Safety Management in An Organisational Context: Editor: Leonie Louw

E 'WA
SAFETY MANAGEMENT
IN AN ORGANISATIONAL
CONTEXT
EDITOR: LEONIE LOUW

Table of Contents
xill About the editor and contributors
xv Acronyms and abbreviations
Chapter 1: An introduction to safety

Al >
management
A25 Chapter 2: Safety in industry >
Chapter 3: General workplace safety

A47 >
and the OHS Act
Chapter 4: South African OHS general
A63 >
and health regulations
Chapter 5: South African OHS
A81 >
mechanical and electrical regulations
Al 11 Chapter 6: Functional safety >
A129 Chapter 7: Confined-space work risks >
149 Chapter 8: Ergonomics >
171 Chapter 9: Fire safety >
Annexure 1: Confined-space entry

189
permit
Title
Safety Management in an Organisational
Context
Author
L Louw
Publisher
Juta & Company (Pty) Ltd
Format
PDF
Published
11/2017
VBID
9781485125709
Copy URL
https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books
/9781485125709
Safety Management
in an Organisational Context
Safety Management
in an Organisational Context
Editor
Leonie Louw
Contributors
Eiriza Esterhuyzen
Leighton Bennett
Elsjebe Mostert
Cheryl Rielander
S re1 Srn it
JUTA
Safety Management in on Organisational Context
First published 2017
Juta and Company (Pty) Ltd

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2017 luta and Company (Ply) Ltd
ISBN 978 1 4851 2507 5 (Print)

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Contents
About the editor and contributors__.......................................................... _______ xiii
Acronyms and abbreviations
Chapter 1: An introduction to safety management - Sarel Srnit 1

1
Key terms 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Historical development. 2
12.1 Initial safety laws 2
1.2.2 Punishment for injuries 2
1.2.3 Inadequate work injury i n dem nification 2
1.2A Employer liability 3
1.2.5 Making equipment and the workplace safe 3
12.6 Employee compensation legislation and insurance 3
1.2.7 Extensive safety regulations and inspections 3
1.2.8 Need for training in safely 4
1.2.9 Pro fession a I isa ti o n of safety m a nagemen 4
1.2.10 International focus 4
1.3 Nature of safety hazards 4
1.4 Characteristics of safety hazards................._........._................_________ 5
1.4.1 Structural characteristics of safety hazards 5
1.42 Functional characteristics of safety hazards, .... 5
1.4.3 People as safety hazards................................................._______ 6
1.4.4 Types of safety hazards, 6
1.5 The study object of safety management as a science 7
1.6 Basics of safety risk management............................ ......._...... 7
1.6.1 Origins of safe cy risks—...................................._ ________.__ 7
1.6.2 Assessment of safety risks......................... 8
1.6.3 Evaluation of safety risks...._.............__ _________ 8
1.6.4 Management of safety risks 9
1.7 Hierarchy of controls..........................................._______ ........ _ 10
1.7,1 Elimination of safety hazards 10
1.7.2 Substitution of safety hazards. 10
1.7.3 Isolation of safety hazards 10
1.7.4 Engineering methods. 11
1.7.5 Administrative controls 11
1.7.6 Personal protective equipment .............................. ___________.............. 11
1.7.7 Training for competence 12
1.7.8 Behaviour control.................. ....... .............._______ 12
1.8 Basic legal safety responsibilities of employers and 12
1.8.1 Basic legal safety responsibilities of employers 12
1.8.2 Basic legal safety responsibilities of employees 14
1.8.3 Role of the safety practitioner as an employee.......... 15
1.9 Accidents and safety hazards.................... 15
1.9.1 Accident causation models 16
1.9.2 Active and latent failures (human error) 18
1.9.3 Accident investigation 18
1.9.4 Costs of accidents 19
1.10 Multidisciplinary focus 19
1.11 Role and importance of safety signs 19
1.12 Guidelines for emergency preparedness 20
1.13 Basic philosophical approach 20
1.13.1 Safety is a value, not a priority 21
1.13.2 Production includes safety............... ...... _....._________ 21
1.13.3 All tasks and work processes pose safety risks. 21
1.13.4 No task justifies harm or damage................. __________ 21
1.13.5 Rigorous analysis. . . 21
1.13.6 Interdependent responsibility 21
1.13.7 All safety incidents are preventable 21
1.13.8 Multidisciplinary approach..................................... 22
1.13.9 No one knows everything......._______ _.... 22
1.13.10 Mandating and monitoring the role of the government 22
1.14 Conclusion.. 22
Self-assessment questions 22
23
Chapter 2: Safety in industry - Cheryl Rielander_______._________________ 25
Learning outcomes 25
Key terms_ 25
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Legal requirements of safely in industry................................ 26
2.2.1 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 26
2.2.2 Mine Health and Safety Art 29 of 1996 26
2-2.3 Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 and
regulations.... 26
vi
2.3 Managing occupational health and safety in industry 27
2.3.1 ISO 9000: Quality management system 28
2.3.2 ISO 14000: Environmental management system 28
2.33 OHSAS 18000 (ISO 45001): Occupational health and
safety management system 28
2.4 Key principles 29
2.5 Management responsibilities and work practices____________ ,,,,,,,, 31
2.6 Process safety managcment__ 32
2.7 The safety-man 33
2.8 Safety practices............... ...... ................._______.... 35
2.8.1 Engineering controls 36
2.8.2 Administrative controls _ 39
2.9 Hazard communication (HAZCOM) 40
2.10 Emergency management and response plans............................... 41
2.11 Conclusion....._............. .... ............ _ ___ ...... ..........______.___ 43
Self-assessment questions...................................................... 43
References.................... 44
Chapter 3: General workplace safety and the OHS Act - Elriza Esterhuyzen
and Leonie Louw. 47
Key terms 47
3,1 Introduction__..........._______ 48
3.2 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 48
3.2.1 The Bill of Rights 48
3.3 National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 48
3.4 Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Art 130 of 1993
(COM Act) 49
3.5 Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 (OHS Act]. 50
3.5.1 History of OHS legislation in South Africa 50
3.5.2 Purpose of the OHS Act.................................................._......... 50
3.6 General sections of the OHS Act 50
3.61 Occupational health and safety policy 51
3.6.2 General duties of employers to their employees........................... 51
3.6.3 General duties of employers and self-employed people to
people other than their employees 51
3.6.4 Duty of employers to inform 52
3.6.5 General duties of employees at work.................................................. 52
VII
3.6.6 Duty not to interfere with, damage or misuse things............ 52
3.6.7 Health and safety representatives 52
3.6.8 Health and safety committees 54
3.6.9 Reporting of incidents to the inspector 54
3.E10 Victimisation forbidden 55
3.7 Occupational health and safety compliance 56
3.7.1 56
3.7.2 Types of notices 56
3/.3 Offences and penalties 56
3.8 Direct and indirect costs of ineicir nts or accidents 57
3.9 Ethics and moral obligation._ 58
3.10 Communication across languages 58
3.11 Conclusion 60
Self-accrv.ment questions 61
Refe rences 62
Chapter 4: South African OHS general and health regulations -
Elriza Esterhuyzen and Leonie Louw 63
63
4.1 Introduction.................................................. __........... 64
4.2 General regulations.........................._..„............... ..............__________ 64
4.2.1 General Administrative Regulations 64
4.2.2 General Safety Regulations................. ....... ......... _..._...... 66
4.2.3 Major Hazard Installation Regulations—,—....................... 67
4.2.4 Regulations for Hazardous Biological Agents.........................._............ 68
4.2.5 Explosives Regulations................................_.„_.______ ................. „._ 69
4.2.6 Construction Regulations 69
4.2.7 Regulations on Hazardous Work by Children in South Africa 70
4,3 Health regulations................................................„........„............— ... 71
4.3.1 Asbestos Regulations...............„.... 71
4.3.2 Diving Regulations 72
4.3.3 Environmental Regulations for Workplaces_ 73
4.3.4 Facilities Regulations 73
4.3.5 Hazardous Chemical Substances Regulations.— 74
4.3.6 Lead Regulations...........„..„..............._______ 75
4.3.7 Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Regulations.................... 76
vitt
4.4 Conclusion 78
Self-assessment q ;Asti ons...-..................... 79
References 80
Chapter 5: South African OHS mechanical and electrical regulations -
Elriza Esterhuyzen and Leonie Louw. 81
Key terms_ 81
5.1 Introduction 82
5.2 Mechanical 82
5.2.1 Driven Machinery Regulations__................................................. 82
5.2.2 General Machinery Reg u la tions 88
5.2.3 Lift, Escalator and Passenger Conveyor Regulations. . 91
5.2.4 Regulations Concerning the Certificate of Competency______ 94
5.2.5 Pressure Equipment Regulations 96
5.3 Electrical regulations 101
5.3.1 Electrical Installation Regulations 101
53_2 Electrical Machinery Regulations__ .... 105
5.4 Conclusion 109
Self-assessment questions....... 110
110
Chapter 6: Functional safety - Elriza Esterhuyzen and Leonie Louw 111
Key terms 111
6.1 Introduction to functional safety................._......... 112
6.1.1 Defining functional safety 112
6.1.2 Goal and aim of functional safety 113
6.2 Electrical, electronic or programmable electronic safety systems 113
6.3 Com pu ter and electronic safety 114
6.3.1 Fire hazards 114
6.3.2 External hazards 114
6.4 Fire risk assessment of data centres 114
6.4.1 Building and data centre site design 114
6.4.2 Contents and furnishings of the data centre 115
6.4.3 Installed fire and smoke detection systems..................... 115
6.4.4 Installed fire and smoke suppression systems 115
6.4.5 Response measures in place.......................... 115
6.4.6 Maintenance of the site 116
ix
6,4,7 Recovery measures in place 116
6.4.8 Electronics safety rules 116
6.5 Computer security 117

