish
o More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings
are stronger
o Economical for large production
o Inserts can be readily cast in place
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold
 Applications of Permanent Mold Casting
o Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume production and can be automated
accordingly
o Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and missiles
o Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast iron
 Die Casting
o A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected into mold cavity under high
pressure
o Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened and part is removed
o Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die casting

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 o Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavityis what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes
 Die Casting Machines
Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and keep them closedwhile liquid metal is
forced into cavity

 Two main types:

1. Hot-chamber machine
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
o Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal under high pressure into the die
o High production rates -500 parts per hour not uncommon
o Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
o Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium Cold-chamber machine

Figure -26-1 Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten
metal flows into the chamber
Figure -26-2 Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into
die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
o Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external melting container, and a piston injects
metal under high pressure into die cavity
o High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
o Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
o Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
 Molds for Die Casting
o Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or merging steel
o Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
o Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens
o Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking
 Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages of die casting:
o Economical for large production quantities
o Good accuracy and surface finish
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 o Thin sections are possible due to injection of metal
o Small thickness can be easily filled
o Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to casting
o Longer die life -30,000 pieces
o Better mechanical properties
 Disadvantages:
o Generally limited to metals with low melting points.
o Part geometry must allow removal from die.

Figure-27 -1Closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber
Figure-27 -2 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification.

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 Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a casting operation,
resulting in quality defects in the product

o The defects can be classified as follows:

 General defects common to all casting processes
 Defects related to sand casting process
Common Casting Defects

General Defects: Misrun General Defects: Cold Shut

Figure -28 Some common defects in castings:
(a) misrun .A casting that has solidified before
completely filling mold cavity
Figure -29 Some common defects in castings: (b)
cold shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a
lack of fusion due to premature freezing

General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity Figure -31

General Defects: Cold Shot Figure -30 Depression in surface or internal void caused by
Metal splatters during pouring and solid solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
globules form and become entrapped in molten metal available in last region to freeze
casting

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  Sand Casting Defects

Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow Figure -32

Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes Figure -33
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release
Formation of many small gas cavities at or
of mold gases during pouring
slightly below surface of casting

Sand Casting Defects: Penetration Figure -34
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may
penetrate into sand mold or core, causing
casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand
grains and metal
Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift Figure -35
A step in cast product at parting line caused
by sidewise relative displacement of cope and
drag

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