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Materials Used For Wheels On Rolling Stock
Materials Used For Wheels On Rolling Stock
1 Introduction
In the contact area between the wheel and the rail, the materials are used in those components encounter
the greatest demands. Not only is there the pure rolling motion under a constant normal and lateral load
to be carried, which leads to high shear stresses both on and beneath the surface of the respective parts.
Furthermore, relative motions between wheel and rail create slip in the contact zone, causing both
mechanical and thermal loading of the material. Consequently, the different characteristics of damage to
wheel treads and the running surfaces of rails can be described by a more or less pronounced combined
effect of adhesive wear, plastic deformation, rolling contact fatigue and thermal fatigue.
The presentation gives an overview of the usual concepts in material selection for rolling stock wheels
and the associated operational practice from the point of view of damage analysis. In addition, options are
presented for exploiting the full range of existing or new materials, without causing a detrimental increase
in wear on the rail, thereby putting the overall wheel-rail system at risk. To this end, results of
conventional operational tests and of specially developed rig testing are presented.
2 Wheel materials
As an appropriate response to known mechanisms of damage, the materials employed in wheels and
rails in Germany – as in the rest of Europe – were, and indeed still are, those steels whose predominantly
pearlitic structures containing hard cementite lamellae guarantee high resistance to wear. At the same
time a pearlitic microstructure, formed by transformation close to the point of equilibrium, ensures higher
resistance to transformation in operational use than, for instance, bainitic or martensitic structures.
Although UIC Leaflet 812-3 [1] for solid wheels lists seven types of steel, which mainly differ in carbon
content, heat treatment state and therefore strength, EN 13262 [2] contains only four types (Table 1).
Because Grade R1 for freight wagon wheels is on the decline in favor of the standard R7 material, and
Grades R2/R3 never established themselves in operational practice, this repres ents the current state of
technology in Europe.
R7 is by far the most commonly used grade. It is used for all freight wagon wheels and on most
passenger coaches. Where wheels made from R7 are intended for use in vehicles with tread brakes, the
fracture toughness requirements (KIC) must be fulfilled as well as the usual characteristic mechanical
values. Experience has shown that where carbon content exceeds 0.5%, the K IC values of 80MPa √m
called for in [1] and [2] can only be attained where comparatively small grain size (fine grain), high purity
and high homogeneity are present in the microstructure throughout the circumference of the wheel. This
of course places heavy demands on manufacturing quality. For this reason, these wheels are commonly
supplied with lower carbon contents (<0.5%C) which therefore puts them often in the lower strength
tolerance range, so that besides pearlite, large amounts of pre-eutectoid ferrite are present in the tread.
Although this leads to greater toughness, the wear resistance is correspondingly diminished. According to
Deutsche Bahn’s (DB) experience, a free (pre-eutectoid) ferrite content of ≤10% is advantageous in terms
of minimizing wheel wear at the tread.
For driven wheels on locomotives and motor coaches, R8 is increasingly the used grade. R9 is limited to
niche applications, e.g. permanent way construction vehicles and combined transport systems such as
the “Rolling Road”.
In summary, materials employed for solid wheels in Europe are largely restricted to unalloyed steels with
a maximum carbon content of 0.56% and – after appropriate heat treatment (fine pearlitization) of the
tread – tensile strengths of at least 820 to 980MPa in maximum.
However, martensitic transformation extending deep into the structure is not solely responsible for large
areas of flaking in the wheel tread. Occasionally, a wheel is found with severe damage virtually all around
its tread which is attributable solely to rolling contact fatigue – in other words, to material breakdown
resulting from repeated rolling under high vertical and horizontal loads. Above all, this affects vehicles
whose wheels are smaller (a higher number of revolutions) or whose wheelset loadings are higher
(greater vertical loads). In these cases, destructive examinations identify considerable plastic
deformations in the longitudinal and lateral directions. Moreover, the wheels examined to date have
predominantly been in the lower strength tolerance range.
a) b)
Where cracks resulting from rolling contact fatigue have their origins beneath the surface, these are due
to the superposition of the maximum sub-surface shear stress over local defects in the steel. Generally,
such cracks occur in disk-braked passenger coaches where speeds exceed 160km/h and are initiated by
hard non-metallic inclusions. For the DB these sub-surface initiated cracks do not represent a problem
because the wheel treads of all passenger coaches are subject to a regular ultrasonic check on
mechanized test rigs. Should a test of this type be missed however, catastrophic failure of the wheel can
result if the crack extends to the face of the tread and very large areas of the tread break away. Hence,
when qualifying new wheel manufacturers for DB, there is a special emphasis on their adherence to the
requirements for the degree of material purity.
