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Accepted Manuscript: Infman
Accepted Manuscript: Infman
PII: S0378-7206(16)30353-6
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.im.2016.11.008
Reference: INFMAN 2955
Please cite this article as: Mohammed Slim BEN MIMOUN, Ingrid PONCIN,
Marion GARNIER, Animated Conversational Agents and e-Consumer Productivity:
The Roles of Agents and Individual Characteristics, Information and Management
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2016.11.008
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Animated Conversational Agents and e-Consumer Productivity:
m.slim_benmimoun@skema.edu
Ingrid PONCIN
ingrid.poncin@uclouvain-mons.be
Marion GARNIER
marion.garnier@skema.edu
1
Animated Conversational Agents and e-Consumer Productivity:
Despite experiential marketing being seen as a topical outcome for websites (Rose et al., 2012),
utilitarian motivations still coexist and even remain prominent for consumers that use Internet for its
convenience and rapidity. Facing more and more complex websites, consumers can get lost, feel like
they are losing time within the profusion of offers, and consequently fail to complete their shopping
task (Markellou et al., 2005; Pan and Zinkhan, 2005; Kalczynsk et al., 2006; Punj and Moore, 2009;
Hausman and Siekpe, 2009; Kukar-Kinney and Close, 2010; Mai et al. 2014). Consumers then pay
attention to their productivity in the shopping activity (Anitsal and Schumann, 2007), which can be
defined as their efficiency and effectiveness in achieving a (online) shopping task, estimated through a
ratio between consumers‘ inputs in the shopping experience and outputs that are obtained (Ben
Mimoun et al., 2014). This e-consumer productivity can be both objective and perceived.
Online merchants are implementing solutions in terms of website design to provide a satisfying
shopping experience to clients. Particularly, even if it allows a direct contact with the retailer, e-
commerce usually is depicted as cold, distant, and impersonal. One possible solution has been found in
virtual agents. Hostler, Yoon, and Guimaraes (2005) argue that virtual agent technology could exert a
significant effect in this setting. Holzwarth, Janiszewski, and Neumann (2006) suggest in particular
that using virtual agents to inform consumers about products could mitigate the impersonal sense
inherent to online purchases, and several studies indicate that the presence of an animated
conversational agent (ACA) on a website can have positive effects on customer relationships, trust,
and satisfaction (Wood, Solomon and Englis 2005; Keeling and McGoldrick 2008; Qiu and Benbasat
2009). Furthermore, facing more demanding clients, firms seek to maximize the benefits perceived by
each client in each interaction, similar to how a sales agent in a traditional setting can largely create
and reinforce the firm–client relationship (Reynolds and Beatty, 1999). The benefits of interacting
with a salesperson are functional and social for consumers and include time saving, ease of purchase,
advice, better purchase decisions, pleasure gained through interactions, and feeling important to the
firm (Holzwarth et al., 2006). A link can then be assumed between the use of a virtual agent such as an
2
ACA on a website and e-consumer productivity and the inputs in terms of time or effort and the
outputs or functional, social, and pleasant benefits consumers can get through the online shopping
experience.
Therefore, beyond the mere presence of such an agent, the virtual interaction may be the source of
perceived benefits for Internet users. Accordingly, Holzwarth et al. (2006) suggest that interacting
with virtual agents influences decision and purchase processes in a way that is similar to the effect of
human sales agents in real-world settings such that it facilitates time saving, advice, or parasocial1
benefits. Ben Mimoun et al. (2013) in turn showed that in a 3D website, interacting with a virtual sales
agent improves consumer productivity, in the form of efficiency and effectiveness, during an online
purchase. This outcome is crucial because challenges associated with online agents led some of them
to disappear and prevented others from becoming common and popular (Ben Mimoun et al., 2012).
Despite very positive results presented in the academic and professional literature regarding the effects
of the presence of ACA on commercial websites (Wood, et al. 2005; Holzwarth et al., 2006; Gulz and
Haake, 2006; Wang et al., 2007; Keeling and McGoldrick 2008; Qiu and Benbasat 2009), it can be
observed that this technology has not yet met expectations. A better understanding of the productivity
benefits that interactions with ACA offer consumers could represent valuable information for
practitioners in particular and additional knowledge in academic literature as ACA has never been
This research accordingly investigated how the effective use of and interaction with an ACA on a
commercial website might improve the consumer‘s own productivity, a view of productivity that
entails an input–output duality. Unlike studies that rely on the technology acceptance model (Davis,
1989: Davis et al. 1989, Venkatesh and Davis, 2000), this research focused on effective use, rather
than acceptance, of the agent. In addition, unlike most prior research on virtual agents, we studied
detailed interactions with and the use of the agent and not just its mere presence (vs. absence). This
research will then first contribute to the understanding of objective vs. perceived productivity related
to interacting with a virtual agent and will also further contribute to better understand the effect of
using and interacting with a virtual agent. By integrating consumer characteristics in our hypothesis,
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we also contribute to the identification of the conditions (the users‘ profile) that conduct a better
In the next section, we provide a review of literature focused on e-consumer productivity, virtual
agents, and their potential interaction by specifying various inputs and outputs linked to virtual agents.
We then discuss individual characteristics that may exert an influence in relation with ACA use and
study using eye-tracking techniques to study the effect of the level of interaction with the ACA on
objective and perceived consumer productivity and a natural online study that highlights the
importance of individual variables. After presenting the two studies and discussing their results, we
1. LITERATURE REVIEW
The growing complexity of e-commerce, characterized by wide and diverse offers, more sophisticated
website designs, increased quantities of information, and secure payment processes, makes the online
shopping process longer, which tends to reduce e-consumer productivity (Ben Mimoun et al., 2013).
Many consumers fail to complete a transaction when they visit a website to make purchases (Cho,
2004; Hausman and Siekpe, 2009; Kukar-Kinney and Close, 2010) because of the difficulties in
finding a preferred product (Ranganathan and Grandon, 2005), the complexity of the navigation and
purchase process (Markellou et al., 2005; Kalczynsk et al., 2006), the effects of intangibility, or the
absence of a helpful salesperson (Punj and Moore, 2009). However, productivity is an increasingly
important goal for modern consumers who have less time to devote to self-service commerce tasks
(Anitsal and Schumann, 2007). If existing literature identifies the importance of personal and social
experiences for consumers, which they seek through shopping, utilitarian motivations associated with
online shopping (e.g., speed, convenience) nevertheless remain prominent. Website managers
implement decision support systems to help navigation and decisions; for example, virtual agents
through those laters do not necessarily get acceptance from consumers, failing to really demonstrate
their usefulness or interest (Ben Mimoun et al., 2012). It is consequently crucial for researchers and
digital marketing practitioners to better understand e-consumer productivity, its stakes and
4
consequences, and how a website‘s design and features can influence it. This literature review will
then present the concept of e-consumer productivity and a specific virtual agent named ACA before
The concept of productivity based on economic research is central to multiple research approaches and
academic studies (Cox, 1948; Ingene, 1982, 1984; Sink, 1985; Martin et al., 2001; Parasuraman, 2002;
Xue and Harker, 2002; Grönroos and Ojasalo, 2004; Johnston and Jones, 2004; Anitsal, 2005; Anitsal
and Schumann, 2007; Xue et al., 2007; for a review, see Ben Mimoun et al., 2013).
