BEHAVIORISM PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES 

present environmental circumstances, we would 

Consequences affect behavior.  be able to predict the organism’s next response 
  with 100% accuracy. 
Assumptions in Behaviorism  7. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious 
Researchers looked primarily at behavior, something  ones. 
they could easily see and objectively describe and  - Preference for conciseness in explaining 
measure.  learning behavior 
1. Principles of learning should apply equally to different   
behaviors and to a variety of animal species  CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 
(​equipotentiality​)  Ivan Pavlov ​(Russian physiologist) 
- Apply principles derived primarily from research  ● Change in behavior as a result of experience; 
with animals to human learning  learning had taken place 
- In discussions, the term organism is often used  1. A​ neutral stimulus ​(NS) is identified—a stimulus 
to refer generically to a member of any species  to which the organism doesn’t respond in any 
2. Learning processes can be studied most objectively  noticeable way. 
when the focus of study is on stimuli and responses  2. The neutral stimulus is presented just before 
(​S-R Psychology​)  another stimulus—one that does lead to a 
- Focusing on stimuli in the environment and  response. This second stimulus is called an 
responses that organisms make to those  unconditioned stimulus ​(UCS), and the 
stimuli—psychologists can maintain objectivity.  response to it is called an u ​ nconditioned 
3. Internal processes tend to be excluded or minimized  response​ (UCR), because the organism 
in theoretical explanations.   responds to the stimulus unconditionally, 
- These behaviorists describe an organism as a  without having had to learn to do so. 
black box, with stimuli impinging on the box and  3. After being paired with an unconditioned 
responses emerging from it but with the things  stimulus, the previously neutral stimulus now 
going on inside it remaining a mystery  elicits a response and thus is no longer “neutral.” 
- Neobehaviorists i​ nsist on considering factors  The NS has become a c​ onditioned stimulus 
within the organism (motivation, strength of S-R  (CS) to which the organism has learned a 
associations) as well as cognitive processes and  conditioned response​ (CR). 
environmental events  ● Classical conditioning typically occurs when two 
4. Learning involves behavior change  stimuli are presented at a ​ pproximately the 
- we can determine that learning has occurred  same time.  
only when we see it reflected in someone’s  ○ One of these stimuli is an US that elicits 
actions.  a UR. The second stimuli, through its 
- What influences the performance of learning  association with the US, becomes the 
rather than what influences learning itself  CS and elicits the CR. 
(contemporary view)  ● Classical conditioning is most likely to occur 
5. Organisms are born as blank slates.  when the conditioned stimulus is presented j​ ust 
- Organisms aren’t born with predispositions to  before the unconditioned stimulus​. Classical 
behave in particular ways  conditioning is thus a form of signal​ learning. 
- Because each organism has a unique set of  The conditioned stimulus serves as a signal the 
environmental experiences, so, too, will it  unconditioned stimulus is coming. 
acquire its own unique set of behaviors.  ● Classical conditioning usually involves the 
6. Learning is largely the result of environmental events  learning of i​ nvoluntary responses. W ​ hen we 
- Rather than use the term learning, behaviorists  say that a stimulus e ​ licits​ a response, we mean 
often speak of conditioning: An organism is  that the stimulus brings about a response 
conditioned by environmental events.  automatically, without the learner having much 
- Beyond the organism’s control  choice in the matter. 
- Some early behaviorists like B ​ .F. Skinner ​were  ● In most cases, the conditioned response is 
determinists: They proposed that if we were to  similar to the unconditioned response, with the 
have complete knowledge of an organism’s  two responses differing primarily in terms of 
inherited behaviors, past experiences, and  which stimulus initially elicits the response and 
 sometimes in terms of the strength of the  4. Spontaneous recovery 
response.  - The reappearance of a conditioned response 
  after it had been previously extinguished 
Classical Conditioning in Human Learning  - Recurrence of a conditioned response when a 
● Classical conditioning helps us understand how  period of extinction is followed by a rest period. 
people learn a variety of ​involuntary responses​,  - Will recur if extinction only happened in 
especially responses associated with  one context 
physiological functioning or emotion.  5. Generalization 
● Classical conditioning also provides a useful  - When learners respond to other stimuli in the 
perspective for explaining some of the f​ ears and  same way they respond to a conditioned 
phobias ​people develop  stimulus 
○ Little Albert   - The more similar a stimulus is to the CS, the 
● Attitudes, ​too, can be partly the result of  greater the probability of generalization 
classical conditioning  6. Stimulus Discrimination 
● Sometimes the conditioned response is quite  - Differentiation between CS that is not followed 
different from an unconditioned response.  by UCS and CS that is followed by UCS 
○ Example: people with addictions, stimuli  - Stimulus discrimination occurs when one 
presented prior to these drugs —  stimulus (the CS+) is presented in conjunction 
perhaps a light, a tone, or the  with an unconditioned stimulus, and another 
environmental context more generally  stimulus (the CS–) is presented in the absence 
— begin to elicit an opposite response  of the UCS. 
(e.g., increased pain sensitivity or  7. Higher-Order Conditioning 
hyperglycemia), presumably to prepare  - Conditioned stimulus–response associations 
for—in this case, to counteract—the  sometimes piggyback on one another. 
pharmaceutical stimuli that will soon  (1) First, a neutral stimulus (NS1) becomes a 
follow  conditioned stimulus (CS1) by being paired with 
  an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), 
Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning  (2) So that it soon elicits a conditioned response 
1. Associative Bias  (CR) 
- Associations between certain kinds of stimuli  (3) Next, a second neutral stimulus (NS2) is paired 
are more likely to be made than are associations  with CS1, and it, too, begins to elicit a 
between others  conditioned response; 
- Example: food is more likely to become a CS  (4) That second stimulus has also become a 
associated with nausea  conditioned stimulus (CS2). 
2. Importance of Contingency  - Some fears may have their roots in higher-order 
- There must be c​ ontiguity b ​ etween two stimuli  conditioning 
- CS must be presented before the UCS  - Higher-order conditioning might also explain 
- Classical conditioning is less likely to occur if CS  certain attitudes we acquire toward particular 
and UCS are presented at the same time and  people, objects, or situations 
rarely if CS is presented after UCS   
- Sometimes temporal proximity is not as  Eliminating Unproductive Classically Conditioned 
necessary  Responses 
3. Extinction  ● The phenomenon of spontaneous recovery 
- Repeated presentations of the conditioned  suggests that a learned CS–CR connection 
stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus led  doesn’t get unlearned—the association is still 
to successively weaker and weaker conditioned  lingering somewhere, waiting to pop up at 
responses.  potentially inopportune moments 
- May not happen because humans tend to avoid  ● Existing CS-CR association needs to be 
a stimulus they’ve learned to fear  overpowered by a different, ​stronger ​one. 
- May also not happen because of spontaneous  ● Counterconditioning 
recovery  (1) A new response that is i​ ncompatible 
  with the existing conditioned response 
 is chosen (cannot be performed at the  ● Unfortunately, undesirable behaviors can be 
same time, often an opposite emotional  reinforced just as easily as desirable ones.  
reaction)  Important Conditions for Operant Conditioning to 
(2) A stimulus that elicits the incompatible  Occur 
response must be identified; for  1. The reinforcer must follow the response. 
example, candy elicited a “happy”  “Reinforcers” that precede a response rarely 
response for Peter.  have an effect on the response. 