Periodic out of roundness [3] is a problem that occurs in high-speed traffic, but also in vehicles that reach
200km/h. This is a regular occurrence of changes in radius distributed around the rim of the wheel. The
latest opinion is that higher order polygons (>5) are a consequence of local wear pro cesses caused by
dynamic effects – e.g. higher speeds combined with higher track stiffnesses – and lead to a rise in wheel
dynamics. Against this background, there is naturally the question of the extent to which a high material
quality (homogeneity) consistent all round the wheel rim, combined with higher wear resistance, can delay
the onset of out of roundness in the wheels.
Both spalling on the tread and wheel out of roundness cause vibrations in the vehicle body and thus have
a negative effect on ride comfort. At the same time they lead to heavier dynamic loadings on the vehicle
and track [4]. Furthermore, rail traffic noise increases considerably. Elaborate reprofiling of the wheel,
during which a considerable part of the wheel’s diameter is machined away, is necessary not only on the
damaged wheel but on several wheels of the affected vehicle for reasons of diameter matching. It is clear
that along with rising maintenance costs, this also brings a reduction in the life of the wheels to a level
that is sometimes not economically justifiable. In many cases “artificial” removal of material from the
wheel, by turning, is considerably greater than “natural” wear resulting from rolling contact in service.
Against this background there is also the recurring quest for materials capable of sustained resistance to
the increased loads. For this reason, Deutsche Bahn’s Technical Center has initiated and followed
through the testing of new wheel materials in recent years.
A further emphasis was laid on the testing of wheel materials with improved resistance against thermal
loading. The types under consideration were two low-alloy steels – S2 and S3 – whose carbon content of
0.4 to 0.45% was somewhat lower by comparison with R7. Their strengths reach from the lower (S2) to
the upper tolerance limit for R7. The S2 fulfills the toughness requirements for R7, while the toughness of
the S3 corresponds to the lowest requirements of an R8. By the addition of alloying elements, the
tendency towards transformation of the pearlitic-ferritic microstructure into austenite is lowered. Under the
loads imposed by wheel-slide there should thus be a lower likelihood of brittle martensite forming in the
tread [7].
Before their planned service deployment, all these materials were subjected to a special test on the
wheel/rail system test rig in Kirchmöser. This not only tested whether the new wheel had a lower
tendency towards out of roundness and how it responded to the loads imposed by wheel-slide; rather, the
investigations centered on its influence on rail wear compared with the conventional R7 steel.
Initial results of longitudinal and cross-section measurements and of non-destructive crack testing of the
wheel tread are generally available after 6,000 – 8,000km, which corresponds to a test rig operating
duration of about four days. Testing can thus be carried out more economically and more quickly using
the test rig. Furthermore, only a trial on the wheel-rail system test rig enables an assessment of the extent
to which the new, more wear-resistant wheel material leads to greater wear on the rail. In tests on actual
track, these assertions can only be made with limited certainty.
Force/
displacement
cylinders
Wheelset
Driving
Rail roller
In the case of the wheel materials described at 4.1, the following results were achieved on the test rig
compared with the R7 wheel material.
Test conditions:
- Mean axle load: 13 tonnes
- Straight ahead and curving with radii R = 600 to 1,800m
- Speed: 110 - 190km/h
- No rail lubrication
- End of test run if lateral force >30kN and bearing acceleration >250m/s² as the limit for wheel out
of roundness
- Wheels were reprofiled between the first and second tests
Results:
0 km 20 000 km 40 000 km
Running distance
Results:
The wheels made from ADI material represent a special case within the test sequence: because of the
lubricating effect of the spheroidal graphite contained within the material structure which is released under
contact conditions at the wheel tread, the coefficient of friction was reduced and wear on the wheel and
rail considerably diminished as a result. Thus the wheelset on the test rig managed a running
performance in excess of 50,000km without reaching the termination criteria for either bearing
acceleration or lateral force. However, in moderation, it should be remarked that the lubricating effect on
actual rails in service would naturally drop to a lower level than that on the test rig whose rail tyres in
principle measure just 6.6m in length. After the test – by contrast with the R7 wheels – the ADI wheels
showed no signs of tread checks.