6.6 Computer workstations 117
6.6.1 Working with display screen equipment (DSE) 118
6.6.2 Computer health and safety 118
6.7 Electrical safety 119

6.8 Organisational policies......................... 121
6.8.1 Electronic data computer equipment policies 121
62.2 Information technology (IT) policies 121
6.8.3 Electrical equipment policies 122

6.9 Ethics 122
6.10 Formal methods for recognising and mitigating hazards 123

6.10.1 Failure mode effects analysis (NOM............. 123
6.11 Hierarchy of safety controls.................. 124
6.12 Functional safety of safety-related systems.......................... -........ 125
6.12.1 International Electrotechnical Commission (I(C) 125

6.12.2 IEC 61508 series 125
6.12.3 IEC 61511 series 126

6.12.4 IEC 62061 series 126
6.13 Conclusion 127
References 128
Chapter 7: Confined-space work risks - Leighton Bennett 129

Key terms 129
7,1 Introduction 129
7.2 What is a confined space? 130

7.2.1 Life-threatening confined spaces 130
7.2.2 Non-life-threatening confined spaces 130
7.3 What are the dangers in confined spaces, 132
7.4 The legal requirements 114
7.4.1 What the regulations say 114

7.4.2 The employer's duties under the law 136
T5 Permit system for a confined-space programme 137
7.5.1 Safety checklist for permit-required confined spaces........ 138
7.5.2 Entry permit for a confined-space programme 142
7.6 What should happen when work is being done in a confined space?......... 142
7,7 Emergency rescue procedures 144
7.8 Incident issues._..... 145
7.9 Conclusion 146
References 147
Chapter 8: Ergonomics - Elsjebe Mostert 149
Learning 149
Key terms 149
8.1 Introduction.................. ...... _....... 149
8.2 Ergonomics as a science...,......................................... 150
8.3 Main focus areas in ergonomic assessments. 153
8.4 Work-related upper limb disorder (WRULDI 153
8.5 Ergonomic risk factors............................................................_.........._..... 154
8,6 Importance and benefits of ergonomics 157
8.6.1 Improved work quality 157
8.6.2 Increased employee productivity and efficiency........._...... 157
8.6.3 Enhanced employee performance and acceptance 157
8.7 An approach to ergonomic risk assessment........................... 158
8.7.1 Steps of an ergonomic risk assessment._.............. 158
8.7.2 Ergonomic risk assessment tools and aids. 160
8.7,3 Ergonomic compliance and resources 163
8.7.4 The ergonomist versus the designer 168
8.8 Conclusion............................................................................._..._..... 168
References 169
Chapter 9: Fire safety - Erin Esterhuyzen and Lennie Lown......................_.......... 171
Key terms 171
9.1 Introduction 172
9.2 Defining fire hazards.............._.............................................._._ 172
9.3 Components of fire and fire prevention strategies 173
9.4 Spreading of fire in buildings 173
9.5 Principles of fire extinction.. 174
9.6 Classes of fire 175
9_7 Hand-held fire-extinguishing 175
xi
9.8 Fire protection systems and the detection of fire hazards 176
9.9 Reducing the risk of fire........................... ..................... ..............._...... 177
9.9.1 Flammable liquids 177
9,92 Strategies to reduce the risk of fire.—.—,_................ _........... 178
9.9.3 Strategies to prevent office 178
9.10 Rre dangers or threats to humans_ 179

9.11 Safety risk management and administration__........._...........________ 180
9_11.1 Risk identification 180
9.11.2 Risk evaluation 180
9.11.3 Risk control 180
9.11.4 Safety risk management and monitoring 181
9.12 Principles of fire safety 181

9.13 Responsibility for fire safety 181
9.14 Disaster ...................___________ 182
9.15 Life safety, basic requirements and means of egress 182
9.15.1 Basic requirements for structures or buildings 182
9.15/ Means of egress 183
9.15.3 Planning for egress__....................... _________ 184
9.154 Useful signs during an emergency 184
9.16 South African legal considerations_ 185
9.17 Conclusion 186
Self-assessment questions...._...._.._. 187
188
Annexure 1: Confined space entry permit.......... ..... ,........ 189
xii
About the editor and contributors
Leonie Louw is a lecturer in Safety and Environmental Management at Unisa and is

working towards completing an Meom degree in Business Management. She is also
registered for an MSc in Occupational Safety and Health at Columbia Southern
University, She obtained her Korn in Business Management and BCcim Honours in
General Management from Unisa in 2007 and 2010. Before joining Unisa, she worked in
the private sector for eight years as a small-business consultant and strategist. Leonie's
involvement in the non-governmental organisation (NGO) sector over the years includes
serving on the management board of two NGGs as well as community engagement and
community upliftment projects. She is a registered skills development facilitator assessor
and moderator with the South African GoaHeat/ions Authority (SAGA). Leonie has
completed various postgraduate certificates in environmental management and safety
management and has co-authored several publications.
Elriza Esterhuyzen is currently employed as a senior lecturer in Safety Management in the