(3) The stimulus that elicits the new  2. Ideally, the reinforcer should follow 
response is presented to the individual,  immediately. A ​ reinforcer tends to reinforce the 
and the conditioned stimulus eliciting  response that immediately preceded it. 
the undesirable conditioned response is  3. The reinforcer must be contingent on the 
gradually i​ ntroduced into the situation.  response.​ Ideally, the reinforcer should be 
● Programmed instruction  presented only when the desired response has 
● Systematic desensitization   occurred—that is, when the reinforcer is 
  contingent on the response. 
   
OPERANT CONDITIONING  Contrasting Operant Conditioning with Classical 
Edward Thorndike: learning consists of trial-and-error  Conditioning 
behavior and a gradual “stamping in” of some behaviors  ● In both classical conditioning and operant 
and “stamping out” of others as a result of the  conditioning, an organism shows an increase in 
consequences that various behaviors bring  a particular response. 
  For classical conditioning:  
Thorndike’s Law of Effect:  Classical conditioning results from the ​pairing of two 
Responses to a situation that are followed by  stimul​i: an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and an initially 
satisfaction are strengthened; responses that are  neutral stimulus that becomes a conditioned stimulus 
followed by discomfort are weakened.  (CS). The organism learns to make a new, conditioned 
Revised Law of Effect:   response (CR) to the CS, thus acquiring a CS→CR 
As a result of experiencing an annoying state of affairs,  association​. The CR is automatic and involuntary, such 
a learner may engage in certain other behaviors (e.g.,  that the organism has virtually no control over what it is 
crying or running away) that interfere with performance  doing. Behaviorists typically say that the CS e ​ licits​ the 
of the punished response.  CR. 
  For operant conditioning:  
B.F. Skinner  Operant conditioning results ​when a response is 
● Skinner proposed that organisms acquire  followed by a reinforcing stimulus​ (we’ll use the 
behaviors that are followed by certain  symbol SRf). Rather than acquiring an S→R association 
consequences.  (as in classical conditioning), the organism comes to 
● Skinner box  associate a response with a particular consequence, 
○ Operant conditioning: A ​ response that  thus acquiring an R ​ →SRf association​. The learned 
is followed by a reinforcer is  response is a​ voluntary​ one e ​ mitted​ by the organism, 
strengthened and therefore more likely  with the organism having complete control over 
to occur again.  whether the response occurs. Skinner coined the term 
○ responses that are reinforced tend to  operant to reflect the fact that the organism voluntarily 
increase in frequency, and this  operates on—and, in doing so, has an effect on—the 
increase—a change in behavior—means  environment. 
that learning is taking place.  (1) Classical conditioning occurs when two stimuli 
● Reinforcer: ​A reinforcer is a stimulus or event  are paired; Operant conditioning occurs when a 
that increases the frequency of a response it  response is followed by a reinforcing stimulus 
follows. (The act of following a response with a  (2) Association isn acquired when CS elicits CR 
reinforcer is called reinforcement.)  (Classical) and when response is strengthened 
○ Transituational generality: Any single  by reinforcer (Operant) 
reinforces is likely to increase many 
different behaviors in diff. Situations 
 (3) Nature of response: involuntary for classical i.e.  ● Material reinforcers. ​A material reinforcer (also 
elicited by stimulus, voluntary for operant i.e.  known as a tangible reinforcer) is an actual 
emitted by organism  object, such as food or a toy. Material reinforcers 
  can be highly effective in changing behavior, 
Forms That Reinforcement Might Take  especially for animals and young children. 
Two general categories of reinforces: p ​ rimary vs.  Desired objects have a tendency to distract 
secondary; T ​ wo general forms: p ​ ositive vs. negative  students and thus may be counterproductive 
  over the long run. 
Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers  ● Social reinforcers.​ A social reinforcer is a 
● A ​primary reinforcer​ satisfies a built-in, perhaps  gesture or sign (e.g., a smile, attention, or praise) 
biology-based, need or desire.  that one person gives another, usually to 
○ Essential for physiological well-being  communicate positive regard. In classroom 
e.g. food, water, warmth  settings, teacher attention, approval, and praise 
○ Enhance social cohesiveness thus  can be powerful reinforcers. Attention or 
indirectly enhance one’s chances of  approval from peers can be highly reinforcing as 
survival e.g. physical affection and  well. 
smiles  ● Activity reinforcers​ Speaking 
○ There are individual differences  non-behavioristically, an activity reinforcer is an 
regarding the extent to which certain  opportunity to engage in a favorite activity. 
consequences serve as primary  ○ David Premack (1959, 1963) discovered 
reinforcers e.g. sex and drugs  that people will often perform one 
● A ​secondary reinforcer​, also known as a  activity if doing so enables them to 
conditioned reinforcer, is a previously neutral  perform another. His Premack principle 
stimulus that has become reinforcing to a  for activity reinforcers is this: W
​ hen an 
learner through repeated association with  opportunity to make a normally 
another reinforcer.  high-frequency response is contingent 
○ E.g. praise, good grades, money  on first making a normally 
How do secondary reinforcers take on reinforcing value?  low-frequency response, the 
● Classical conditioning: A previously neutral  high-frequency response will increase 
stimulus is paired with an existing reinforcer  the frequency of the low-frequency 
(UCS) that elicits a feeling of satisfaction (UCR)  response. 
and begins to elicit that same sense of  ● Token reinforcers.​ A token reinforcer is a small, 
satisfaction (CR)  insignificant item (e.g., poker chip, specially 
● Cognitive: An alternative perspective is that  marked piece of colored paper, or sticker on a 
secondary reinforcers provide information that a  record-keeping chart) that a learner can 
primary reinforcer might subsequently be  accumulate and eventually use to “purchase” 
coming (the learner seeks information about the  desired objects or privileges. 
environment rather than simply responding)  ● Positive feedback.​ In some instances, material 
The relative influences of primary and secondary  and social reinforcers improve classroom 
reinforcers in our lives probably depend a great deal on  behavior and lead to better learning of academic 
economic circumstances. When such biological  skills because they communicate a message that 
necessities as food and warmth are scarce, these  learners are performing well or making 
primary reinforcers—as well as secondary reinforcers  significant progress. Such positive feedback is 
closely associated with them (e.g., money)—can be  clearly effective in bringing about desired 
major factors in reinforcing behavior.  behavior changes 
  ○ Feedback is especially likely to be 
Positive Reinforcement  effective when it communicates what 
Involves the presentation of a stimulus after the  students have and haven’t learned and 
response.   when it gives them guidance about how 
Extrinsic reinforcers ​are provided by the outside  they might improve their performance 
environment whereas ​intrinsic reinforcers ​come from 
within the learner. 
 ○ Not strictly behaviorist since learners  - Response-reinforcement contingencies should 
need to be thinking about the  be clearly specified 
information they receive   
● Intrinsic reinforcers. ​Oftentimes learners  2. Shaping 
engage in certain behaviors not because of any  - To address how the situation in which a learner 
external consequences but because of the  lacks either the skill or the inclination to behave 
internal good feelings—the intrinsic  in a particular way (to make a response), we 
reinforcers— that such responses bring. Feeling  begin by reinforcing the first response that in 
successful after solving a difficult puzzle, feeling  any way approximates the desired behavior and 
proud after returning a valuable item to its  then continue to reinforce it until the learner is 
rightful owner, and feeling a sense of relief after  making that first response fairly frequently. 
successfully completing a challenging  - In other words, shaping is a process of gradually 
assignment.  reinforcing closer and closer approximations to 
○ Doesn’t fit comfortably within traditional  the behavior we ultimately want to see. Hence 
behaviorism which focuses on external,  this procedure is sometimes called ​successive 
observable events.   approximations. 