Originally an industrial issue, Ingene (1984) took a consumer perspective on productivity and argued
that, similar to industrial production, shopping productivity could be measured by the relationship
between the outputs a shopper gains (e.g., purchased products, information, pleasure) and the inputs
dedicated to the process (e.g., time, effort, money). Anitsal and Schumann (2007) then proposed the
concept of consumer productivity, which combines the benefits of the industrial approach of
productivity that focuses on the concept of efficiency and inputs to the production system and the
services approach that focuses on effectiveness and outputs of the system. They argue that during a
shopping task, clients pay attention to their individual productivity and are conscious of how they save
or expend their inputs (time, effort, money) to reach the expected outcomes (Anitsal and Schumann,
2007).
In addition to monetary aspects, time and effort represent the main inputs for consumers, in both
offline and online shopping contexts. According to Xiao and Benbasat (2007), for online shopping,
consumer effort involves information gathering, evaluation of alternatives, and website navigation,
which is reflected in the level of energy the consumer expends to perform these tasks (Anitsal and
Schumann, 2007) while navigating the website. Time entails the amount of time a consumer spends on
the website to choose and complete the purchase (Xiao and Benbasat, 2007). Then, the shopping
outputs involve three forms: utilitarian such as decision quality, cost of navigation, and usefulness;
playfulness; and social benefits (Bloch et al., 1994), which we will detail later.
5
To assess productivity, two main indicators are the key. Efficiency refers to the minimization of inputs
to reach an outcome, that is, in words, ―the degree to which an activity generates a given quantity of
outputs with a minimum consumption of inputs, or generates the largest possible outputs from a given
quantity of inputs.‖ (Vuorinen et al., 1998, p. 379) or ―the degree to which the system uses the ‗right‘
resources.‖ (Ojasalo, 1999, p. 43). In general, efficiency equals the ratio of expected resource
maximizing the expected effect by achieving the ―right‖ or desired outputs (Sink, 1985).
We then define e-consumer productivity as a combination of the efficiency with which the consumer
uses resources in online shopping tasks and the effectiveness of this shopping process. Classical
analyses of productivity, which were linked to manufacturing processes, generally used the ratio of
outputs produced by a system (goods, services) to the inputs (work, capital, equipment) required to
produce them (Xue and Harker, 2002). When applied to the online shopping process, this assessment
might refer to the inputs and outputs inherent to an online consumer‘s shopping process.
and measured as the transformation of some certain number of inputs into some certain number of
outputs. Yet shopping productivity is also relative, reflecting the individual perceptions of shoppers.
For the same amount of inputs, the transformation into outputs might be assessed differently by
different individuals. Unlike classical measures in production settings (e.g., some quantity of materials
transforms, over some given time, into some quantity of goods), inputs such as effort and energy are
matters of individual perceptions, depending on the situation and individual characteristics. Thus, time
spent can be a relative and perceptual measure of provided efforts. This approach is often adopted in
consumer settings (Johnston and Jones, 2004; Anitsal, 2005; Anitsal and Schumann, 2007) but has
This research intends to study both objective and perceived e-consumer productivity. Therefore, we
focus on a specific website feature that can affect the e-consumer information search and shopping
process: ACA.
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1.2. ACA and e-commerce: toward improved consumer productivity?
The literature on virtual agents has drastically expanded in recent years and encompasses various
terms (intelligent, conversional, recommendation, interface, and conversational embodied agents) and
improper uses of the term avatar (Garnier and Poncin, 2013). Our research focuses on one of those
elements, the ACA, as a website feature implemented to assist consumers in their online shopping
tasks.
The ACA represents a combination of the characteristics of embodied virtual agents and chatterbots,
in that it is a virtual agent (i.e., computer process, with some intelligence and autonomy;
Papadopoulou et al., 2000; Dehn and Vanmulken, 2000; Diesbach and Midgley 2007; Chang, 2010)
that is represented by a human or humanoid character (embodied, taking a human form; Cassell et al.,
2000; Groom et al.; 2009), in 2D or 3D, and possesses conversational abilities (like chatterbots;
Semeraro et al., 2008). They can be defined, in line with Cassell et al. (2000), as a graphic character
created by a computer that possesses the ability to engage in face-to-face dialog with the user. Figure 1
Following Cassell et al.‘s (2000) groundbreaking work, several studies have addressed the effect of
ACAs in e-commerce and consumer behavior (Wood et al., 2005; Holzwarth et al., 2006; Gulz and
Haake, 2006; Wang et al., 2007). Some studies have highlighted the effect of ACA on emotion and
social presence (i.e., feeling of being with another human being; Jeandrain and Diesbach, 2008); on
presence and immersion (Wood et al., 2005; Keeling and McGoldrick, 2008; McGoldrick et al., 2008;
7
Punj and Moore, 2009); and on trust, recommendation intentions, and user satisfaction (Notebaert,
2005; Wood et al., 2005; Keeling and McGoldrick, 2008; Punj and Moore, 2009). Punj and Moore
(2009) specified that satisfaction results from the agent‘s ability to facilitate the users‘ information
search and identify products that fit the users‘ needs. Furthermore, in reference to marketing research
dealing with human salespeople (Beatty et al. 1996; Baron et al. 1996), Reynolds and Beatty (1999)
established that a social relationship between the salesperson and the costumer increases their
satisfaction, loyalty, positive word of mouth, and purchases. McGoldrick et al. (2008) established a
parallel between virtual and human salespeople and identified three possible roles for online virtual
salespeople: friend (social role), personal buyer (recommendation agent), and helper. They
accordingly insisted on the crucial role of sales agents for building the relationship between the firm
and clients, based on not only friendship and trust but also the ability of the sales agent to understand
clients‘ needs, provide the expected help, and enable them to succeed in their purchase task.
Consequently, a relationship between ACA and e-consumer productivity can be assumed and is
interesting both because the lens of productivity can enhance the understanding of ACA‘s potential
effects and because studying ACA can reinforce our understanding of e-consumer productivity
processes. As summarized in the concept of e-consumer productivity, the inputs and outputs inherent
to online shopping are considered to offer an interesting approach for assessing interactions with ACA
and their potential usefulness for consumers. In contrast, just as interacting with human sales agents
can facilitate a consumer‘s shopping process, using ACAs could affect both the inputs to the shopping
process (information search, efforts) and the outputs achieved (decision quality, playfulness, social
links).