Both in the cross-section of the ADI wheel and the cross-section of the rail tyress there was virtually no
evidence of wear.
After the positive test rig results, trials were planned on double-deck coaches in regional passenger
service at speeds of up to 160km/h. However, during ultrasonic testing on the mechanized test rig, the
wheels manufactured for this purpose showed unpermitted indications in the wheel tread and web so that
the use of these wheels in service was abandoned.
Test conditions:
Results:
Fig. 4: Wear behavior of S2, S3 and R7 wheels after first test run
After the second test run the wheels made from S2 and S3 steels with their higher resistance against
thermal loadings exhibited little wear, in line with expectations. However, the R7 wheels on this test
exhibited also little wear.
Because the rig tests with both the S2 and the S3 steels were unable to identify any improvement
compared with the conventional R7 steel, in-service testing with the more expensive wheels (due to
alloying elements) was not pursued.
Since 2003, 45 wheelsets with the Shinkansen wheel material have been under trial in ICE trailer
vehicles. The experience under this regime shows that, compared with wheels made from R7, these
wheels have required less frequent reprofiling. The relevant assessments for 16 wheelsets in each of the
wheel materials are presented in fig. 5.
151-200
201-250
51-100
251-300
301-350
1-50
5 Conclusions
With the introduction of high-performance rail traffic, the demands on wheel to rail contact have risen
once more. There is a link between this and the typical modes of wear in wheels which arise and limit the
wheels’ life. The wheel material employed and the manufacturing quality of the wheel have a considerable
influence on the formation of out of roundness and tread damage. To test new wheel materials for railway
service, both the usual laboratory tests and also elaborate in-service trials are carried out. The Deutsche
Bahn’s wheel-rail system test rig offers an opportunity for pre-testing wheelsets with new wheel materials
under real loading conditions. The tendency for wheel out of roundness and tread damage to occur can
be examined as can the question of wear on the rail.
Tests conducted in recent years have shown that the microstructure and the homogeneity of mechanical
properties around the wheel rim influence the occurrence of out of roundness. There are indeed
alternatives to those wheel materials that have been used hitherto. Furthermore, particular attention must
be paid to manufacturing quality, as the experiences with wheels made from Shinkansen steel and the
bainitic cast iron ADI have demonstrated.
References
[1] UIC 812-3 Technical specification for the supply of rolled solid wheels of non alloy steel for
traction and rolling stock. 5th Issue. 01/1984
[2] EN 13262 Railway applications – Wheelsets and bogies – Wheels: Product requirements. Issue
01/2006
[3] Cassidy, P.: Non-periodic wheel out of roundness and microstructural inhomogeneity. Proc. of 6th
Int. Conf. on Contact Mechanics and Wear of Rail/ Wheel Systems, Gothenburg, Sweden, June
10-13, 2003, p.
[4] Madeyski v., T.: Zusammenwirken Fahrzeug/ Fahrweg und Maßnahmen zur gegenseitigen
Senkung der Beanspruchung. ZEV + DET Glas. Ann. 122 (1998) 9/10, p. 613-619
[5] Mädler, K.: Suitability of ADI as an alternative material for railcar wheels. http://www.ductile.org/
magazine/2000_2/railcar.htm
[6] Kuna, M., Mädler, K., Hübner, P. and G. Pusch: Anwendung bruchmechanischer Konzepte bei
der Entwicklung von Eisenbahnrädern aus bainitischem Gusseisen. konstruieren & giessen 27
(2002) 3, S.
[7] Poschmann, I. and C. Heermant: Werkstoffe für rollendes Eisenbahnmaterial. EI -
Eisenbahningenieur 53 (2002) 8, p. 47-51
[8] Mädler, K., Ullrich, D. and M. Luke: Rolling Contact Phenomena at Wheels and Rails observed at
DB’S Full-Scale Simulation Test Rig. Proc. of 6th International Conference on Contact Mechanics
and Wear of Rail/Wheel Systems (CM2003) in Gothenburg, Sweden June 10–13, 2003, p. 17-21