Positive feedback and the intrinsic reinforcement that   
such feedback brings are probably the most productive  3. Chaining 
forms of reinforcement in the classroom.   - Learners can also acquire a sequence of 
  responses through shaping. 
  - process of first reinforcing just one response, 
Negative Reinforcement  then reinforcing two responses in a row, then 
Increases a response through the removal of a stimulus,  reinforcing a sequence of three, and so on 
usually an aversive or unpleasant one  - Involves lengthy, complex behaviors 
● Negative simply means that something is being   
taken away  4. Extinction 
● Removal of guilt or anxiety can be an extremely  - occurs when a response decreases in frequency 
powerful negative reinforcer for human beings  because it no longer leads to reinforcement 
● Negative reinforcement probably explains many  - Extinction burst: In the initial stages of the 
of the escape behaviors that humans and  extinction process, we may sometimes see a 
nonhumans learn.  brief increase in the behavior being 
● Making excuses (“My dog ate my homework!”)  extinguished. We may also see increased 
and engaging in inappropriate classroom  variability in the kinds of responses that are 
behaviors provide the means of escaping  exhibited. 
tedious or frustrating academic assignments   
● Some escape responses are productive ones, of  Effects of Reinforcement Schedules 
course; for instance, many teenagers acquire  Continuous reinforcement: Every response is reinforced. 
tactful ways of rebuffing unwanted sexual  Continuously reinforced behaviors extinguish rapidly. 
advances or leaving a party where alcohol or  Intermittent reinforcement: Only some instances of 
street drugs are in abundance.  desired response are reinforced and others are not. 
  Intermittently reinforced responses are extinguished 
  more slowly.  
Common Phenomena in Operant Conditioning  Reinforcement Schedules for Intermittent Reinforcement 
1. Superstitious Behavior  1. Ratio schedules. ​A ratio schedule is one in which 
- Randomly administered reinforcement tends to  reinforcement occurs after a certain number of 
reinforce whatever response has occurred  responses have been made. 
immediately beforehand, and a learner will  ● Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule: a reinforcer is 
increase that response  presented after a certain constant number of 
- Non-behaviorist way of describing the learning  responses have occurred. 
of a superstitious behavior is that the learner  ● Variable-ratio (VR) schedule: reinforcement is 
thinks that the response and reinforcement are  presented after a particular but continually 
related when in fact they aren’t.  changing number of responses have been made. 
 This kind of schedule is described by the  Differential Schedules.
average number of responses needed to obtain  ● When a particular rate of responding is desired, 
reinforcement.   a differential schedule of reinforcement is 
○ The occurrence of reinforcement in a VR  appropriate: A specific number of responses 
schedule is somewhat unpredictable.  occurring within a specific time interval leads to 
Thus, responses that are maintained on  reinforcement. 
a VR schedule can be highly resistant to  For example, a differential rate of high 
extinction—there’s always a chance that  responding (DRH) schedule provides 
the next response might pay off  reinforcement only when a specific high number 
○ Example: slot machine, telemarketing   of responses—or even more responses than 
● One strategy for preventing extinction of a  that—have occurred within a particular period of 
desired behavior is to use a series of ratio  time. 
schedules that increasingly stretch out the  ○ Because a DRH schedule requires many 
reinforcement-to-response ratio  responses in a short amount of time, a 
  high response rate is typical. 
2. Interval schedules. A​ n interval schedule is one in  A differential rate of low responding (DRL) 
which reinforcement is contingent upon the first  schedule reinforces the first response after a 
response a learner makes after a certain time interval  certain length of time in which the learner has 
has elapsed.  made either very few responses or no responses 
● Fixed-interval (FI) schedule: T ​ he time interval  at all. 
remains constant, regardless of how many  ○ It’s important to note, however, that 
responses were made.  learning the appropriate response 
○ produces a unique “scallop” pattern of  pattern for a DRL schedule can take a 
responding: After reinforcement occurs,  considerable amount of time, in part 
the response rate tapers way off until  because it may require someone not to 
the end of the time interval approaches,  perform a behavior that has been 
at which point the rate rapidly increases  previously reinforced 
● Variable-Interval (VI) schedule: ​the length of   
the time interval before reinforcement changes  Effects of Antecedent Stimuli and Responses in 
somewhat unpredictably from one occasion to  Operant Conditioning 
the next, identified by the average time interval  In general, some stimuli and responses, known as 
○ Example: checking one’s email inbox.  antecedent stimuli and antecedent responses, set the 
You occasionally need to check your  stage for certain behaviors to follow and, perhaps, for 
in-box in order to get reinforcement (i.e.,  other behaviors not to follow. 
desired messages), but checking it a  1. Cueing 
lot—say, every 5 to 10 minutes—won’t  ● Organisms can learn that a particular response 
increase the amount of email  leads to reinforcement only when a 
reinforcement you receive.  discriminative stimulus​ is present. It increases 
○ Example: Pop quiz  the probability that the response will be 
○ Response pattern produced is a slow,  followed by reinforcement. (S+ R) -> S​Rf  
steady rate of responding. The longer  ● When an organism is more likely to make 
the average time interval until  certain responses in the presence of certain 
reinforcement, the slower the response  stimuli, behaviorists say that the organism is 
rate will be.   under ​stimulus control. 
  ● Cueing or prompting: providing additional 
For both ratio and interval schedules, variable schedules  discriminative stimuli to let learners know how 
lead to steadier response rates and greater resistance to  to behave 
extinction than fixed schedules do, probably because of  2. Setting Events 
the unpredictability of reinforcement: There’s always the  ● Some behaviorists talk not about specific stimuli 
possibility that the next response will pay off.  but instead about complex environmental 
  conditions— setting events—under which 
  certain behaviors are most likely to occur 
3. Generalization  pre-aversive stimuli through systematic 
● When a learner has learned to respond in a  desensitization.  
certain way in the presence of one stimulus (the   
S+), it may respond in the same way in the   
presence of other stimuli—a phenomenon called   
generalization.  PUNISHMENT 
● This tendency to generalize more readily as  Early research by both Thorndike (1932a, 1932b) and 
stimuli become more similar to the original  Skinner (1938) indicated that aversive consequences 
discriminative stimulus is  were unlikely to reduce the behaviors they followed. 
● known as a generalization gradient  However, a good deal of subsequent research has 
  revealed that certain consequences can be effective in 
4. Stimulus Discrimination  reducing undesirable responses. ​As a result, many 
● involves learning that a response will be  behaviorists have revived the “punishment” part of 
reinforced in the presence of one stimulus (S+)  Thorndike’s original law of effect, asserting that 
but not in the presence of another stimulus  responses f​ ollowed by an unpleasant state of affairs 
(which we’ll symbolize as S−)  are, in fact, ​weakened. 
5. Behavioral Momentum  Instrumental conditioning: ​the behavior-increasing 
● In many cases learners are more likely to make  effect of reinforcement (operant conditioning) and the 
desired responses if they are already making  behavior-suppressing effect of punishment 
similar responses—a phenomenon known as  Most behaviorists define punishment in terms of its 
behavioral momentum  effect on behavior: 
  ● Punishment I: i​ nvolves the presentation of a 
  stimulus, typically an aversive one—perhaps a 
Avoidance Learning  scolding or a failing grade. 