However, to explicate how virtual agents, similar to sales agents, may affect visits and purchase
processes, studying the mere presence of agents or their appearance is insufficient, particularly to
describe how they affect consumer productivity during an online shopping process. In fact, most
research on virtual agents merely adopts a binary ―presence vs. absence of the agent‖ approach (Ben
Mimoun et al., 2012). However, such an approach would not allow to study the actual usefulness of
using an ACA and interacting with it to various extents. We therefore propose to focus on the idea of
8
Studying the effects of actual interactions with an ACA can help enrich literature that addresses the
mere presence (vs. absence) or the appearance of the ACA. Studying productivity also expands our
understanding of the effect of an ACA during a shopping process because we consider specific and
distinct effects on the inputs and outputs of the online shopping experience. It also consequently and
potentially enriches knowledge on e-consumer productivity when shopping online, which could be an
argument in favor of virtual agents‘ relevance and usefulness for consumers. Thus, as our first
research question, we ask, how does an interaction with the ACA affect e-consumer productivity?
1.3. ACAs as supports for inputs and outputs optimization in the productivity process
As mentioned in Section 1.2, the effects of ACAs are numerous and varied, both in terms of their
unique contributions and as analogies with the effect of real sales agents. The parallel between
productivity inputs and outputs and desirable outputs of a shopping experience leads us to consider the
probable effects of using and interacting with ACAs. We begin with utilitarian aspects linked to
reducing inputs (effort and time) while increasing effectiveness and other utilitarian outputs. Then we
turn to social and playful aspects as potential outputs of the online shopping process.
1.3.1. Utilitarian contributions of ACAs: effort minimization as inputs and utilitarian outcomes
as outputs of productivity
Substantial literature on intelligent agents emphasizes their ability to reduce inputs during an online
purchase (Swaminathan 2003; Wang and Benbasat 2005; Punj and Moore 2009). They can decrease
information search time and costs and help consumers make faster decisions (Chang, 2010). We can
H1. Interacting with an ACA positively influences efficiency (in achieving the shopping task)
Agents can also reduce consumers‘ cognitive effort and improve decision quality (Hotler et al., 2005),
notably by supporting more detailed analyses of fewer alternatives (Xiao and Benbasat, 2007).
Decision quality is defined as ―the objective or subjective quality of a consumer‘s purchase decision‖
(Xiao and Benbasat, 2007, p. 150) or as ―the extent to which the decision outcome (a choice) is
optimal, both in an objective and subjective sense‖ (Kamis and Davern, 2005, p. 5). In a first sense,
this notion of decision quality can then be related to objective effectiveness within the productivity
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process, namely properly and successfully achieving the shopping task. Consequently, we can
H2. Interacting with an ACA positively influences effectiveness (in achieving the shopping task)
However, the definition of decision quality also relates to perception and consequently to a perceived
approach of productivity. Baier and Stüber (2010) introduced two measures of decision quality: output
quality, which refers to the ―usefulness‖ of the virtual agent, including the quality of its
recommendations and the extent to which recommended products fit consumers‘ preferences, and
shopping relevance, which refers to the ease of use of the virtual agent. Building on evidence from
Xiao and Benbasat (2007), Aksoy et al. (2011), and Baier and Stüber (2010), we therefore focus on
recommendation quality, the extent to which recommended products fit the wishes and desires of
consumers, and the perceived usefulness of the agent as productivity outputs. We consequently
H3. Interacting with an ACA influences perceived productivity outputs by (a) positively
quality
However, another stream of literature questions the ability of intelligent agents to limit inputs and
improve decision quality. Controversial points of view exist regarding the virtual effect of agents on
perceived input. A first stream of research indicates that the presence of an intelligent agent,
particularly an ACA, on commercial websites might increase navigation time (Diesbach and Midgley,
2007), effort (more pages visited), and the loss of concentration on the main purpose of the visit (Dehn
and Vanmulken, 2000; Olson and Widing, 2002). A third stream of research nevertheless emphasizes
the ability of virtual agents to reduce inputs during an online purchase (Swaminathan 2003; Wang and
Benbasat 2005; Punj and Moore 2009). As we hypothesized that the usage of virtual agents will
improve objective efficiency by reducing input (H1), we expect the same effect for perceived
H4. Interacting with an ACA influences perceived productivity inputs by decreasing perceived
navigation costs
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Although using an agent will influence the utilitarian aspects of e-consumer productivity (decrease in
perceived navigation cost, better usefulness, and better perceived recommendation quality), the usage
of ACA on a commercial web site might also be associated with an improvement in playful or social
Consumers expect interpersonal contacts, advice, and service in sales settings, and Burke (2002)
showed that these expectations remain similar on a website. Internet users are sensitive to various cues
in this social link, which then constitutes a pertinent element of productivity, in terms of the outputs
achieved through the use of a website as a desirable consequence of an online shopping process.
Holzwarth et al. (2006) even suggested that ACAs have important influences on the process (visit,
decision), similar to the influence of a human sales agent, and could create a pleasant social link.
To operationalize this notion of a social link as an output, we focused on social presence or the
impression of being with others (Lombard and Ditton, 1997; Davis et al., 2009; Feinhofer et al., 2014),
including a sense of human contact, warmth, or sociability, which is achieved through interactions
with others (Bickmore 2002; Hess, Fuller and Campbell, 2009) through some medium, such as the
Internet. In research dealing with computer-mediated behavior, social presence constitutes a key
communication construct (Biocca et al., 1995; Ogara et al. 2014). Social presence is required in
computer-mediated environments to enhance and foster online social interactions (Tu, 2000;
Traphagan et al. 2010), thus enabling a sense of connection between a website and visitors (Hassanein
and Head, 2006; Qiu and Benbasat, 2010) and influencing consumer attitudes and behaviors (Argo et
al., 2005; Dahl et al., 2001; Fransena et al. 2011; He et al., 2012). It consequently has various effects
persuasion (Cassell et al., 2000; Jeandrain and Diesbach, 2008; Zimmer et al. 2010; Ogonowski et al.
2014) and also consumers‘ attitudes, trust, loyalty, purchase intentions, and satisfaction (Holzwarth et
al. 2006; Hassanein and Head, 2004; Cyr et al., 2007, Kumar and Benbasat, 2006).
Qiu and Benbasat (2009, p. 149) investigated the construct by referring ―to the feeling of being with
another, to describe the ‗quasi-social‘ relationships between the agent and its users and to evaluate the
users‘ perceptual differences of the agent‘s social characteristics.‖ This approach is relevant to ACA;
11
therefore, we adopted it for the present study. Anthropomorphic representations, such as photographs
of people or software-generated ―talking faces,‖ can thus be important sources of social presence when
interacting online (Qiu and Benbasat, 2009) because e-commerce restricts direct human interactions
between salespeople and shoppers (Cyr et al., 2007; Ogonowski et al. 2014). With social cues such as
voice, interactivity, and social roles, ACA enables a feeling of being in contact with others (Hess et al.,
2009; Keeling and McGoldrick, 2008; Qiu and Benbasat, 2010; Wood et al., 2005, Wang et al. 2007).