Department of Operations Management at Unisa. She was previously employed as a
parttime lecturer in Basic Financial Calculations, Basic Business Skills, Personnel
Management and Management of Training at Tshwane University of Technology. Her tertiary
qualifications include a BA degree (University of Pretoria [UPI), a Beam degree with
specialisation in Law (Unisa), an MPhil degree in Small-business Management and
Entrepreneurship (UP, with distinction), an MSc in Safety Management at Columbia
Southern University ICSU), and various certificates in Environmental Management and
Environmental taw from NorthWest University and the Unisa Centre for Business
Management. Before joining the academic community, Elfin owned and managed her own
business for 12 years. She is registered with SAGA as an assessor and moderator, and is a
member of the Golden Key International Honour Society. El riza was awarded her DCom
degree in Business Management (with a focus on Safety Management) at Unisa in 2017. She
has authored and co-authored a number of publications and has delivered several conference
papers.
Leighton Bennett is an experienced occupational safety, health, environmental and risk
management consultant and runs his own business, Benrisk Consulting, in Johannesburg.
His expertise in risk management is based on practical experience in risk aSSeSsrnent,
risk control and compliance inspections and audits, among other things. Leighton has a
BSc degree from the University of Natal, a Management Development Programme (MOP)
Diploma from the University of Durban-Westville Business School, and a multitude of
training course certificates in, for example, occupational health, safety and the environment
(CHSE), asset management and maintenance. He is currently registered with three SAGA-
recognised professional bodies, including the Institute of Safety Management (10SM), He is a
fellow of IOSM and an Exeo member of lOSM and the Safety First Association. Leighton is
the author of the 2006 Safety First Association publication on 'Risk Assessment: Guide to
understanding the basics and volume 23 (on risk management) of the Department of
Environment and Tourism's Integrated Environmental Management Information Series.
Elsjebe Mostert completed a Master's degree in Industrial Engineering at Unisa. She started
her career as a mechanical engineer at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), working on research in the mining sector with a specific focus on ergonomics
and occupational health, She later moved to the nuclear industry where she worked as a
speciality engineer focused on human factors and ergonomics in new power-plant designs
Cheryl Rie!ander is employed at Unisa as a senior lecturer in safety management in the

Department of Operations Management. She was previously employed by the South African
National Defence Force (SANDE. She has been involved in occupational health and the
medical environment for 20 years. Cheryl has completed a national diploma in safety
management and a BTech degree in safety management at Unisa. She has also completed
a Master's degree in Safety Management through Columbia Southern University arid is in
the process of obtaining a doctoral degree in the Department of Business Management at
Unisa, with a focus on safety risk management. Cheryl is the author of a number of chapters
in a series of safety management textbooks for Unisa.
Sarel Sm it is the owner of a safety consultancy business, with continuous involvemeni
in the facilitation of training in safety management in the workplace, the monitoring oi
implementation of behaviour-based safety programmes and the assessment of manager
and safety practitioners at assessment centres. His tertiary qualifications include a PhD ir
Social Science (University of the Free State 1UPSD, a BEd in Tertiary Education (UFS1 and
Diploma in Teaching (Johannesburg College of Education). He also did an MSc in Indust ria
Safety Management at the Central Missouri State University in the USA, where he receiver
an award for the best research dissertation and the best graduate. Before joining the privatt
sector, Sarel held the position of professor and director at the Centre for Traffic Safet)
Education at North-West University (WU). From 1993 to 1996 he was General Manager
Training and Research at the National Occupational Safety Association (NOSA). Svc1 i!
currently an e-tutor for undergraduate students in Safety Management at Unisa and alsr
assists with the development of new study material, He is a registered SAGA assessor, ha!
authored and co-authored a number of publications and has delivered papers at variou!
national and international conferences. From 2005 to 2068 he held the position of lecturei
in Safety Management in the Department of Business Management at Unisa.
xiv
Elsjebe Mostert completed a Master's degree in Industrial Engineering at Unisa. She started
her career as a mechanical engineer at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), working on research in the mining sector with a specific focus on ergonomics
and occupational health, She later moved to the nuclear industry where she worked as a
speciality engineer focused on human factors and ergonomics in new power-plant designs
Cheryl Rie!ander is employed at Unisa as a senior lecturer in safety management in the

Department of Operations Management. She was previously employed by the South African
National Defence Force (SANDE. She has been involved in occupational health and the
medical environment for 20 years. Cheryl has completed a national diploma in safety
management and a BTech degree in safety management at Unisa. She has also completed
a Master's degree in Safety Management through Columbia Southern University arid is in
the process of obtaining a doctoral degree in the Department of Business Management at
Unisa, with a focus on safety risk management. Cheryl is the author of a number of chapters
in a series of safety management textbooks for Unisa.
Sarel Sm it is the owner of a safety consultancy business, with continuous involvemeni
in the facilitation of training in safety management in the workplace, the monitoring oi
implementation of behaviour-based safety programmes and the assessment of manager
and safety practitioners at assessment centres. His tertiary qualifications include a PhD ir
Social Science (University of the Free State 1UPSD, a BEd in Tertiary Education (UFS1 and
Diploma in Teaching (Johannesburg College of Education). He also did an MSc in Indust ria
Safety Management at the Central Missouri State University in the USA, where he receiver
an award for the best research dissertation and the best graduate. Before joining the privatt
sector, Sarel held the position of professor and director at the Centre for Traffic Safet)
Education at North-West University (WU). From 1993 to 1996 he was General Manager
Training and Research at the National Occupational Safety Association (NOSA). Svc1 i!
currently an e-tutor for undergraduate students in Safety Management at Unisa and alsr
assists with the development of new study material, He is a registered SAGA assessor, ha!
authored and co-authored a number of publications and has delivered papers at variou!
national and international conferences. From 2005 to 2068 he held the position of lecturei
in Safety Management in the Department of Business Management at Unisa.
xiv
Acronyms and abbreviations
BCE Act Basic Conditions of Employment Act

BMI Body mass index
BTIVI Bromotrifitioromethane
CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CEO Chief executive officer
CET Cross-functional team
COID Act Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act 130 of 1993
CPR Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
CTD Cumulative trauma disorder
dBA A-weighted decibel
DoL Department of Labour
DSE Display screen equipment
FMEA Failure mode effects analysis
HAZCOM Hazard communication
HA2MAT Hazardous materials and items
HALOP Hazard and operability
HBA Hazardous biological agent/agents
HCS Hazardous chemical substance/substances
HIRA Hazard identification and risk assessment
ICS Incident command centre
lEC International Electrotechnical Commission
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IT Information technology
LC Load constant
LEL Lowest explosive limit
LLD Lower limb disorder
MHS Act Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996
MSD Musculoskeletal disorder
MSDS Material safety data sheet
NEMA National Environmental Management Act
NFPA National Fire Protection Agency, USA
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
OOD Occupational overuse disorder
OEL Occupational exposure limit
OHS Occupational health and safety
OHS Act Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993
OHSAS Occupational health and safety system
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration, USA
PPE Personal protective equipment
Prim Parts per million
PSM Process safety management
REBA Rapid entire body assessment
RMI Repetitive motion injury
ASP Repetitive strain injury
RULA Rapid upper limb assessment
RWI Recommended weight limit
SABS South Africa Bureau of Standards
SANS South African National Standards
SCBA Self-contained breathing apparatus
SHEO Safety, health environment and quality
SHERO Safety, health, environment, risk and quality
SIL Safety integrity level
TLV Threshold limit value
ULD Upper limb disorder
VVRULD Work-related upper limb disorder
xvi
Chapter 1
An introduction to safety management
Sue! Smit
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• briefly outline the development of safety management
• explain safety management as a science
• define the nature and characteristics of safety hazards
• explain the origins of safety risks, the safety risk assessment process and safety
risk management
• understand the role of safety practitioners in the structure of organisations
• discuss the safety management hierarchy of controls and compile a list of basic
legal safety responsibilities for employers and employees
• explain the importance of personal protective equipment (PPE) arid when to use it
• examine the theories of accident causation:
• domino sequence
• Haddon Matrix
• incident triangle
• describe the structure, role and functioning of multidisciplinary and cross-
functional teams (Ms) in the workplace
• indicate the role and importance of safety signs
a discuss guidelines for emergency preparedness
• explain a basic approach to safety management_
Key terms
Accident causation Functional characteristic
Active failure Gas
Competence Hierarchy of control
Cross-functional team (CFT) incident analysis
Economic principle Inconsistency
Ensure safety Latent failure
Fluid Liability
Chapter 1
An introduction to safety management
Sarel Smit
Learning outcomes
• briefly outline the development of safety management
• explain safety management as a science
• define the nature and characteristics of safety hazards
• explain the origins of safety risks, the safety risk assessment process and safety
risk management
• understand the role of safety practitioners in the structure of organisations
• discuss the safety management hierarchy of controls and compile a list of basic
legal safety responsibilities for employers and employees
• explain the importance of personal protective equipment (PPE) and when to use it
• examine the theories of accident causation:
• domino sequence
• Haddon Matrix
• incident triangle
• describe the structure, role and functioning of multidisciplinary and cross-
functional teams (CFTs) in the workplace
• indicate the role and importance of safety signs
• discuss guidelines for emergency preparedness
• explain a basic approach to safety management.
Key terms
Accideitt causation Functional characteristic
Active failure Gas
Competence Hierarchy of control
Cross-functional team (CFF) incident analysis
Economic principle Inconsistency
Ensure safety Latent failure
Fluid Liability
Chapter 1: An introduction to safety management
• contributory negligence, which nullified employer liability if the injury