In general, ​avoidance learning​ is the process of learning  ● Punishment II: i​ nvolves the removal of a 
to stay away from an a ​ versive stimulus​—perhaps one  stimulus, usually a pleasant one; examples are 
that causes pain, anxiety, or frustration. For avoidance  monetary fines for misbehaviors (because 
learning to occur, a learner must have some sort of  money is being taken away) and loss of 
pre-aversive stimulus​, a cue signaling the advent of the  privileges 
aversive stimulus.  Both negative reinforcement and Punishment I involve 
1. Active avoidance learning: the learner deliberately  aversive stimuli. 
makes a response to avoid an aversive event e.g.  ● With negative reinforcement, the aversive 
studying  stimulus stops when the response is made. 
2. Passive avoidance learning: people learn that not  ● With Punishment I, however, the aversive 
behaving in a certain way allows them to avoid an  stimulus begins when the response is made. 
aversive event.  ● The termination of an aversive stimulus 
● May involve both operant and classical  negatively reinforces a response; the initiation of 
conditioning  an aversive stimulus punishes a response. 
○ Classical conditioning: learner learns to   
fear pre-aversive stimulus because of  Potential Effective Forms of Punishment 
contingency with aversive stimulus  1. Verbal reprimands. 
○ Operant conditioning: avoidance  - Most effective when they’re immediate, brief, 
response leads to negative  and unemotional.  
reinforcement  - Tend to work best when spoken quietly and in 
● Avoidance behaviors are hard to extinguish.  close proximity to the person being punished, 
● Undoubtedly the best way to deal with  perhaps because they’re less likely to draw the 
avoidance behaviors in the classroom is to  attention of peers 
prevent them from being learned in the first  - Should communicate the the individual is 
place.  capable of better behavior 
● A second alternative is to extinguish any  2. Restitution and overcorrection 
classically conditioned fear responses to  - involve requiring learners to take actions that 
correct the results of their misdeeds 
 - Restitution: a misbehaving individual must  1. Physical punishment 
return the environment to the same state of  - Mild physical punishment (e.g., giving a slap on 
affairs that it was in before the misbehavior;  the wrist or gentle spanking) may sometimes be 
good example of a logical consequence, in  the only means of keeping very young children 
which the punishment fits the crime  from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors. 
- Restitutional overcorrection: the punished  - most experts advise against physical 
individual must make things better than they  punishment for school-age children; 
were beforehand  furthermore, its use in the classroom is illegal in 
- Positive-practice overcorrection: involves having  many places 
an individual repeat an action, but this time  - can lead to such undesirable behaviors as 
doing it correctly, perhaps in an exaggerated  resentment of a teacher, inattention to or 
fashion  avoidance of school tasks, lying, aggression, 
- In some cases, these techniques can be overly  vandalism, and truancy 
time consuming and draw unnecessary  - provides a m ​ odel of aggression​, thus 
attention to the punished behavior. When such  communicating the message that aggression is 
approaches are used, they tend to be more  acceptable 
effective if teachers portray them more as  2. Psychological punishment 
means for helping students acquire appropriate  - Any consequence that seriously threatens a 
behavior than as punishment per se  student’s self-esteem or emotional well-being 
3. Time-out  - Embarrassing remarks and public humiliation 
- a specified period of time in which a person has  can lead to some of the same side effects as 
no opportunity to receive the kinds of  physical punishment (e.g., resentment of a 
reinforcement to which peers have access  teacher, inattention to school tasks, truancy 
- The length of a time-out is usually quite short  from school) and have the potential to inflict 
(perhaps as little as 2 to 10 minutes, depending  long-term psychological harm. 
on the student’s age), but the student isn’t  - By deflating students’ self-perceptions, 
released until inappropriate behavior has  psychological punishment can also lower their 
stopped.  expectations for future performance and their 
4. In-house suspension  motivation to learn and achieve 
- involves removing a student from normal  3. Extra classwork 
classroom activities  - Asking a student to complete makeup work for 
- It often lasts one or more school days and  time missed at school is a reasonable and 
involves close adult supervision in a separate  justifiable request. 
room within the school building.  - Assigning too much schoolwork communicates 
- the supervising teacher acts as a supportive  the message that schoolwork is unpleasant 
resource rather than punisher  4. Out-of-school suspension 
5. Response cost  - Out-of-school suspension—in its most severe 
- involves the withdrawal of a previously earned  form, this becomes permanent expulsion from 
reinforcer  school—is usually not an effective means of 
- ticket for speeding (resulting in the payment of a  changing a student’s behavior 
fine) and the loss of previously earned privileges  - Suspending such students from school puts 
are examples  these students at an even greater disadvantage 
- has been shown to reduce such problems as  and decreases still further their chances for 
off-task behavior, hyperactivity, disruptiveness,  academic success. 
and aggression  - Removal from the environment (if deemed 
- especially effective when it’s combined with  aversive) is negatively reinforcing rather than 
reinforcement for appropriate behavior and  punishing 
when learners don’t lose everything they’ve  5. Missing recess 
earned by making a few missteps within an  - may be a logical consequence for students who 
overall pattern of desirable behavior  fail to complete their schoolwork during regular 
  class time due to off-task behavior 
Ineffective Forms of Punishment 
 - best piece of advice is to withdraw recess  ● Depression effect may be at least partly due to 
privileges infrequently, if at all, and to monitor  negative emotional reactions to the reduction in 
the effectiveness of such a consequence on  reinforcement 
students’ classroom behavior over the long run.  ● Memory for the higher-quality earlier 
  reinforcement must also be involved here, 
Cognition and Motivation in Behaviorist Theories  leading learners to form expectations that they’ll 
● Many theorists now believe that classical  enjoy similar benefits on future occasions 
conditioning often involves the formation of   
associations not between two stimuli but   
between internal mental representations of  APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORIST 
those stimuli.  
PRINCIPLES 
● Furthermore, the conditioned stimulus may 
Classroom Management 
enable an organism to predict— in a decidedly 
● A problem inherent in traditional Western 
mental fashion—that the unconditioned 
education, Skinner suggested, is that teachers 
stimulus is coming 
must teach skills that will be more useful to 
● Classical conditioning doesn’t always involve 
students in the future than in the present; 
cognition, however. To be more precise, it 
○ for instance, persuasive writing skills 
doesn’t necessarily involve conscious 
and algebraic problem-solving skills 
awareness. (e.g. drug addiction) 
aren’t likely to lead to desirable 
● Instrumental conditioning can best be 
consequences in most students’ 
understood when we consider nonobservable 
immediate daily lives. 
mental processes as well as observable stimuli 
● To foster on-task behavior and academic 
and responses 
achievement, then, teachers resort to using 
○ Forming expectations regarding which 
artificial reinforcers—such as praise, grades, and 
responses are likely to lead to 
free time—and typically use them only 
reinforcement or punishment 
inconsistently and long after desired behaviors 
○ Forming mental categories of stimuli 
have occurred. 
○ Paying attention to discriminative 
○ Teachers also find that they need to 
stimuli 
discourage mis behavior. 