H5. Interacting with an ACA influences perceived productivity outputs by positively influencing
Wang et al. (2007) highlighted a link between the presence of social cues on websites and perceptions
of playful and agreeable aspects. Therefore, the playful aspect offers a probable output of the shopping
Emerging from research into play, playfulness offers an appropriate construct for studying human–
computer interactions because computers incorporate playful features such as multimedia, graphics,
and animation (Serenko and Turel, 2007). In prior literature, playfulness has been conceptualized as a
trait and a state (Moon and Kim, 2001; Ingham et al. 2014). The trait-based approach focuses on
experience (Moon and Kim, 2001; Lin et al. 2005), that is, states are short-lived cognitive or affective
experiences of an individual that are influenced by both situational factors and the interactions of the
individual with the situation (Hackbarth et al. 2003; Moon and Kim, 2001). We considered playfulness
as an individual state for this research because the consumer might feel more or less playful at various
points during an interaction with a website or ACA. We then follow Moon and Kim (2001) and
consider playfulness as a cognitive or affective experience that people feel while using a website to
make a purchase such that consumers can obtain as much pleasure from the use of the system (e.g.,
browsing the website) as from the product itself (Ahn et al., 2007).
Prior studies reveal that attitudinal outcomes of emotion, pleasure, and satisfaction can result from
playfulness (Zolkepli and Kamarulzaman, 2015). Perceived playfulness positively relates to behavioral
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intentions and perceived ease of use; improves attitude toward e-services; contributes to satisfaction
and intention to use the website; and demonstrates a positive relationship with both intentions to use,
attitude toward the use of online retailing, and behavioral responses to using a website (Moon and
Kim, 2001; Hsu and Chiu, 2004; Lin et al., 2005; Ahn et al., 2007; Sledgianowski and Kulviwat,
2009). However, Shobeiri et al. (2013) also argued that playfulness may have mixed (positive and
Playfulness can result from browsing experiences on a website with an ACA (Diesbach and Midgley,
2007; Qiu and Benbasat, 2009; Wang et al., 2007). With more specific usage frameworks, some
authors highlight the positive effect of the agent on the playful aspect of the navigation experience
(Wang et al., 2007; Diesbach and Midgley, 2007). This aspect in turn offers an appreciable output,
which is linked to consumer productivity when visiting a website. We consequently formulate the
following hypothesis:
H6: Interacting with an ACA influences perceived productivity outputs by positively influencing
perceived playfulness
In summary, the use of an ACA can act on objective productivity (efficiency and effectiveness),
perceived inputs (by helping the consumer in a way that is similar to the way a real sales agent would),
and perceived outputs. Among the classical inputs to consumer productivity, the time and effort
required to visit the website and search for products may be affected by the ACA. Consumer
productivity then depends on the extent to which these inputs transform into desirable outputs. In
terms of perceived inputs, the perceived navigation costs can be affected. Of all possible outputs, we
argue that an ACA may have notable effects on recommendation quality, perceived usefulness,
perceived social presence, and perceived playfulness. The six hypotheses (H1 to H6) will be tested
As stated previously and elaborated through our hypotheses about perceived inputs and outputs,
individuals‘ perceptions of productivity can vary across situations and because of individual
characteristics that may affect the navigation and shopping process. In particular, psychology,
sociology, consumer behavior, and marketing research often cite individual characteristics as crucial
influences on consumers‘ shopping behavior. They might also affect the experiences of Internet users
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(Novak et al., 2000) such that they determine the perceptions of productivity. The time and efforts
expended vary with the individual because of their perceptions of their time and abilities, their
strategies to find information or products, or the challenges associated with the navigation structure.
Therefore, our second research question stems from this reflection to understand more, particularly the
following issue: How do individual characteristics influence the use of the ACA to affect e-consumer
productivity?
For the specific case of ACA on commercial websites, individual user characteristics may moderate
the effects of the agent and consumers‘ reactions to that agent (McGoldrick et al. 2008; Dehn and
Vanmulken, 2000; Huang et al. 2006; Yoon et al. 2013). Individual characteristics that can
simultaneously influence the shopping behavior, the Internet user behavior, and the perception of
productivity are numerous. For parsimony in this study, we focused on individual characteristics that
have invoked general consensus in research into Internet user behavior and that potentially relate to
the previously identified perceived inputs and outputs: level of Internet skills, involvement in the
product category, familiarity with the product, and need for social interaction. Two of these individual
characteristics are related to the links between the individual and product category (involvement in the
product category, familiarity with the product category) and the two others are associated with the link
between the consumer and the channel or the shopping activity (Internet skills and need for social
interaction).
The level of skills in using the Internet is one of the most cited individual characteristics (Ondrusek,
2004). Internet skills is a widely recognized variable that has influence on user performance (Khalifa
and Liu, 2007), time and effort devoted to information search (Laroche et al. 2005), and online
consumer behavior in general (O‘Cass and Fenech, 2003; Ondrusek, 2004). However, its effects
remain controversial. McGoldrick et al. (2008) argued that more skilled or expert consumers
underestimate the potential contribution of the agent, but Nowak and Rauh (2008) asserted that more
expertise improves consumers‘ satisfaction when they use ACAs. Qiu and Benbasat (2009) observed
14
that Internet skills and expertise also encourage perceptions of social presence. From the positive
outcomes of Internet skills on a majority of people, we tend to think that it will provide favorable
results when linked to the use of an ACA. We therefore investigated the extent to which Internet skills
can moderate the effect of ACA use on perceived productivity by formulating the following
hypothesis:
H7. Internet skill level positively moderates the effect of using an ACA on (a) perceived
Involvement in the product category may also influence perceived productivity. Product involvement
is a critical determinant of consumer behavior (Mitchell, 1986; Dholakia, 2001; Behe et al. 2015;
Hong 2015). Mitchell (1979, p. 194) defines product involvement as ―an individual level, internal state
variable whose motivational properties are evoked by a particular stimulus or situation.‖ It refers to the
perceived personal relevance and importance consumers attach to different product categories,
according to their needs, values, and interests (Mitchell, 1979; Zaichkowsky, 1985; De Wulf et al.,
2001; Drossos et al., 2014; Hong, 2015; Lee et al., 2015). Regarding interaction with virtual agents,
Holzwarth et al. (2006) argued that involvement moderates the agent‘s effects, and Spiekermann et al.
However, independent of ACA usage, the literature indicates that product involvement deeply
influences consumer productivity. In fact, product involvement influences the amount of mental and
physical effort a consumer devotes to the buying process (Drossos et al., 2014; Behe et al., 2015) such
that highly involved consumers search for more information and process the relevant information in
greater detail (Laaksonen, 1994; Breugelmans and Campo, 2011; Hong, 2015). Thus, according to the
literature, we expect that more involved consumers will have a better productivity independent of
ACA usage.