resulted from employee negligence
• assumption of safety risk, which nullified employer liability if the injured
was familiar with and accepted the safety risk that led to the injury
• the fellow servant rule, which nullified employer liability if the injury
resulted from the negligence of a fellow employee.
1.2.4 Employer liability

During the Industrial Revolution, there were no prescriptions governing safe
working conditions for employees and working conditions were very poor.
Employees comprised adult men and women, and children of all ages - some even
younger than five years old. in the second half of the 19th century, laws for making the
workplace safe were passed. These laws introduced employer liability and government
inspection programmes to oversee their implementation (Goetsch 2010:3; Grimaldi Et
Simonds 1989:31). This was the first significant effort to provide an industrial code for the
prevention of injuries and dangers to health and life.
1.2.5 Making equipment and the workplace safe

During the late 19th century, efforts to enhance safety in the workplace took a
different form. The use of child labour declined and was finally abolished in the 20th
century. Safety measures for the design and maintenance of different types of
machines, especially heavy-duty or dangerous machines, became a legal
requirement, Fire escapes became mandatory. In the USA, all main doors of buildings or
facilities that were used by the public had to open outward. Ventilation, illumination and
walkways became issues of concern.
1.2.6 Employee compensation legislation and insurance

Employee compensation legislation was introduced in the early 20th century. This
legislation determined that an employer's compensation to the injured employee did
not depend on whether either party had been negligent or not. The assumption was that
the employer and the employee were jointly responsible for the prevention of accidents
and injuries. Just as product prices reflect the running costs of the business, so too
losses arising from injuries of employees had to be considered an integral pan of the
running costs of the business (Grimaldi Et Simonds 1989:35). The costs associated with
employee compensation gave rise to establishing employee compensation insurance,
especially insurance against extreme possible losses, for example, extensive fire losses.
1.2.7 Extensive safety regulations and inspections

The second half of the 20th century saw a drastic increase in government
regulations pertaining to safety. The compliance with legislation, government
prescriptions and organisations own codes set a clear direction for ensuring safety
3
Safety Management in an Organisational Context
in the workplace. Owing to the adverse effects of modem business operations on

the natural environment, environmental protection gradually became an integral
part of safety. Government inspections of equipment, safety hazards, facilities and
conditions focused on identifying and rectifying faults (Ferry 1985:1-3).
1.2.8 Need for training in safety management

Understanding and proving the cause of an accident was difficult in the late
19th century. The high frequency of accidents resulted in a need for extensive
training in all aspects of safety in all types of work_ Formal academic university
courses along with informal, basic safety problem-solving courses were introduced.
1.2.9 Professionalisation of safety management

Because employers did not or could not always comply with legal requirements,
opportunities were created for entrepreneurs to establish private companies to
render safety management services to businesses at a cost. This resulted in the
establishment or professional associations for private safety management
practitioners in the late 19th century, which contributed substantially to improving
the quality of safety in general.
1.2.10 International focus

During the last quarter of the 20th century, nations realised that occupational health
and safety (OHS) in the workplace was facing major challenges in a worldwide
context. Harmful modern production methods to meet the needs of humanity have
created a worldwide concern for the environment. This has led to establishing
International organisations that offer guidance and services to prevent and reduce
possible adverse effects on the environment and on the 01-IS of employees in
modem business.
This brief history of safety management covers only the main points in the
development of safety management. In South Africa, the development of safety
management, including occupational health and environmental management,
shows similar trends to those described above. Although ail the other issues in
the historical development of safety management apply to South Africa, the utile
academic training of' safety practitioners has not been realised yet. The consistent
effort to establish a formal academic degree for safety management has been
unsuccessful during the past 20 years and more.
1.3 Nature of safety hazards

For something to be a safety hazard, it must be tangible. If it is tangible, the safety
hazard will consist of matter (Minus 2003:1). If it is not material, it cannot cause
harm or damage. Meeting the requirement for tangibility also implies that it can
4
Man-machine interface Safety risk management

Personal protective equipment (PPE) Solid
Professionalisation Structural characteristic
Safety hazard Study object
Safety management Tangibility
Safety risk assessment Threshold limit
Safety risk evaluation
Unsafery
1.1 Introduction
Managing safety in all contexts of life requires specific knowledge. skills and intentions
in order to prevent unsafety and ensure safety. Unsafety implies harm to people or damage to
property, equipment, business operations, the natural environment or environmental
ecosystems. Ensuring safety (and preventing unsafety or. in other words, unsafe situations}
applies to life in general and specifically to all work environments. This chapter presents bask
principles that apply to safety management to ensure a safe and healthy work environment_
1.2 Historical development

An overview of the development of safety management gives one a better understanding of the
current structure and functioning of safety management as a business practice. The following list presents
only the main historic events in this regard.
1.2.1 Initia1 safety laws

The Code or Hamrnurabi was written many centuries ago, It contained clauses for dealing with
injuries. fees for physicians and financial damages against people who harmed others (Goetsch 2010:21.
The approach was punitive and based on the an eye for an eye' principle.
1.2.2 Punishment for injuries

In the ancient world, workers were usually slaves who were regarded as property. This
approach meant that an injury to a slave was considered damage to property
- and damage to property called for punishment. However, if it was proven that the
injury was not done on purpose or intentionally, the offender was indemnified
without any consequences (Grimaldi a Simonds 1989:28-29).
1.2.3 Inadequate work injury indemnification

Before the Industrial Revolution. courts dealt with work injury claims against employers
under the common law. According to Grimaldi Fi Simonds 0989:341. under these laws
employers had The protection of three powerful defences, namely:
2
itself. However. if the match is struck on a matchbox, it can ignite and burn in
the form of thermal energy. The capability to provide thermal energy is
Inherently stored in the match.
2. Consistency (also called symmetry) relates to the unique. consistent way in
which each safety hazard functions. The origins of this consistency lie in
the natural. physical laws that apply to each safely hazard. Fur example,
pure water (a safety hazard) will mm i into ice when chilled to freezing point
under normal conditions at sea level. Ice (also a safety hazard) has a different
consistency to pure water. If heated, ice will melt and become pure water.
3. Interaction is the ability to exchange energy with other safety hazards
through contact. For example. striking (causing interaction) a match (a safety
hazard) on a matchbox (a safety hazard) will generate enough heat to ignite the
match.
1.4.3 People as safety hazards

Smit Ft Esterhuyzen (2014:91) explain that. based on the human body structure and
the functioning of the body's physiological systems, all nine (six structural and three
functional) characteristics of a safety hazard apply to people_ However, people have an
additional characteristic called inconsistency. Unlike physical substancts, thought
processes do not function according to natural laws. Human thought is governed by
normativity or `oughtness', which directs peoples behaviour. The mind is norm-
based and allows the person the freedom to choose how to behave. The unrestricted
freedom of the mind makes inconsistency a prominent characteristic of humans.
1.4.4 Types of safety hazards

There are only three different types of safety hazards, namely solids, fluids and
gases. Regardless of the form, a safety hazard could be either a single safety hazard. a
compound safety hazard or a multiple safety hazard.
• A single safety hazard is a pure safety hazard listed on the periodic table of
elements. In other words, a single safety hazard is an element.
• A compound safety hazard is made up of two or more single safety hazards.
which are combined into a compound hazard.
• A multiple safety hazard comprises any combination of single or compound
safety hazards, In this regard, a person is a multiple safety hazard.
6
1.5 The study object of safety management as a science
Definitions
The study object of a science refers to the focus of study.