○ Mental encoding and finding meaning in 
○ Frequent punishment may lead to 
response-reinforcement relationships 
escape and avoidance tendencies 
○ Seeking information about the 
Creating a Productive Classroom Climate 
environment 
● Students should experience academic tasks in 
● In general, the larger and more appealing a 
contexts that elicit pleasant emotions—feelings 
reinforcer, the faster a response will be learned 
such as enjoyment, enthusiasm, and 
and the more frequently it will be exhibited 
excitement—rather than in contexts that elicit 
● Learners’ present circumstances and 
anxiety, disappointment, or anger. 
motivational states—for instance, whether they 
○ If they associate academics with 
feel hungry or full, or whether they crave 
enjoyment, they’re more likely to pursue 
attention or would rather be alone—are apt to 
it willingly 
affect their preferences for consequences at any 
● In contrast, when particular teachers or 
particular time 
classroom tasks are associated with failure, 
Contrast Effects 
frustration, or humiliation, school and its 
● Elation effect: occurs when the amount of 
curriculum can become sources of excessive 
reinforcement is increased: An organism’s 
anxiety. Some classroom activities—including 
response rate becomes faster than it would be if 
difficult subject matter, oral presentations, and 
the reinforcement had always been at that 
final exams—are especially likely to be 
higher level. 
associated with unpleasant consequences such 
● Depression effect: occurs when the amount of 
as failure or embarrassment, and students may 
reinforcement is decreased: The result is that 
soon become anxious when involved in them 
the response rate becomes slower than it would 
● Educators should have students’ existing 
be if reinforcement had always been that low 
knowledge, skills, and cognitive maturity in mind 
 when they plan curricular activities, provide the  humiliation or ridicule, can indeed reduce 
resources and assistance that students need to  self-esteem. But mild forms of punishment, such 
accomplish classroom tasks successfully, and  as brief time-outs or gentle reprimands, typically 
take special precautions when asking students  have little negative impact on students’ 
to perform difficult activities in front of other  long-term emotional well-being. 
people  5. Eliminating a problem behavior doesn’t 
● Students are more likely to take their errors in  eliminate the underlying cause of the behavior; 
stride if teachers regularly communicate the  thus, other behavioral manifestations of that 
message that occasional missteps are a normal  underlying cause may appear​. This concern is 
outcome of taking on new challenges  sometimes a legitimate one, but on many 
● But when students experience failure too often,  occasions changing a person’s behavior 
school can quickly become a conditioned  indirectly addresses its underlying cause as well. 
stimulus that leads to conditioned responses as   
fear and anxiety.   Genuine Concerns 
Concerns about Using Reinforcement and Punishment  1. Encouraging productive behaviors through 
in Classroom Settings  reinforcement alone ignores cognitive factors 
Myths and Misconceptions about Reinforcement and  that might be interfering with learning​. when 
Punishment   cognitive deficiencies interfere with the 
1. Reinforcement is bribery​. The word bribery  acquisition of a new skill (as insufficient 
implies that the behavior being reinforced is  background knowledge or undiagnosed learning 
somehow illegal or unethical. On the contrary,  disabilities sometimes do), reinforcement alone 
the appropriate use of reinforcement in the  is unlikely to be effective. 
classroom can facilitate the attainment of  2. Reinforcement of some behaviors may 
educational objectives, all of which involve  interfere with maximal learning and 
academically and socially desirable behaviors.  performance over the long run.​ Reinforcement 
2. Reinforcement leads to dependence on  for accomplishing a certain task can focus 
concrete, external rewards for appropriate  students’ attention and effort more on getting 
behavior​. By reinforcing learning, they argue,  the task done quickly, perhaps at a minimally 
teachers foster the expectation that students  acceptable level or perhaps by cheating, rather 
will always get concrete rewards for their  than on learning from the task. 
accomplishments. First, reinforcement doesn’t  3. Extrinsic reinforcement of a personally 
necessarily involve material reinforcers. A  enjoyable behavior can undermine the 
sensible teacher will rely on social reinforcers,  behavior’s intrinsically reinforcing effects. 
activities, feedback, and intrinsic reinforcers  When extrinsic reinforcers are added to the 
(e.g., feelings of success or accomplishment)  picture, engagement in the activities will initially 
instead of material reinforcers whenever  increase in frequency but then substantially 
possible. Second, Second, even when a teacher  decrease once the extrinsic reinforcers are 
must use material reinforcers to change  removed. May be linked to the depression effect. 
behavior, these reinforcers bring about desired  a. Initial interest in an activity is high 
changes that apparently will not occur any other  b. newly offered reinforcers are tangible 
way.  c. people know in advance that such 
3. Reinforcing one student for being good  reinforcers will be coming 
teaches other students to be bad​. All students  d. simply doing the activity— rather than 
should be reinforced for appropriate  doing it well—is reinforced 
behaviors—perhaps with praise, positive  4. A punished behavior isn’t forgotten and may 
feedback, or the intrinsic reinforcers that  return. P​ unishment suppresses a response: It 
success experiences often bring. If a material  makes the response less likely to occur. 
reinforcer such as raisins is the only reinforcer  However, this suppression effect is often only 
that will work with a particular student, it should  temporary: The punished behavior may 
be given discreetly and in private.  eventually reappear, perhaps when the 
4. Punishment reduces self-esteem​. Ongoing  punishment stops or when the punisher is 
psychological punishment, such as public  absent 
 5. Punishment can have negative side effects.  - Contingency contract:​ an agreement 
Several physical punishments can lead to bodily  that specifies certain expectations for 
injury and harsh psychological punishment can  the student (the terminal behavior) and 
lead to a long-term negative impact on a  the consequences of meeting those 
person’s emotional well-being. Even less severe  expectations (the reinforcer) 
punishments can lead to counterproductive  5. Administer reinforcement consistently 
emotional responses. Anger may also lead to  - Continuous reinforcement may be ideal 
aggression. Fear and anxiety that punishment  for disruptive and time-consuming 
elicits can, through classical conditioning,  behavior, will probably save time over 
become associated with context.   the long run 
6. Improving behavior in one context may lead to  - Remote electronic clicker 
more frequent behavior problems in another  6. Gradually shape complex behaviors 
context. W​ hen reinforcement or punishment is  - Each response should be well learned 
consistently used in one situation, overall  before reinforcement proceeds to a 
behavior may improve in that situation but  closer approximation 
decline in others—a phenomenon known as  7. When giving reinforcement publicly, make sure 
behavioral contrast  all students have an opportunity to earn it. 
  - Some students may be unable to 
Using Reinforcement to Increase Productive Behaviors  perform particular behaviors through no 
1. Specify desired behaviors up front.   fault of their own 
- Terminal behavior​, or the desired end  8. Use objective criteria to monitor progress 
result, should be described at the  - assess this change in concrete, objective 
beginning in concrete, observable times,  terms—in particular, by assessing the 
including form and frequency of  frequency of a desired behavior both 
behavior  before and during any systematic use of 
- Establish targets and determine  reinforcement. 
progress towards targets  - The frequency of a behavior before 
- Example: learning responsibility =  reinforcement begins is its ​baseline 
following instructions, bringing books  level 
and supplies, turning in assignments   9. Foster the ability to delay gratification 
- Specify quality as well as quantity  - to forgo immediate pleasures in order to 
2. Identify consequences that are truly reinforcing  earn more satisfying consequences over 
for each learner  the long run 
- Reinforcers that work well for some  - Improves when the waiting period is 
students may not work at all for other  increased gradually and when they 
students  learn strategies for coping with the wait 
- Observe students to see which  10. Once the terminal behavior is occurring 
consequences will have an impact  regularly, gradually wean learners off extrinsic 
3. Make sure that learners will gain more than they  reinforcers 
lose by changing their behavior  - Prevent extinction by: 
- Although they may have learned that a  - Improvements leading to 
certain response will be reinforced,  intrinsic reinforcement 
they’re unlikely to make that response if  - Employing an intermittent 
they have too much to lose or too little  reinforcement schedule to 
to gain by doing so.  maintain behavior indefinitely 
4. Explicitly describe response-consequence   
contingencies  Strategies for Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors 
- Reinforcement is more effective when  1. Extinguishing Responses 
the learner knows exactly what  ● Extinction—making sure that a particular 
consequences will follow various  response no longer leads to reinforcement—can 
behaviors  sometimes be an effective means of eliminating 
inappropriate behavior in the classroom. 