H8. Involvement positively influences (a) perceived productivity inputs and (b) perceived
15
Extensive research describes the role of product familiarity for different consumer behavior facets
(Alba, 1983; Bettman and Park, 1980; Brucks, 1985; Heimbach et al., 1989; Lee and Lee, 2011). Two
approaches coexist to define product familiarity. The first refers to the ―number of product-related
experiences that have been accumulated by the consumer‖ (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987, p. 411). The
second instead focuses on cognitive representations of an experience, which get stored in memory
(Bettman, 1979; Russo and Johnson, 1980). Therefore, familiarity represents knowledge of what, why,
where, and when others do what they do (Gefen, 2000; Artigas et al., 2015). In turn, product
familiarity should influence the process of product evaluation (Heimbach et al., 1989). People who are
familiar with a product category know where to find necessary information and thus should be more
effective in their information searches (Brucks, 1985; Lee and Lee, 2011), including in an online
context (Holscher and Strube, 2000; Nysveen and Pedersen, 2005; Kamis and Stohr, 2006). Therefore,
for involvement, familiarity may positively influence e-consumer productivity independent of the
usage (or not) of ACA by decreasing the perceived costs of an online shopping trip and providing a
better evaluation of the shopping outputs, specifically for utilitarian aspects (better decision quality
and better usefulness). We investigate how product familiarity may influence e-consumer productivity
H9. Product familiarity positively influences the (a) perceived productivity inputs and (b)
perceived productivity outputs (better decision quality and better usefulness) independent of
using an ACA
Finally, some psychological traits could influence consumer reactions to an ACA, which is designed to
mimic the role of a salesperson (Holzwarth et al., 2006; McGoldrick et al., 2008). Studies of client–
seller interactions (Dabholkar 1996; Curran and Meuter, 2005; Curran et al. 2003; Oh et al., 2013)
include the need for interaction as a variable that influences the effects of the agent. Dabholkar and
Bagozzi (2002) asserted that the need for interaction during a purchase episode reflects the importance
the consumer assigns to a human interaction. Consumers with a high need for interaction might
appreciate interacting with an ACA more than those with a low need for interaction. Thus, we expect
16
that people with a higher need for interaction using the ACA should perceive better shopping
outcomes and thus the outputs of productivity. We then formulate the following hypothesis:
H10. Need for interaction positively moderates the effect of using an ACA on perceived
productivity outputs
To answer our second research question, all these individual characteristics will be integrated and
measured in a second study. The choice has indeed been made to deal with the two research questions
separately: first to concretely test objective vs. perceived productivity and then to focus on the link
between individual variables and perceived productivity. In addition, when simultaneously studying
the level of interaction with the ACA, objective vs. perceived productivity and individual variables
would have led to a too complex design and possible biases and confounding effects. The following
table summarizes our different research questions, their related hypotheses, and through which study
17
characteristics interact using an ACA on (a) perceived productivity inputs and (b) 2
with the use of the ACA perceived productivity outputs.
to affect e-consumer
productivity? H8. Involvement positively influences (a) perceived
productivity inputs and (b) perceived productivity outputs
Studying interactions independent of using an ACA.
between using an ACA and
individual variables H9. Product familiarity positively influences the (a)
perceived productivity inputs and (b) perceived productivity
Focusing on the effect on outputs independent of using an ACA.
perceived productivity
H10. Need for interaction positively moderates the effect of
using an ACA on perceived productivity outputs.
In this first study, we seek to answer our first research question regarding the effect of interacting with
an ACA on e-consumer productivity and test H1 to H6. Two demands guided our methodological
choices: (1) to isolate and measure inputs specific to the interaction with the ACA and (2) to precisely
measure the outputs linked to the use of a website containing an ACA. Therefore, we developed a lab
study using eye-tracking techniques. Although we might have used log file analyses (Ben Mimoun et
al., 2014), which are based on clicks and open web pages, it does not support the determination of all
the activities conducted on each unique web page or different interactions with the ACA like it is
Forty-two people participated in this first study (50% women; 10 aged 18–29 years, 14 aged 30–39
years, 8 aged 39–50 years, and 10 older than 50 years). The study took place in a testing room
equipped with audio and video recording material (Figure 2). The arrangement of the room allowed
researchers to observe participants from a control room rather than sitting near them, which helps
Participants sat at computers equipped with a Windows system and an eye-tracking system (Tobii
V2.1.14). This eye-tracking software analyzes the user‘s gaze and produces a warmth map that reveals
where the user looked on the page and for how long. This system is fixed (on the computer screen) and
18
can depict the whole navigation session, without being intrusive. It thus approximates a natural use
environment.
Technician
Subject
Ergonomist
The study protocol asked participants to visit the IKEA website and look for a couch of their choice2
by asking for help from the ACA, ―Anna from IKEA.‖ To ensure all participants started the navigation
in the same conditions, the IKEA website with Anna appeared on screen at the beginning of the
2
At first sight, the task may seem quite open to be able to assess effectiveness as ―achieving the right outcome.‖
Effectiveness will therefore be considered as the success in achieving the task in the given time.
19
We set a time limit on the navigation session, beyond which the participant was considered to have
failed in achieving the task. This time limit was determined according to the ISO/PAS 20282-33 norm
and was equal to three times the time necessary to complete the task. We calculated this time on the
basis of several preliminary tests, which also served as pretests of the study process, in conditions
With the eye-tracking system (Tobii), we could identify, for all participants, the most observed zones,
particularly during their interactions with Anna. The warmth maps revealed that although all users
looked at Anna‘s face, her physical representation received little attention from the participants at any
point during the test. Instead, the zone dedicated to exchanges (input field, Anna‘s answers) received
the users‘ primary focus (see Figure 4). This finding confirms the need to study actual interactions
For our consideration of productivity, the eye-tracking system also provides data about the website
navigation behavior of each participant. Therefore, we gathered the following information for each
user:
- Total number of interactions with agent Anna (i.e., the total number of queries)
- Type of exchange with the ACA (i.e., key words vs. natural language)
3
ISO/PAS 20282-3 Ease of use of Everyday Products.
20
Not looked
Little looked
Looked
Looked a lot
The most looked
2.2. Measures
We seek to measure both the level of interaction with the ACA and e-consumer productivity. The
behavioral data enable us to measure the level of interaction with the ACA, with two indicators: the
total number of interactions with agent Anna and the time spent interacting with agent Anna. Building
on our discussion in Section 1.3 and research by Ben Mimoun et al. (2014), we also used two
the results of the eye tracking and (2) a perceived approach that considers the perception of different
outputs linked to the interaction with the agent. Table 2 summarizes the measures for each concept in
Study 1.
21
Table 2. Measures in Study 1
Independent variables
Dependent variables
Objective productivity
Perceived usefulness Scale from Ahn et al. (2007) based on Davis (1989)
Objective e-consumer productivity was measured with notions of effectiveness and efficiency. As
mentioned in Section 1.1., efficiency refers to the optimization of the use of resources (inputs);
effectiveness is linked to maximizing the expected effect and achieving the desired outputs (Sink,
1985; Anitsal and Schumann, 2007). Using Ben Mimoun et al.‘s (2014) approach, we measured
effectiveness by calculating the number of tasks successfully completed, although the participants in
our study only had to complete one task (rather than the three in their study)4, and we set a time limit
4
We included only one task in our effort to eliminate potential sources of bias linked to the succession of
different tasks. Another means to address those biases would be to use an experimental website with the same
number of subcategories of product categories and the same number of products in the subcategories. Instead, we
chose to study a real website, over which we had no control (i.e., IKEA), whose ACA Anna is one of the oldest
and most cited ACA in prior literature. This choice of a single task also reflected logistical considerations linked
to the cost of renting the eye tracker.