The economic principle refers to a simple satisfactory balance between financial output and financial
returns.
The study object of safety management points to the phenomena in the world that are
the focus of safety management. The safety study object focuses on the interaction of
safety hazards. whether natural, planned or unplanned. and the exchange of energy.
The management study object focuses on the purposeful selection and use of
resources to achieve specific objectives, taking into account the economic principle.
The combined study object of safety management as a science focuses on applying the
scientific method to the analysis and solution or problems, arising from management decisions about
the safety and orderliness of the interaction between people and machines. with due consideration
of the economic principle ISmit 2009:71).
1.6 Basics of safety risk management

Effective safety management requires an understanding of the origins of safety risks as well as safety
risks in general.
hrlit1011
Safety risks originate from the interaction and energy exchange of safety hazards in accordance with
natural physical laws, and from the contribution of one or all
10 characteristics of safety hazards (Smit Et Esterhuyzen 2014:116).
7.6.7 Origins of safety risks

When safety hazards interact, some form of energy exchange occurs. The exchange of energy creates
threats, which can result in loss to people and the environment. These threats are called safety risks. It
is only when safety hazards make contact. interact and exchange energy that safety risks are generated.
If these requirements are not met, no safety risk originates.
As mentioned above, the study object of safety management as a science relates to the identification,
analysis and management of the interaction and energy exchange of safety hazards. The different
characteristics of safety hazards contribute to the nature of the safety risks that are created during
interaction and energy exchange.
7
For example, the density of petrol contributes to a safety risk because petrol vapour
can ignite. When the petrol vapour interacts with oxygen, it can reach a condition of
saturation, which ignites when interacting with the thermal energy of a source.
Petrol in its liquid state does not interact with oxygen in the same way because of its
higher density. Remember, a less dense safety hazard is not necessarily more
dangerous than a denser safety hazard and a denser safety hazard is not necessarily
more dangerous than a less dense safety hazard. The level of danger of a safety risk
depends on the nature of the situation.
1.6.2 Assessment of safety risks

It is only possible to manage a safety risk safely once one has concluded that a
safety risk in a given situation is of an acceptable level. A decision can only be
taken after the safety risk has been assessed. The safety risk assessment can be
performed by finding answers to the following questions:
• Which safety hazards, including people. will be involved in the interaction
and energy exchange?
• In which way will the safety hazards interact?
• What energies will be exchanged during the interaction?
• What will the individual and combined contributions of the safety hazards
and their characteristics be in contributing to the safety risk?
• How violent or dangerous will the energy exchanges be?
• What effects will the met& exchanges have on the safety hazards that were
involved and on the environment?
• Will the interaction go as planned, or not? Could an unplanned result arise?
• What circumstances can contribute to an unplanned interaction?
• What will the level of safety risk be during and after the process of energy
exchange, ranging from 'acceptable' to 'unacceptable' on a sliding scale?
Answering these questions will provide a framework of information that can be used
to determine how dangerous the safety hazard interaction and energy exchange
will be.
1.6.3 Evaluation of safety risks

Safety risk evaluation is a process of determining the acceptability of a safely risk that is
always hound to a specific situation. It must be remembered that prolonged exposure
to different substances (safety hazards) could cause different forms of loss to
different people (Acutt ft Hattingh 2013:195). The level of safety risk in a given
situation is judged as acceptable in accordance with the competence of the people
andior the threshold limits of the safety hazards involved in that situation. The maximum
acceptable level of safety risk in a specific situation indicates what the maximum exposure
to and endurance of threatening circumstances would be, without producing adverse
effects, for example, harm to people, damage to property
8
or a negative impact on the environment. If the effects of the energy exchange of the safety hazards
exceed the competence of any person involved, that level of safety risk is deemed to be unacceptable.
The same applies if the threshold limit of any
safety hazard involved is exceeded.
=111111111111111111M
maggimum
A threshold is the furthest extent (point) of endurance close to the level at which a specific adverse effect
may instantaneously manifest.
A threshold limit indicates the beginning point where, if exceeded, irreversible adverse effects will
definitely occur (Basketter et al 2010:167).
The competence of people refers to the quality of health, intellect capacity, emotional
intelligence as well as bodily and system functioning.
Example: Pouring boiling water into a chilled glass is an unacceptable safety risk for a person
operating with bare hands (competence). Boiling water will cause a chilled glass to crack or burst
{threshold
The level of safety risk can be represented by numerical values. For this purpose, matrices could be
used to quantify exposure to safety risks, the severity of exposure and the likelihood that safety hazard
interaction could accidently result in adverse effects (Fuller a Vassie 2004:2671. Values are
allocated on the basis of the severity of exposure and the likelihood that safety hazard
interaction could accidently result in adverse effects. This implies That the greater the severity and
likelihood, the higher the value. Each company can decide on its own value system.
7.6.4 Management of safety risks

Evaluating safety risks must result in the placement of controls to ensure that the safely level
requirements in a situation do not exceed the competence or safety threshold of the safety
hazards involved. The focus is on ensuring that safety hazards interact and exchange
energy in such a way that the safely risk that is generated does not result in unwanted
adverse consequences for all other safety
hazards (including people) involved in the situation, or in the immediate or remote environment.
Definition
Management comprises the processes of planning, organising, leading and controlling resources to realise
predetermined purposes on production and service delivery (Smit et al 2007:9).
9
Safety management needs to select and apply a range of appropriate resources that are in
line with organisational objectives and targets, and with due consideration for safety
risks and the economic principle. Safety management controls need to ensure that the
interaction and energy exchange of safety hazards go according to plan in order to
achieve and maintain financial sustainability on a safe and profitable basis.
1.7 Hierarchy of controls

Safety managers focus on reducing and managing the safety risks that safety hazards
pose in the workplace and environment. Manuele sees safety hazards as sources of
safety risks. while Grimaldi a Simonds contend that safety hazards are the origins of
unwanted loss (Manuele 1993:117; Grimaldi Et Simonds 1989:16). In order to minimise
risk in the work situation, the safety manager has to know and implement the hierarchy
of control. A hierarchy of control allows the safety manager to control safety risks in order
of effectiveness, starting with the elimination of safety hazards. The hierarchy of control
for reducing safety risks is made up of the eight aspects that are discussed below.
1.7.1 Elimination of safety hazards

Safety hazards can he regarded as any objects or substances in the workplace that can
cause loss to people and non-human safety hazards. If a safety hazard is not present in
a situation. it does not pose any safety risk because it cannot interact and exchange
energy. Eliminating safety hazards implies removing a threatening substance from the
work environment. Thus, if there is no safety hazard, there is no safety risk and no threat
is posed. This is the objective when developing a controlled working environment in
which a safety risk has been minimised or eliminated (Goetsch 2010:186: Ridley
2008:108).
1.1,2 Substitution of safety hazards