 ● Make sure that reinforcers are not contingent  ● Advised when behavior might harm either 
with inappropriate responses  oneself or others 
● Not entirely dependable:   
○ Hard to identify specific consequence  (1) Choose a punishment that is truly punishing 
that is actually reinforcing a response  without being overly severe 
○ Several reinforcers might be  ● True punishment ​decreases the 
maintaining a response, including some  response it follows rapidly 
that are hard to remove  ● Whatever consequence used should be 
○ Behavior may show extinction burst,  strong enough to discourage the 
increasing in frequency before it begins  behavior without being overly severe 
to decline  ● Harsh ones often lead to undesirable 
○ Extinguished behaviors sometimes  side effects such as resentment, 
show spontaneous recovery  hostility, aggression, and escape 
○ Responses previously reinforced on an  behavior 
intermittent schedule may be resistant  (2) Inform learners ahead of time about what 
to extinction  behaviors will be punished. 
2. Presenting Noncontingent Reinforcement  ● Punishment is most likely to deter 
● Some researchers have found that presenting  behavior when an individual knows that 
desired consequences noncontingently—for  the behavior will lead to punishment 
instance, giving attention at unpredictable times  and what the punishment will be 
or providing regular breaks from difficult tasks—  ● Cueing: r​eminding learners about 
can lead to a decrease in inappropriate behavior.  behaviors that have previously been 
● The disadvantage is that children don’t learn  described as forbidden 
more appropriate behaviors to replace the  ● One mistake is threatening punishment 
counterproductive ones. Might also lead to  without following through. This 
superstitious behavior.   communicates that no 
3. Reinforcing Other Behaviors  response-punishment contingency 
● Identify specific behaviors that will be reinforced  really exists 
while making sure that inappropriate behavior  (3) Describe unacceptable behaviors in clear, 
isn’t reinforced  concrete terms.  
● Learner is reinforced for any response that isn’t  ● Learners should understand exactly 
the undesirable response, including  which responses will result in 
inappropriate behaviors  punishment. 
● Reinforce only desirable alternatives to an  (4) Whenever possible, administer punishment 
undesirable behavior  immediately after the inappropriate behavior 
● Incompatible behaviors: ​Executing one of these  ● As is true for reinforcement, the 
behaviors makes it virtually impossible to  effectiveness of punishment decreases 
engage in the behavior that needs to be reduced  dramatically when it’s delayed. 
or eliminated.  ● The more closely punishment follows a 
● Example: ​Djokovic being reinforced by keeping  misbehavior, the more effective it will 
his frustration under control and standing still,  be. 
chronic litterbug being put in-charge of an  (5) Administer punishment within the context of a 
anti-litter campaign  generally warm, supportive environment 
4. Using Punishment  ● Punishment is more effective when the 
● One likely reason for its prevalence as a  person administering it has previously 
disciplinary measure is that, because it tends to  established a good working relationship 
decrease or eliminate an undesirable behavior  with the learner 
fairly quickly, the punisher is negatively  (6) Explain why the behavior is unacceptable. 
reinforced: By using punishment, he or she gets  ● Punishment is more effective when 
rid of an unwanted state of affairs, at least  reasons are given for why certain 
temporarily.  behaviors cannot be tolerated 
 ● When punishment is accompanied by  Frequently Used ABA Strategies 
reasoning, the immediacy of  1. Behaviors that are the focus of an intervention are 
punishment is a less critical factor in its  identified in observable, measurable terms. 
effectiveness.  ● focus on specific, concrete responses, which 
● Reasoning increases the likelihood that  they call target behaviors 
other, similar misbehaviors are also  ○ Increasing certain desirable target 
suppressed; that is, the effect of the  behaviors (target behaviors) 
punishment generalizes to other  ○ Decreasing certain undesirable target 
misbehaviors.  behaviors 
● If reasons are given, misbehaviors are  2. Target behaviors are measured both before and 
likely to be suppressed even when the  during the intervention. 
punisher is absent.  ● Determine whether the intervention is 
● Older children apparently expect to be  effectively bringing about a behavior change. 
told why certain behaviors are  ● Target behaviors are observed and recorded as 
prohibited and are apt to be defiant  objectively as possible 
when reasons aren’t given.  ● One or more people administer the ABA 
(7) Be consistent in imposing punishment for  intervention, other individuals observe and 
inappropriate behavior.   record occurrences of the target behavior 
● Punishment is far more effective when it  ● If the method of behavior measurement is 
always follows a particular response  reasonably objective and accurate, the 
● Minimize likelihood of behavioral  agreement between the recordings of any two 
contrast in different contexts  observers (​the interrater reliability​) should be 
(8) Modify the environment so that misbehaviors  very high. 
are less likely to occur.   3. Environmental conditions that are possibly 
● The temptation to engage in a  encouraging problem behaviors are identified. 
misbehavior should be reduced or, if  ● Collect information about events that 
possible, eliminated.  immediately precede and follow the behaviors. 
(9) Teach and reinforce more appropriate  ● ABC Approach:  
behaviors.  ○ Antecedents: stimuli and events that the 
● Punishment of misbehavior is typically  person encounters 
more effective over the long run when  ○ Behaviors: responses that the person 
it’s combined with support for—as well  subsequently makes 
as reinforcement of—more productive  ○ Consequences: stimuli and events that 
behaviors  immediately follow the behaviors 
  ● Look for patterns in the data and identify 
  specific events that may be triggering or 
  reinforcing a target behavior—an approach 
  known as​ functional analysis​ or functional 
APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS  behavior assessment 
● Based on the assumption that serious problem  4. A specific intervention or treatment plan is developed 
behaviors are the rest of past and present  and implemented. 
response-consequence contingencies  ● Developing a treatment plan involves 
● Involves the application of a variety of  determining the method by which a target 
behaviorist concepts  behavior is to be modified. 
● Beneficial for learners who must continually be  ○ Sometimes a behavior’s frequency can 
encouraged to engage in appropriate academic  be increased simply by reinforcing the 
and social behaviors  behavior every time it occurs 
● Often used in education and therapy for  ○ When the existing frequency (baseline) 
students with special needs, including those  of a desired response is very low, 
with significant learning difficulties and those  however, the response may have to be 
with serious mental illnesses  shaped through the reinforcement of 
 
 successively closer and closer  real-world situations in which it is 
approximations.  ultimately desired. 
○ An undesirable behavior can be  ○ Teach many different versions of the 
eliminated through such methods as  behavior; for example, when teaching 
extinction, reinforcement of  interpersonal skills, teach a variety of 
incompatible behaviors, or punishment.  ways to interact appropriately with 
○ In many cases, explicit instruction is part  others. 
of the intervention as well.  ○ Teach the relationship of the desired 
● Address the apparent functions that particular  behavior to reinforcers that occur 
behaviors serve for the individual  naturally in the environment; for 
● Change the environment in ways that  example, point out that better personal 
encourage productive behaviors  hygiene leads to more rewarding 
● Positive Behavior Support (PBS)  interactions with others. 