22
on the navigation session, beyond which the participant was considered to have failed in achieving the
task. Consequently, the measure depends on achieving the given task in the given time. For a measure
of (global) efficiency, the only objective indicator of inputs used during the session was the time
remaining before the end of the session, that is, the more the time remaining, the less the respondent
used time resources and thus the more efficient this participant was.
For measuring perceived productivity, we used the inputs and outputs linked to the navigation process
systems literature. For perceived input, we applied a measure of the global cost of navigating the
website (Baier and Stuber, 2010), which reflects Venkatesh and Davis‘s (2000) scale. It accounts for
both perceived time and perceived effort. In addition, we measured three types of outputs, as
highlighted in our literature review: utilitarian (perceived usefulness and global recommendation
quality), playfulness (fun aspect), and social (social presence). All the scales displayed satisfactory
2.3. Results
We conducted simple linear regressions using SPSS21 to analyze the collected data. Our focus was on
the effect of the degree of interaction with the ACA on objective and perceived e-consumer
productivity. We estimated the influence of this interaction separately for each dependent variable.
The data indicated a significant effect of the degree of interaction on objective e-consumer
productivity, particularly with regard to efficiency, that is, the time spent with the agent (R² = 0.430; β
= 0.656; t = 5.424; p < 0.001) and the number of interactions with the ACA (R² = 0.276; F = 13.364; β
= 0.526; t = 3.656; p < 0.005) have positive effects on the time remaining before the end of the
session. When consumers interact a lot with the ACA, they complete the task more efficiently, as
The results regarding the influence of the degree of interaction with the ACA on effectiveness are
more unexpected though. The number of interactions has no effect (n.s.), whereas the time spent with
5
We use the same scales in Study 2, with a larger sample; therefore, we present them in detail, together with
measures of their psychometric quality, in the presentation of that second study.
23
the ACA exerts a negative influence on e-consumer productivity in the form of effectiveness in
achieving the task (R² = 0.142; β = –0.377; t = –2.571; p < 0.005). H2 is therefore rejected.
Finally, the amount of time spent interacting with the ACA does not exert any effect on the perceived
usefulness, or perceived cost (all n.s.). Similarly, the number of exchanges with the ACA has no
effects on these perceived measures. Consequently, H3, H4, H5, and H6 are all rejected.
2.4. Discussion: Why does interacting with the ACA influence objective but not perceived
productivity?
With this first study, we sought to specify the effect of interacting with the ACA on e-consumer
productivity using an eye-tracking technique to isolate the indicators of the degree of interaction for
each participant. Our first result relates to the interaction mode with the ACA. Even if literature on
ACA pays a lot of attention and importance to their anthropomorphic nature, with this method and the
resulting warmth map, we show that the physical appearance of the ACA attracted virtually no
attention from participants. In contrast, participants focused most on the portion of the screen
dedicated to exchanges. This result reinforces the idea that the ability of an ACA to answer users‘
requests is more important than its physical appearance (Ben Mimoun et al., 2012). Moreover, the
more interesting result lies in the fact that the degree of interaction with the ACA acts on the objective
productivity of the e-consumer but not on its perceived productivity, which is quite surprising. We
First, increased interactions with the ACA, in terms of usage time or number of exchanges, improves
the efficiency for the user (time gain). This result is logical, but the empirical and objective evidence
affirms the efficiency improvement provided by an ACA. It also verifies that the stickiness
phenomenon, as mentioned in some ACA studies (e.g., Diesbach and Midgley, 2007), involves more
than a loss of time linked to the use of the agent. The time spent interacting with the agent leads to a
gain, not a loss, of time and efficiency in executing a search task on the website.
Second, the time of interaction with the ACA has a negative effect on e-consumer effectiveness. To
interpret this result accurately, we conducted complementary analyses, studying the relationships
24
between the time spent on the search engine, time spent on the center of the page, and e-consumer
effectiveness. The results are comparable to those obtained for the interaction with the ACA. We again
observe a negative relationship of effectiveness with both time spent on the search engine (R² = 0.456;
β = –0.676; t = –5.796; p < 0.001) and time spent on the center of the page (R² = 0.227; β = –.476; t =
–3.427; p < 0.05). Therefore, the decrease in effectiveness does not come from the different help tools
available on the website (ACA, search engine, and hypertext links). Respondents who failed to
achieve the task spent all their available time on the tools, that is, difficulty in completing the task led
to more time spent on the different tools and not vice versa. This finding raises questions about other
variables in addition to using an ACA that might explain the level of effectiveness, such as the
Third, the degree of interaction with the agent had no effect on any of the perceived e-consumer
productivity measures. This result is unexpected and contrasts with studies on the presence of ACA on
commercial websites (Chang, 2010; Hostler et al., 2005; Xiao and Benbasat, 2007). Previous research
generally studied the effects of the presence (vs. absence) of the ACA or some specific characteristics
of the ACA without considering various levels or degrees of interaction with the ACA. However, we
have detailed the degree of interaction objectively such that all participants used the same ACA but to
different degrees. Another explanation of this result may stem from perceptions such as global
elements are more important than detailed ones. Instead of studying the degree of interaction, it might
be interesting to address the effect of using (vs. not using) an ACA on perceived productivity, as we
plan to do in Study 2. Finally, we acknowledge that we did not account for any individual
characteristics that might indeed interact with the use of the ACA as we rather chose to focus on
objective vs. perceived productivity at first. Yet the perception of the ACA and productivity certainly
Study 2 is more relevant and interesting. We could integrate the individual characteristics we
mentioned previously and also study the effect of using (vs. not using) the agent in the second study.
25
Study 1 provided some answers but also suggested the need to address the individual characteristics of
users when studying the effects of using ACAs. Therefore, in Study 2, we seeked to answer our second
We conducted an online study using a link posted on several Facebook groups—a source that is
justified by the site‘s 58% penetration rate6 among the Internet user population in France and 90% for
young people. Although the 554 participants who completed the questionnaire represent a convenience
Participants could choose to use the agent or not, although the protocol indicated its presence. This
choice procedure helped us exclude confounding effects between use of the agent (vs. not using it) and
its presence (vs. absence) and thereby ensure that the results reflect usage effects. In pretests, many
users did not naturally perceive the presence of the ACA, which could create confusion in the effects
of awareness and actual use. All participants were required to execute a task (choose a three-seat sofa
and matching coffee table) on the IKEA website in the presence of Agent Anna and then answer an
online questionnaire. One-third of the participants used the ACA (67% did not). Other than the use of
the agent (two-modality factor), the variables were measured on five-point Likert scales. The scales
for Studies 1 and 2 are available in the appendix; they all were obtained from prior literature and have
been validated; therefore, we provided only the explained variance and Cronbach‘s alpha values here.
As a preliminary analysis, we assessed the dimensionality and reliability of the scales with an
exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The results in Table 3 indicate that all the measures account for
more than 50% explained variance, with Cronbach‘s alpha values >0.70.
6
See http://www.toutfacebook.fr/les-francais-sont-desormais-22-millions-sur-facebook/
7
Although no detailed figures are available about IKEA clients, young people clearly are a primary target.