The substitution of safety hazards means replacing one safety hazard with another. The
substitution must contribute to the reduction of a safety risk and must create a more
acceptable safety risk lewd when interaction and energy exchange takes place.
Substitution also implies the modification of a safety hazard to achieve a similar result.
The unacceptable levels of safety risks that substances carry can be reduced by using
other substances that pose fewer safety risks (Steenkamp a Van Schoor 2013:119;
Ridley 2008:108). I3oth substitution and modification need to result in fewer safety risks
or safety risks that are easier to control.
1.7.3 Isolation of safety hazards

Isolating or separating safety hazards implies that those safety hazards are
confined to such an extent that they cannot generate safety risks by interacting and
exchanging energy with other safety hazards. Isolating or separating safety
10
hazards refers to confining substances that pose unwanted safety risks to an area (or
situation) where they cannot interact with other safety hazards. When isolating or
separating them, the possibility that safety rislcs will originate is nullified because contact is
prevented (Blunden Ft Thirlwell 2013:1441.
1.7.4 Engineering methods

Engineering plays a very important role by preventing or reducing safety risks by
designing, developing, assessing, managing, maintaining, reviewing and improving
controls penaining to the interaction and energy exchange ofsafety hazards. Stranks
allocates a dual responsibility to engineering a focus on designing and developing
hardware (such as equipment, machinery, tools and infrastructure) and designing and
developing procedures to operate this hardware safely (Stranks 2010:229). Engineering
professionals have the responsibility to ensure that the safety risks arising front safety
hazard interaction and energy exchange do not endanger the safety of people, property
and the environment (Flynn Ft Shaw 200823). The focus is on designing and developing
safe working procedures to ensure safe interaction and energy exchange during man-
machine interface.
Definition
Man-machine interface refers to people working with or handling any type and
number of safety hazard, for example machines, equipment and more.
1.7.5 Administrotive controls

Administrative controls initiated by management ensure that safety risks are dealt with
correctly and consistently (Reese 2009:190)- These controls give employees guidelines
when they interact and exchange energy with safety hazards in given situations. Safety
signs, which are a type of administrative control, guide workers to work safely.
Administrative control focuses on the behaviour of people to enhance safety in the
workplace. The supervisor plays an important role in administrative control by
developing safety working procedures and making sure that employees adhere to these
procedures.
1.7.6 Personal protective equipment

In many instances, the safety risks in given situations exceed the competence of
employees, in these cases, personal protective equipment (PPE) is provided to protect
employees against unacceptable levels of safety risks.
11
MEM
Personal protective equipment refers to a device or clothing that protects
employees who come into direct contact with safety hazards (Steerikamp Et Van
Scheior 2013:84).
This applies especially to unacceptable levels of safety risks. During the man-
machine interface, employees wearing PPE are protected because the interaction
and energy exchange between the PPE, which is itself a safety hazard, and other
safety hazards generate safety risks at an acceptable level. in terms of legislation,
PPE must be the last resort for an employer to ensure the safety of employees. All the
other prescribed controls for ensuring safety must be implemented first.
1.7.7 Training for competence

Employees as safety hazards need to be trained to acquire the competence to interact
and exchange energy wilh other safety hazards in any given situation. Initial and
follow-up job safety training provides the basis for competence of this nature
(Ridley 2008:59). Competence includes knowledge, skills and attitudes of safety
hazard interaction during specific tasks and in specific working environments
(Stranks 2010:138). Controlling the quality of the training content, processes and
outcomes enhances the employees' ability to perform tasks correctly and safely.
1.7.8 Behaviour control

The control of behaviour, by a process of peer observation and feedback, makes a
significant contribution to developing the self-control of employees (Geller 1996:184).
Developing self-control through peer observation helps employees to perform critical
safety behaviour consistently. The parameters of critical safety behaviour arc set by
management when they initiate administrative controls (Geller 1996:96).
1.8 Basic legal safety responsibilities of employers and employees

The regulation of safety through government legislation is a worldwide practice.
The Occupational Health and Safely Act 85 of 1993 (OHS Act) and the Mine Health
and Safety Act 29 of 1996 (MHS Act) regulate basic safety in organisations in
South Africa. The Acts distinguish between the legal responsibilities of employers
and employees.
1.8.1 Basic legal safety responsibilities of employers

The legal safely responsibilities of employers are to ensure that, whenever and
wherever employees are performing tasks, the safety risks that employees are
exposed to do not exceed their competence to deal with those safety risks. An
employer is any person who has subordinates who report to him or her. The
following legal responsibilities apply to all employers:
L2
• Provide a safe working environment

The employer of a business must provide employees with a safe place of work.
• Provide and maintain facilities and equipment that is safe
Employers (also managers and supervisors) must provide and maintain equipment that is
safe for employees. Facilities, machinery or equipment must not offer safety risks at
unacceptable levels when employees interact with these safety hazards.
Defi n it ion
Equipment is defined as any article or combination of articles assembled, arranged or

connected, which is used (or intended to be used):
• for converting any form of energy to perform work; or
• for developing, receiving, storing, containing, confining, transforming,
transmitting, transferring or controlling any form of energy (Occupational
Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993: s 1).
• Provide safe working systems

Legally, employers have the responsibility to provide and maintain safe systems of work.
This requirement is the basis for developing codes of practice. safe working procedures
and safe management systems. Practices, procedures and codes give directives on how
employees should interact with all objects and substances (safety hazards) in the
workplace.
• Perform safety risk assessment and provide control measures

Employers must examine all working conditions and equipment in order to make them
safe. Making working conditions and equipment safe involves three steps. namely:
I. identifying and analysing safety hazards
2. assessing and evaluating the safety risk level (acceptable or unacceptable)
3. developing and implementing control measures.
Employers have to familiarise themselves with all the safety hazards and their
interactions and energy exchanges in all the different workplaces in 3 plant or
business. Employers need to know what levels of safety risks these safety hazards pose
to employees under all the different working conditions in these plants or businesses.
They need to devise and apply measures that will control the levels of safety risks in
accordance with the hierarchy of controls.
• Develop and maintain employee competence

All employees must be informed, instructed and trained to acquire the necessary
competence to work safely in all working conditions in an organisation. Employee
competence needs to be consistently maintained through retraining and attending
refresher courses.
13
• Provide all necessary safety equipment

Employers must make all applicable safety equipment available to their subordinates, as and
when necessary, to ensure safe interaction with all safety hazards. The mandatory
provision of PPE is implied.
• Enforce legal safety requirements
It is the legal responsibility of employers to enforce the safety requirements, set out by
law, that apply to the activities of their specific organisation.
• Report and analyse occupational incidents

Employers are responsible for reporting certain types of incidents to the authorities. These
incidents comprise those that did result or could have resulted in adverse consequences
from unacceptable safety risks. Reported incidents also need to be analysed_ An
incident analysis provides an insight into the unplanned and unwanted interaction and
energy exchange of safety hazards and can be used to prevent a recurrence of the incident.
• Manage safety
Safety management applies the scientific method to the analysis and solution of
management decision problems and the orderly use of resources with due
consideration of the economic principle. It is the responsibility of employers to make this
happen in practice (see also Section 1.6.4). Employers need to make safety an integral
part of everyday production or service delivery. Consistent and rigorous safety risk
assessment and the application of appropriate safety management controls are essential in
this regard.
• Improve safety management continually

Employers are responsible for keeping the quality of safety management high at all
times. Regular innovation plays an important role in this regard. Guidelines for innovation
are acquired through consistent consultation with unions. employees, health and safety
committees, stakeholders, clients and other interest groups. These consultations help to
maintain a continual improvement approach.
1.0.2 Basic legal safety responsibilities of employees