○ Teach behaviors that can serve the  ○ Reinforce the behavior when it 
same purpose as (and can therefore  spontaneously occurs in new situations; 
replace) inappropriate behaviors.  in other words, specifically reinforce 
○ Minimize conditions that might trigger  generalization 
inappropriate behaviors.  7. Treatment is phased out after the desired behavior is 
○ Establish a predictable daily routine as a  acquired.  
way of minimizing anxiety and making  ● In many instances, newly acquired behaviors 
the student feel more comfortable and  begin to lead to reinforcement naturally; for 
secure.  example, the aggressive student who learns 
○ Give the student opportunities to make  more acceptable social behaviors starts making 
choices; in this way the student can  friends, and the student who has finally learned 
often gain desired outcomes without  to read begins to feel successful and enjoy 
having to resort to inappropriate  reading. 
behavior.  ● In other situations, maintaining the target 
○ Make adaptations in the curriculum,  behavior may require intermittent reinforcement, 
instruction, or both to maximize the  such as a series of successively higher 
likelihood of academic success (e.g.,  variable-ratio reinforcement schedules. 
build on the student’s interests, present   
material at a slower pace, or intersperse  Using ABA with Large Groups 
challenging tasks among easier and  Group Contingency 
more enjoyable ones).  ● In a group contingency, an entire group must 
5. The treatment is monitored for effectiveness as it  perform a desired behavior in order for 
progresses, and it’s modified if necessary.  reinforcement to occur. 
● Perhaps the teacher or therapist is trying to  ● The good behavior game is an example of how a 
shape behavior too quickly.  group contingency can significantly reduce the 
● Perhaps the “reinforcer” isn’t really reinforcing.  overall rate of classroom misbehaviors 
● Perhaps an undesired behavior that the teacher  ○ starting the game on different days for 
or therapist is trying to eliminate through  math versus reading (a 
extinction is being maintained by reinforcers  multiple-baseline approach) 
beyond his or her control.  ○ Switching from reinforcement to 
6. Measures are taken to promote generalization of  nonreinforcement and then back again 
newly acquired behaviors.  (a technique called reversal). 
● Some ABA programs have limited success  ● However, they’re effective only if everyone in 
precisely because responses that are learned  the group is capable of making the desired 
under some stimulus conditions don’t generalize  responses. 
to others  ● Peer pressure and social reinforcement partly 
○ Teach the target behavior in numerous  account for their effectiveness: Students 
contexts, including many realistic ones;  encourage their peers to do well and offer praise 
if possible, teach the behavior in the  when performance improves. In addition, when 
 ● increased academic achievement is the desired  ● Giving students opportunities to make choices 
behavior, high-achieving students may assist  ● Regularly reinforcing students for behaving 
their lower-achieving classmates by tutoring  appropriately, almost always with praise but 
and providing extra practice in the subject  often also with tokens or coupons that can be 
matter  traded for special prizes and privileges (e.g., 
  school supplies, stuffed animals, free time in the 
Token Economy  gym) 
● In a token economy, individuals who behave  ● Providing multiple layers (or tiers) of support 
appropriately are reinforced with token  depending on individual students’ needs, with 
reinforcers— perhaps play money, points, or  some students getting regular one-on-one 
checkmarks on a record-keeping sheet—that  attention from a counselor or other faculty 
can later be traded for backup reinforcers, which  member and a subset of them having intensive 
are objects or privileges of each person’s choice.  interventions to address chronic academic or 
○ A set of rules describing the responses  behavioral problems 
that will be reinforced. The rules should  ● Continually monitoring the program’s 
be relatively few in number so that they  effectiveness by examining office referrals, 
can easily be remembered.  disciplinary actions, and other relevant data 
○ A variety of backup reinforcers for   
which tokens can be exchanged.  Adding a Cognitive Component to ABA 
Examples are free time, favorite  ● cognitive behavior modification, cognitive 
activities, participation in special events,  behavior therapy, or cognitive-behavioral 
and small toys and trinkets.  intervention 
○ A “store” at which the backup  ● Modeling t​ he desired behavior, a practice that 
reinforcers can be “purchased.” Young  draws from social cognitive theory 
children should be allowed at least one  ● Coaching, ​the teacher or therapist verbally 
purchase opportunity a day; for older  instructs and guides an individual in the practice 
children, one or two opportunities a  of appropriate behaviors 
week may be sufficient.  ● Problem solving​; for example, a teacher or 
● First, teachers and therapists can easily use the  therapist might ask a person to think carefully 
tokens to provide immediate (rather than  about the effects that various behaviors might 
delayed) reinforcement.  have in problem situations and to choose those 
● Second, the availability of many different backup  behaviors that are likely to bring about desired 
reinforcers increases the odds that everyone in  consequences. 
the program can work for a desired   
consequence.    
○ The tokens themselves often become  APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORISM FOR 
effective reinforcers as well 
CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION AND 
○ Perhaps they become secondary 
reinforcers through repeated 
ASSESSMENT 
● Learning involves ​a change in behavior​—either 
association with other reinforcing 
(a) the acquisition and strengthening of a new, 
objects and events, or perhap they’re 
productive response or (b) a decrease in a 
effective simply because they provide 
nonproductive response. 
regular feedback that learners are doing 
● Voluntary behaviors are most likely to increase 
something well. 
when they are f​ ollowed by one or more 
 
reinforcing consequences. 
Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support 
● Complex behaviors often need to be gradually 
● Explicitly defining and teaching appropriate 
shaped over time​, through a process of 
behaviors, including productive ways of getting 
reinforcing successive approximations to the 
desired outcomes (e.g., teacher attention) 
desired end results. 
● Designing a curriculum and implementing 
● Educational and therapeutic interventions tend 
instructional practices tailored to students’ 
to be most effective when the desired end 
current needs and ability levels 
 results—that is, the terminal behaviors or target  Formulating Goals and Objectives at Varying Levels of 
behaviors—are ​explicitly identified​ in advance.  Complexity 
● Interventions also tend to be maximally effective  Taxonomies of Objectives 
when learners’ progress is monitored from start  ● Descriptions of various behaviors we might 
to finish—that is, f​ rom baseline level to the  want to see students demonstrate, often listed 
desired final performance.  in order of increasing complexity. 
  ● Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 
Importance of Making Active Responses  ○ Describes six general levels of knowing 
● Yet from a behaviorist perspective, people are  and using information; hierarchical 
more likely to learn when they have a chance to  (1) Knowledge: Recalling basic facts and 
behave—for instance, when they can talk, write,  concepts—for example, reciting 
experiment, or demonstrate  definitions of terms or remembering lists 
● Ideally, then, students should be active  of items. 
respondents throughout the learning process,  (2) Comprehension: Explaining new 
rather than simply passive recipients of  information in one’s own words—for 
whatever information or skill is being taught  example, paraphrasing a scientific 
  principle or summarizing a textbook 
Identifying Instructional Goals and Objectives  chapter. 
Instructional goals: ​desired general outcomes of  (3) Application: Using information in a new 
instruction over the long run  situation—for example, applying 
Instructional objectives: w ​ hen referring to more specific  mathematical principles to the solution 
planned outcomes of a particular lesson or unit  of word problems or applying 
(1) Choose appropriate methods for teaching a  psychological theories of learning to 
topic or skill  instructional practices. 