26
Explained Reliability
Dimensionality variance
(Cronbach‘s alpha)
Ratchford (1987)
Involvement in One dimension
One-dimension 79% α = 0.73
product category 2 items
scale (3 items)
Dabholkar and
Need for Bagozzi (2002) One dimension
59% α = 0.76
interaction One-dimension 4 items
scale (4 items)
On the basis of literature and Study 1, we assessed perceived productivity with measures of inputs and
outputs linked to the navigation process. For the input, we adapted a measure of the global cost of
navigation (3 items) from Baier and Stuber (2010). The EFA confirmed the one-dimensional scale
(65% explained variance, α = 0.71). For outputs, we used the scales from Study 1, which again
27
Explained Reliability
Dimensionality variance
(Cronbach‘s alpha)
Novak et al.
(2000)) One dimension
Playfulness 58% α = 0.72
One-dimension 4 items
scale (7 items)
3.2. Results
With a GLM model applying the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in SPSS 21, we analyzed our
data, studying the interaction effects of using the agent (two-modality factor) and individual
28
Dependent variables
Main and interaction Hypotheses
effects Recommendation Social status
Inputs Usefulness Playfulness
quality presence
F = 5.426 F = 3.654
Familiarity n.s n.s n.s
p = 0.020 p = 0.056
H9a and H9b
rejected
Use of the ACA ×
n.s n.s n.s n.s n.s
familiarity
29
3.2.1. Direct effect of using ACA on perceived e-consumer productivity
We uncovered the expected main effect of the use of the ACA on perceived e-consumer productivity,
as reflected in the perceived outputs, that is, social presence (F = 5.383; p = 0.021), recommendation
quality (F = 3.718, p = 0.054), and perceived usefulness (F = 4.147; p = 0.042). However, we did not
observe any main effect for the playful output or input (global cost). This finding is not very surprising
as the perception of efforts by users generally depends on their individual characteristics, such as
Internet skills and product category familiarity. Therefore, this result confirms the relevance of
We introduced the use of the agent as a factor and the four individual characteristics as covariables in
the ANCOVA. In the general equation, we introduced the direct effects of the use of the agent and the
individual characteristics and the interaction effects between the use of the agent and each individual
characteristic.
With regard to Internet skills, we obtained a main effect (Table 5) on perceived inputs and some
perceived outputs (i.e., perceived usefulness and playfulness) and an interaction effect with use of the
agent. When Internet users have weak skills, the global cost (input) is perceived as more important
when interacting with the ACA, and the improvement in outputs (usefulness and playfulness) has a
limited effect (Figure 5).8 Conversely, for more skilled Internet users, perceptions of the global cost
are reduced by the interaction with the ACA, and the improvement in outputs is more important. Thus,
some minimal level of Internet skills appears necessary to perceive a positive effect of the agent on e-
consumer productivity (see Figure 5). Consequently, H7a and H7b are confirmed.
For involvement, independent of the use of the ACA (see Table 5), consumers who indicate strong
involvement in the product category perceive more utilitarian (perceived usefulness and
recommendation quality) and playful (playfulness) outputs. Thus, H8b is confirmed (whereas H8a is
8
To investigate the interaction effects further, we transformed the different individual characteristics into
qualitative variables, distinguishing three levels for each: low, medium, and high. We used GLM model with
ANOVA analysis and the results were similar to those with the original variables.
30
For familiarity, again independent of the use of the agent, social presence is weaker for consumers
who are weakly familiar with the product category, and playfulness is more important for those who
are familiar with the product category (see Table 5). However, we found no direct effects of
involvement on inputs or on recommendation quality and usefulness. As a consequence, H9a and H9b
are rejected.
Figure 5. Interaction effects between use of the agent and Internet skills.
We found no effect of need for interaction on perceptions of the global cost (input) but an important
effect on the three outputs (utilitarian, social, and playful). Accordingly, we validate H10. The most
salient result is the one regarding social presence. As shown in Figure 6, for users with a strong or
average need for interaction, using the ACA increases perceived social presence. The effect is opposite
for people with a low need for interaction. It appears that people with a strong need for interaction
31
appreciate human interaction better (Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002), and they assimilate their
interaction with the ACA as a human presence. The effect on perceived usefulness is also notable; the
need for interaction with the sales agent is strong (Figure 6). However, interacting with an ACA is less
useful for people with a low need for interaction. In contrast, perceptions of recommendation quality
improve after the use of the ACA, regardless of the level of need for interaction (Table 5). In terms of
playfulness, the effect of the ACA is negative and decreases among consumers with a low need for
interaction. However, using the agent increases playfulness among people with a high or average need
for interaction. Thus, people with a low need for interaction do not appear to find it fun or amusing to
interact with an artificial human, whereas people with an average or high need for interaction
assimilate the interaction as pleasant and playful, just as they might with a real salesperson.
32
Figure 6. Interaction between use of the agent and need for interaction.
3.3. Discussion: Influences of individual variables and interaction with the ACA on e-
consumer productivity
associated with interacting with an ACA. Interesting results pertain to the effect of Internet skills and
need for interaction, which affect both the inputs and the outputs of e-consumer productivity, that is,
the influence of the ACA on perceived inputs strongly depends on users‘ Internet skills: using the
agent leads to a decrease in perceived inputs only when skills of the user are sufficiently high. This
finding corroborates the results of studies that show that users with strong Internet abilities appreciate
the effects of ACAs more (McGoldrick et al., 2008; Nowak and Rauh, 2008; Qiu and Benbasat, 2009).
The effect of using an ACA on perceived usefulness depends on Internet skill levels and the need for
interaction. As shown in Figures 5 and 6, Internet skills and need for interaction have comparable
effects on the impact of using an agent on perceived usefulness, that is, if people have a strong need
for interaction or good Internet skills, using the ACA increases perceived usefulness. This latter result
contrasts with the observations of Xiao and Benbasat (2007) who argue that highly skilled individuals
need the agent less than weakly skilled ones. It is important to state that it is not the objective
productivity that depends on Internet skills (in study 1, we demonstrated that objective productivity is
positively affected by the interaction with the ACA), but it is the ability to perceive an improvement in
productivity that depends on Internet skills. Perhaps less skilled users lack sufficient abilities to
perceive what the agent can do for them. These two individual variables also influence the effect of the
use of the ACA on playful outputs. In line with previous studies (McGoldrick et al., 2008; Qiu and
Benbasat, 2009), we found that using the agent increases playfulness only among people with a certain
level of skill. The effect of need for interaction is even more marked: using the ACA increases
playfulness for people with a strong need for interaction but decreases it for those with a low need. In
turn, need for interaction influences the effect on social presence such that using the ACA produces a
positive effect only if the user displays at least a minimum level of need for interaction.