In South Africa, both the OHS Act and the MRS Act stipulate the legal safety responsibilities
of employees in an organisation. The general safety responsibilities of employees are as
follows:
• Take care of the health and safety of themselves and their colleagues
Employees are responsible for their own health and safety in the workplace. They are
simultaneously responsible for the health and safety of their colleagues who may be
affected by what they do or fail to do.
• Co-operate with employers and managers
On safety matters in the workplace, it is the legal responsibility of employees to co-
operate with employers.
14
go Provide all necessary safety equipment

Employers must make all applicable safety equipment available to their subordinates, as and
when necessary, to ensure safe interaction with all safety hazards. The mandatory
provision of PPE is implied.
• Enforce legal safety requirements
It is the legal responsibility of employers to enforce the safety requirements, set out by
law, that apply to the activities of their specific organisation,
• Report and analyse occupational incidents
Employers are responsible for reporting certain types of incidents to the authorities. These
incidents comprise those that did result or could have resulted in adverse
consequences from unacceptable safety risks. Reported incidents also need to be
analysed. An incident analysis provides an insight into the unplanned and
unwanted interaction and energy exchange of safety hazards and can be used to
prevent a recurrence of the incident.
• Manage safety
Safety management applies the scientific method to the analysis and solution of
management decision problems and the orderly use of resources with due
consideration of the economic principle. It is the responsibility of employers to make this
happen in practice (see also Section 1.6.4). Employers need to make safety an integral
part of everyday production or service delivery. Consistent and rigorous safety risk
assessment and the application of appropriate safety management commis are essential in
this regard.
• Improve safety management continually
Employers are responsible for keeping the quality of safety management high at all
times. Regular innovation plays an important role in this regard. Guidelines for
innovation are acquired through consistent consultation with unions, employees, health
and safety committees, stakeholders, clients and other interest groups. These consultations
help to maintain a continual improvement approach.
1.8.2 Basic legal safety responsibilities of employees

In South Africa, both the OHS Act and the MHS Act stipulate the legal safety responsibilities
of employees in an organisation. The general safety responsibilities of employees are
as follows:
• Take care of the health and safety of themselves and their colleagues
Employees are responsible for their own health and safety in the workplace. They are
simultaneously responsible for the health and safety of their colleagues who may be
affected by what they do or fail to do.
• Co-operate with employers and managers
On safety matters in the workplace. it is the legal responsibility of employees to co-
operate with employers.
14
1.9.1 Accident causation models

Accidents occur for many different reasons and there are a number of models or
theories about the causes of occupational accidents.
Incident causation model

The incident causation model claims that accidents occur as a result of a series of
successive conditions (Germain et al 1996:14). The causation process can be
likened to the successive toppling of a row of dominoes. Each domino represents a
set of specific conditions that contribute to the eventual occurrence of an
accident.
/ / / / A 7 /
z- u -E.
n
R E
0
—1. ,., . T.3t

m `,9..
3 t
t.. 73' !'.c
-ti 1 la co 8 -E
D
: g .'- ro
c
Figure 1.1: Incident causation model
When the first domino topples, it results in the successive toppling of all the other
dominoes. Details of the causation dominoes are as follows:
• Inadequate safety risk assessment: Failure to assess safety risk completely
and effectively.
• Inadequate control: Failure to comply fully with legal safety regulations.
• Basic causes: Personal factors and job factors.
• Direct causes: At-risk behaviours and substandard conditions.
• Incident: Contact between safety hazards (in other words, interaction and
energy exchange),
• Unintended loss: Harm to people, and damage to property, production and
the environment,
The process of toppling could start with any one of the first three dominoes but, in
the final instance, causes can always be related back to the first domino. This model
demonstrates that accidents in the workplace have several interrelated causes. However,
if the series is interrupted by eliminating one of the factors, the toppling cannot occur
and accidents cannot happen.
16
Haddon Matrix (phases of an accident)

The Haddon Matrix (See NPAIHB n.d.), which was developed by William Haddon in
1970, states that all accidents go through three successive phases, namely the pre-
event. event, and post-event phases (Simon n.d.).
• The pre-event phase is made up of all the factors that were present during
the period before the accident actually occurred. These factors could be
anything from hardware (safety hazards such as buildings, equipment
and the environment) to people and their competence, systems and
organisational culture.
• The event phase comprises all the processes of safety hazard interaction and
energy exchange during and at the point of impact
• The post-event phase contains all the effects that result from the safety
hazard interaction and energy exchange after the moment of impact. For
example, while talking on his phone, a driver skips a stop sign (pre-event
phase). He collides with another car, which damages the front of his car and
the right side of the other car (event phase). As a result of the impact, the
second car overturns and strikes a lamp post (post-event phase).
Being able to recognise the phases of an accident allows one to identify the specific
elements that played a role during the total episode or the accident.
Incident triangle
Through research and observation. it was concluded that different types of accidents in
an organisation showed a specific pattem. Bird compiled a triangle to show the
relationship between different types of incidents that occur in a business (Germain et
al 1998:11). This is known as the incident triangle.
17
• Obey all valid safety-related orders

Employees have the responsibility to obey all valid safety-related orders from
employers and staff to whom they report. They have to abide by the health and safety
rules and procedures that were set by management.
• Report unsafe conditions and safety incidents
Employees have to report any unsafe condition in the workplace or environment that has
an unacceptable safety risk level. They are also compelled to report all safety incidents.
whether they were involved in the incident or not.
• Behave respectfully
AB employees in an organisation need to behave respectfully when interacting with
their colleagues or other people, and with the facilities or equipment of the organisation.
Nothing that is provided in the interest or advancement of health and safety in the
workplace may be interfered with, damaged or misused.
1.8.3 sole of the safety practitioner as an employee

The safety practitioner plays an imponani role during all phases of safety
management by designing, developing, implementing, managing, maintaining,
reviewing and innovating safety controls with the focus on the effective interaction and
energy exchange between safety hazards (Stranks 2010:119-1201. The aim is to ensure the
most effective and safest interaction and energy exchange between safety hazards in all
business operations. The main function of the safety practitioner is to advise decision
makers (management and interest groups) on world hest practices for dealing with safety
risks, and to develop and implement safety controls during all phases of safety risk
evaluation.
1.9 Accidents and safety hazards
lint! ion
Goetsch describes accidents as unexpected happenings that may cause harm to

people and damage to property', business operations or to elements in the immediate or
distant environment (Goetsch 2010:495).
Safety risks that arise from the interaclion of safety hazards frequently lead to
accidents. An accident occurs as a result of an unacceptable safety risk that exceeds the
competence of the person or people or the threshold limit or limits of substances in a given
situation. Safety risks of this nature originate from the energy exchange chat occurs
during the interaction of safety hazards.
15
Serious or major injuries
Minor injuries
Property damage
accidents
Incidents with no visible

injury/damage
At-risk behaviour - r i p
Figure 1.2: The incident triangle
The ratio implies that for every 600 incidents with no observable effects, one can
expect 30 property damage accidents, 10 minor injuries and 1 major (fatal) injury. In
recent years. the layer of at-risk behaviour was added because unsafe acts, of
which many occur every day, precede all incidents. Occurrences in preceding layers
serve as warnings of what to expect next.
1.9.2 Active and latent failures (human error)

Active failures refer to unsafe or inappropriate acts that employees commit when
performing tasks. Acts of this nature usually result in some kind of safety incident
(Reason 2007:173). Active failures are indicative of people applying energy
(frequently using some form of equipment) that does not fit the requirements of the
tasks and that exceeds the competence of tither people or the threshold limits of
other hardware involved. Latent failures flow from activities or conditions that are
not specifically part of a task but have an adverse influence on the performance of
the task (Reason 2007:173). For example, an employee may fail to use safety
goggles and lose an eye during grinding; this is an active failure. However. if the
store could not replace his broken goggles and he had to work without them, ills a
latent failure.
1.9.3 Accident investigation