(2) When teachers describe their desired end  (4) Analysis: Breaking information down 
results in terms of specific behaviors, they can  into its constituent parts—for example, 
more easily communicate and coordinate what  discovering the assumptions underlying 
they are collectively trying to accomplish in their  a philosophical essay or identifying 
classrooms.  fallacies in a logical argument. 
(3) Student accomplishments and program  (5) Synthesis: Constructing something new 
effectiveness can be evaluated on the basis of  by integrating several pieces of 
whether manifestations of the desired outcomes  information—for example, developing a 
are observed.  theory or presenting logical defense for 
  a particular point of view. 
Behavioral Objectives  (6) Evaluation: Judging the quality of 
Three components:  information or ideas—for example, 
(1) Outcome is stated in terms of an observable and  critiquing a theory or determining the 
measurable behavior.  appropriateness of conclusions drawn 
(2) Stimulus condition(s) under which the behavior  from a research study. 
should be exhibited   
(3) Criterion for judging acceptable performance  Content-Area Standards 
  ● typically in the form of general statements 
Current Perspectives on Instructional Goals and  regarding the knowledge and skills that 
Objectives  students should acquire at various grade levels 
● Traditional behavioral objectives focus on  in a particular academic discipline, as well as the 
lower-level skills rather than higher-level skills  characteristics that their accomplishments 
○ Emphasize behaviors that depend on  should reflect. 
knowledge of facts rather than on   
behaviors that reflect complex,  Programmed Instruction and Computer-Assisted 
sophisticated forms of thinking and  Instruction 
learning  Features: 
 
 ● the material to be learned is presented through  ● Based in part on the concept of shaping 
a series of discrete segments, or ​frames.  ● At first, a relatively simple response is reinforced 
● The student continues through frames,  until it’s emitted frequently—that is, until it’s 
encountering new information, responding to  mastered—then a slightly more difficult 
questions, and checking answers  response is reinforced, and so on, until 
(1) Active responding. The student must make a  eventually the desired terminal behavior is 
response in each frame.  acquired. 
(2) Shaping. Instruction begins with information the  ● Components: 
student already knows. New information is  ○ Small, discrete units. Course content is 
broken into tiny pieces, and instruction proceeds  broken up into a number of separate 
through a gradual presentation of increasingly  units or lessons, with each unit covering 
difficult pieces. As the successive pieces are  a small amount of material. 
presented and questions of increasing difficulty  ○ A logical sequence. Units are sequenced 
are answered, mastery of the topic is gradually  such that basic concepts and 
shaped.  procedures—those that provide the 
(3) Immediate reinforcement: Shaping proceeds so  foundation for later units—are learned 
slowly that students almost always make a  first. More complex concepts and 
correct response; in this way, students practice  procedures, including those that build 
appropriate rather than inappropriate  on basic units, are learned later. 
responses, and so the probability of  ■ Task analysis: the process 
reinforcement is quite high. Each correct answer  through which the component 
is reinforced immediately in the form of  parts of the subject matter are 
feedback that it’s correct.  identified and sequenced 
(4) Self-pacing. Students proceed through the  ○ Demonstration of mastery at the 
program at their own individual rates, ensuring  completion of each unit. Before 
that all students are eventually successful in  “graduating” from one unit to the next, 
mastering the material.  students must show that they’ve 
Linear program: Same sequence of frames in the same  mastered the current unit 
order  ○ A concrete, observable criterion for 
Branching program: Progresses in larger steps so that  mastery of each unit. Mastery of a topic 
error rates in responding are somewhat higher  is defined in specific, concrete terms. 
● A student who responds incorrectly is directed  ○ Additional, remedial activities for 
to one or more remedial frames for further  students needing extra help or practice. 
practice on that part of the lesson before being   
allowed to continue with new material.  Personalized system of instruction 
Computer-assisted Instruction  (1) Emphasis on individual study. Most learning 
● can automatically present one or more  occurs through independent study of such 
appropriate follow- up frames for various  written materials as textbooks and study guides. 
student responses, and it can include videos,  One-on-one tutoring provides additional 
animations, and other graphics to enhance  assistance when necessary. 
students’ understanding of new material.  (2) Unit exams. An examination on each unit 
● Can record and maintain ongoing data for  assesses students’ mastery of the material. 
individual students  Students receive immediate feedback about 
● Can deliver instruction in rural areas  their performance. 
Computer-based instruction/Computer-assisted learning  (3) Supplementary instructional techniques. 
  Traditional group instructional methods (e.g., 
  lectures, demonstrations, discussions) are 
Mastery Learning  occasionally provided to supplement the 
● an approach to instruction in which students  material that appears in the textbook or other 
must learn the material in one lesson to a high  assigned readings. These group classes are 
level of proficiency before proceeding to the  optional but are intended to motivate and 
subsequent lesson.  stimulate students. 
 (4) Use of proctors. Proctors, usually more  domain, with concrete descriptions of various 
advanced students, administer and score exams  levels of performance relative to each ability 
and tutor students on topics with which they’re  Summative Assessment 
having difficulty.  ● Conducted at the end of instruction to 
Downsides:  determine what students have ultimately 
● Students who learn quickly receive less  learned.  
instruction  ● When they don’t reflect important skills and 
● When fast learners have to wait for their slower  abilities, however, they can be 
classmates, they learn less than they might  counterproductive, in large part because they 
otherwise  may narrow teachers’ and students’ attention to 
● Teachers have to keep track of learners at  only those things being assessed 
different tasks and at different rate  High-Stakes Tests 
Additional weaknesses for PSI:  ● Summative tests that influence decision making 
● Some students never meet the criterion for  about students’ promotion and graduation, 
passing exams despite repeated takes  teacher salaries, school funding, and similar 
● Lack of interaction with peers which is seen as  matters 
beneficial to learning   
● the self-paced nature of a PSI course, which is  WHEN BEHAVIORISTS APPROACHES ARE MOST 
sometimes compromised if university policy  USEFUL 
requires that students complete a course within  Overall, however, behaviorist approaches are probably 
a single term  more appropriate for certain types of students than for 
○ Techniques for reducing procrastination  others. Frequent success experience and 
and withdrawal from PSI include setting  reinforcements—for instance, through programmed 
target dates for completion, giving  instruction or mastery learning—are especially beneficial 
bonus points for early completion,  for students who have previously had more failures than 
eliminating the need to complete the  successes in their academic careers 
course within a single term  Students with little motivation to engage in academic 
  tasks can also profit from behaviorist techniques. 
School Assessment Practices  Providing extrinsic reinforcers for academic 
Backwards Design  accomplishments—for example, making material, social, 
● planning of one or more end-of-instruction  or activity reinforcers contingent on completing 
assessments precedes rather than follows  assignments—can help motivate seemingly 
instructional planning  “uninterested” students to master essential skills. 
(1) Identify desired end results of instruction  Students with chronically high levels of anxiety are 
(2) Identify assessment tasks that genuinely reflect  another group who stand to benefit. Such students 
attainment of the desired results  often need considerable structure to feel comfortable in 
(3) Plan instruction that will enable students to  the classroom and perform well on academic tasks. 
complete the assessment tasks successfully    
Formative Assessment   
● assess students’ progress not only at the end of   
instruction but also throughout instruction 
● looking for behavior changes, perhaps in the 
form of oral responses, written documents, or 
scores on short quizzes 
● can effectively guide teachers’ decision making 
about subsequent instructional strategies, either 
for an entire class or for individual students who 
are having trouble with certain skills 
● Two-Dimensional Rubric: ​identifies criteria for 
assessing different aspects of students’ current 
abilities relative to a particular skill or content