33
4. CONCLUSION
In light of ongoing searches for efficiency and effectiveness, we studied the influences of an
understand the role of an ACA, beyond its appearance and mere presence. These agents have not
caught on widely on websites (Ben Mimoun et al., 2012); therefore, a better understanding of their
With eye-tracking techniques, we showed that an effective interaction with the ACA in the
conversation field, rather than its physical appearance (as it is generally highlighted in literature),
attracts consumers‘ attention. Although objective e-consumer productivity clearly depends on the time
spent and number of interactions with the ACA, things are different for perceived productivity. If
consumers do not perceive the benefits of using an ACA, it can hinder its use and success. Following
this first study, the effect of individual characteristics of the Internet user appeared as essential to
Then, in a more ―natural‖ setting, we highlighted the importance and influence of individual
characteristics on perceived e-consumer productivity when interacting with the agent. These variables
affect the outputs, particularly utilitarian (recommendation quality), social (social presence), and
playful (playfulness) outputs. The two variables related to product category (product involvement and
product familiarity) directly affect the e-consumer productivity (outputs) independent of the usage of
the ACA. The two remaining individual characteristics, Internet skills and need for interaction,
deserve a specific focus. Lowering global cost as an input is possible only if users display a
sufficiently high level of competence. This result clarifies previous results that suggest that skilled
Internet users assess the effects of agents better (McGoldrick et al., 2008; Qiu and Benbasat, 2009). In
addition, the use of the agent is more appreciated by people who have a strong need for interaction.
With this work, we demonstrate the specific effects of interacting with an ACA on the different
consumer productivity improves because of interactions with the ACA; however, the effect on
perceived productivity depends on individual user characteristics. Theoretically, our study highlights
the importance of considering both objective and perceived productivity because the results vary
34
across them. In addition, by borrowing the need for interaction concept from services literature
(Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002), we verified its potential for explaining the effects of virtual agent use.
This study thus represents a call to integrate sales and human resource research into the study of
commercial virtual agents and consider the individual characteristics of online consumers when
With respect to methodological contributions, to our knowledge, this is the first study to use eye-
tracking techniques to study e-consumer productivity in an objective manner. Our study emphasizes
the potential of such a technique to clarify online consumer behavior and obtain relevant behavioral
and objective data. Moreover, our study offers a framework to measure both objective and perceived
e-consumer productivity. It focuses on measures of perceived productivity, which are less widespread
From a managerial perspective, this research confirms the potential benefits of using an ACA to
improve utilitarian, playful, and social outputs of a website. Our results highlight the necessity to
personalize websites with an agent to lead to better effectiveness; an agent may or may not be offered
depending on the user‘s profile and individual characteristics. The main conclusion from our results is
that despite the fact that interaction with the ACA has a positive effect on e-consumer productivity,
only consumers with a specific profile (high or medium level of Internet skills and need for
interaction) can appreciate this effect. Website managers need to identify people with this profile and
can do that.
For example, website managers could assess a user‘s Internet skills from her or his behaviors on the
site. With collaborative filtering techniques, they also may identify different user profiles and skill
levels. With social network tools (e.g., analyzing which social networks are used, how many, and to
what extent or frequency), managers could also determine consumers‘ need for interaction. The access
to social networks information can be enabled by giving the user the possibility to log on with their
social network ID and by using mashup platforms. Companies that adopt a cross-channel strategy can
infer the level of need from interaction from the level of interaction of the customer with real
salespeople in brick and mortar stores. This study thereby complements Ben Mimoun et al.‘s (2012)
conclusions about failures associated with implementing virtual agents; focusing on the appearance of
35
the agent may be a mistake. Instead, the interaction capacities and tools of the ACA should be
elaborated further to ensure that they match consumer expectations, practices, and characteristics.
Our work is not free of limitations, which can be considered as future research perspectives. We tested
only one agent, one website, and one product category. Replicating this research on other websites and
with other products would improve its external validity. In particular, consumers considering the
relatively expensive and durable products on the IKEA website likely require extensive information;
however, they may engage in less information search if they were purchasing products such as books
or DVDs. Differences in the need for information because of the nature of the product or website
represent a relevant research perspective for studying the influence of ACAs on consumer
productivity. We posit that consumers may interact differently (time, number of interactions) with
agents in these settings. Other individual variables, such as animation predisposition (Ben Mimoun,
2013) or task orientation (Homburg et al., 2011), could also be studied. Finally, it may be important to
test how consumers with different individual profiles react to different agent types or roles.
36
Bio
Dr. Mohamed Slim Ben Mimoun is an associate professor of marketing at SKEMA Business School,
University of Lille, and a member of the MERCUR research center. He is also an associate professor of
marketing at University of Sousse, Tunisia. He holds a PhD in marketing form IAE of Lille, University of
Lille, and a master degree in Marketing from the ISG of Tunis, University of Tunis. He also graduated
from the Habilitation Universitaire in 2014 at University of Sousse. His current research includes
examination of online consumer behavior, embodied virtual agents, human–computer interaction
issues, social networks, adoption of new technologies, smart retailing, and shopper marketing. He
has published works in international peer-reviewed academic journals (Information & Management,
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, International Journal of Internet Marketing and
Advertising, etc.) and international and national academic conferences proceedings (Advances in
Consumer Research, Association Française de Marketing, EMAC, Academy of Marketing, American
Marketing Association, Academy of Marketing Science, etc.)
Ingrid Poncin is a professor of marketing at Catholic University of Louvain and a member of Center of
Excellence on Consumers and Marketing Strategy. She was an ICM fellow (Intercollegiate Center for
Management Sciences, Brussels) and an EDEN fellow (The European Institute for Advanced Studies in
Management's Doctoral Educational Network). She completed her PhD in marketing at Facultés
Universitaires Catholiques de Mons, Belgique, Louvain School of Management, for which she
received the “Gouverneur Cornez Award.” She is a qualified researcher (HDR) from Lille II University,
France. Her research interests concern use and measurement of affect in marketing, attachment
toward brand and company, multichannel consumer behavior, avatars, adoption of new
technologies, and 3D online merchant virtual environments. She has published works in French
academic journals (Recherche et Applications en Marketing (RAM), Revue Française du
Marketing,etc.) and in International journals such as Journal of Advertising, Journal of Retailing and
Consumer Services, and Journal of Business Research. She participated in international and national
academic conferences and regularly published in their proceedings (Advances in Consumer Research,
European Marketing Academy, Association Française de Marketing, and Academy of Marketing).
Dr. Garnier is an associate professor of marketing at SKEMA Business School, University of Lille, and a
member of the MERCUR research center. She completed her PhD in marketing in 2006 at Pierre
Mendès-France Grenoble II University, France. She also graduated from the Habilitation à Diriger des
Recherches in 2014 at Lille II University, France. She has broad-ranging interests in the area of online
marketing, including more specifically the use of avatars for marketing, virtual experience on 3D
online merchant virtual environments, online consuming experience, usability and marketing,
evolutions of consumer behaviors due to Internet, search engine and free websites marketing,
relational marketing online, and traditional retailing. She is also developing research on consumer
behavior, particularly on gender and consumption. She has published works in Recherche et
Applications en Marketing, Information & Management, International Journal of Internet Marketing
and Advertising, Journal of Marketing Management, Management et Avenir, and Journal of Retailing
and Consumer Services and in international and national academic conference proceedings
37
(Advances in Consumer Research, Association Française de Marketing, EMAC and Academy of
Marketing, where she won an award for best paper in a Track).
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