Accident investigation focuses on identifying the causes of accidents. This provides
the basis for developing and implementing management controls to prevent a
recurrence of the incident and to improve controls or similar situations (Goetsch
2010:157). In this respect, effective accident investigation plays an important role In
enhancing the safe interaction and energy exchange of safety hazards.
18
1.9.4 Costs of accidents

Cost-related accidents in the workplace comprise two elements, namely direct costs
and indirect or hidden costs. Direct costs relate to medical costs and lost time as a
result of accidents. These costs are easy to determine. indirect costs refer to things
such as production loss, damage to buildings and equipment, loss of basic materials,
legal fees, and replacing injured or deceased workers. These costs, which usually
exceed direct costs, are also called hidden costs because they are hard to determine
(Germain et at 1998:17).
1.10 Multidisciplinary focus

Safety management can only be effective if it recognises and uses the expertise of
other disciplines. This usually occurs within multidisciplinary teams railed
crossfunctional teams (CFTs). These teams help to design, develop, assess, manage,
review, maintain and improve safety controls. The focus is on creating a safe
working environment by ensuring effective interaction and energy exchange between
safety hazards at all times. A CFT could include, among others, members of the
following management levels and/or disciplines (Goetsch 2010:64-74):
• line manager as the chairperson who needs the input and collaboration of
the team
• safety manager or practitioner as an expert in safety management
• engineer who focuses on the design of hardware, safety procedures and the
working environment
• occupational health practitioner or nurse who focuses on occupational health
issues
• occupational hygienist in charge of hygiene in the workplace
• ergonomist who focuses on the man-machine interface in given
environments
• financial manager who provides input an monetary issues
• human resource officer who handles the employees competences and needs
• environmental expert who addresses all aspects of the natural environment
• members of other disciplines, workforces. stakeholders or interest groups as
may be required at a particular time.
The purpose of the CFT is to provide input about all elements of effective safety
management in the workplace and under all conditions.
1.11 Role and importance of safety signs

Safety signs play an important role in managing safety. The purpose of safety signs is to
prescribe (or mandate), inform and warn employees on safety behaviour and to prevent
employees foam performing certain risk-bearing activities. The aim of safety
19
signs in the workplace is to remind employees not to interact with safety hazards
that could cause harm to people or damage the facilities or the environment. Safety
signs for different areas in the workplace make use of different colours, symbols,
numbers and shapes to convey a message. Employees need to be trained to identify,
understand and obey the directives of safety signs.
1.12 Guidelines for emergency preparedness

All businesses must be prepared for an emergency. Specific guidelines need to be
considered when preparing for an emergency. These include the following:
• Preparations for emergencies need to be complete before any business
operation starts.
• Health and safety risk assessment (pertaining to all aspects of business
operations) needs to be in place before initial and new business operations
commence.
• Procedures for dealing with different kinds of emergencies need to be
established and tested, for example, fires, explosions, machine breakdowns
and electricity outages.
• Employees need to be prepared for and competent in handling emergencies.
• Responsibilities dealing with different types and different parts of
emergencies need to be allocated to the relevant staff.
• Procedures and contents of communication during emergencies need to be
finalised.
• Protocols and procedures for co-operating with external sources or assistance
need to be established and communicated, for example. local government,
firefighting, the police and medical services.
• Procedures for communicating with the local community need to be
developed.
• Employees need to be familiar with evacuation procedures. which should be
practised regularly.
• Management needs to review all guidelines for dealing with emergencies
when preparing for any of these occurrences (Stranks 2010:73-741.
To be prepared for any emergency is part of everyday safe business management.
1.13 Basic philosophical approach

The practice of safety and safety management is guided by basic principles.
This chapter only deals with basic considerations. These points provide some
philosophical directives about managing OHS in the workplace.
20
1.73.7 Safety is a value, not a priority

Safety encompasses good health and being free from life-threatening situations.
Safety involves a value for life and because values are not negotiable, safety is not
negotiable. Safety can therefore never be a priority. Whenever something becomes a
priority, it becomes negotiable. That would mean that safety is no longer a
nonnegotiable value.
7.73.2 Production includes safety

Safety is an inseparable and inalienable part of production. Production requirements
may never override safety requirements.
1.73.3 All tasks and work processes pose safety risks

As mentioned in Section 1.6.1. safety risks originate when safety hazards interact
and exchange energy. People interact with safety hazards in all tasks and in all
workplaces. Whenever and wherever people interact with safety hazards, safety risks are
present. Thus, there is no task or work processes, whether simple or difficult, that is
without safety risk.
1.13.4 No task justifies harm or damage

Whenever people work, they are exposed to different levels of safety risks. However. no
task or work is worth experiencing loss because a safety risk was ignored.
1.13.5 Rigorous analysis

Developing and implementing control measures to mitigate safety risks are based on
a safety risk assessment. This assessment must he rigorously performed before a
task commences.
1.13.6 Interdependent responsibility

The workplace needs to be as safe as possible. Employers (as well as managers
and supervisors) and employees are jointly responsible for ensuring that safety Is
maintained at all times. This joint responsibility should rest on the 'I am my
brother's keeper principle. Mutual consultation on safety is essential,
1.13.7 All safety incidents as preventable

Safety management focuses on the orderly use or resources to achieve safety
management decisions with due consideration for the economic principle. Based on
existing world best practices for rigorous analysis and the development of safety
risk control systems, it is quite possible to ensure that safety risk levels do not get
out of control to such an extent that they result in harm or damage.
21
1.13.8 Multidisciplinary approach

As mentioned in Section 1.10. the nature of safety hazards, their interaction and
energy exchange in the workplace and environment concern different scientific
fields of study. Preventing, mitigating and rectifying any 'at-risk' situation requires
the involvement and input of different disciplines or professions.
1.13.9 No one knows everything

All people have different limitations. This means that people cannot foresee all the
possible consequences when safety hazards interact and exchange energy in all life
situations.
7.73.10 Mandating and monitoring the role of the government

The government sets legislative requirements for the application of safety management in
practice and expects husinesses to abide by these directives through the consistent
monitoring of legal compliance. The role of the government ensures that an acceptable
level of quality in safety management is maintained as far as possible.
1.14 Conclusion
This chapter briefly introduced safety management. The most important aspect of
safety management is safely managing the interaction and energy exchange of
safety hazards. In order to achieve this primary objective, safety management
requires and uses appropriate resources of all kinds. All safety management
activities are implemented with due consideration for the economic principle. Safety
management follows a philosophical approach that guides a range of solutions to
enhance safety in the work environment.
Self-assessment questions
1. Present a short overview of the historical development of safety management.

2. Explain the nature of safety hazards.
3. Identify the study object of safety management.
4. Explain the origin of safety risks.
5. List the basic safety responsibilities of employers and employees.
6. Explain the hierarchy of safety management
7. List three theories on accident causation and explain one of them.
8. Discuss the philosophical approach to safety management
9. Explain the need for personal protective equipment (PPE) in managing safety.
10. Discuss the importance of cross-functional teams (CFTs) in safety management
22
Chapter 1: An introduction to Safety management
References
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Practitioners. 3rd ed. Cape Town: Juts.
Basketter DA, Broekhuizen C. Fieldsend M, Kirkwood S. Mascarenhase R. Maurer K,
Pedersen C, Rodriguez C ft Schiff HE. 2010. Defining occupational and consumer
exposure limits for enzyme protein respiratory allergens under REACH. Toxicology,
268(31:165-170.
Blunden T Et 'Mirlwell J. 2013. Mastering Operational Risk. Harlow: Pearson.
Crowell B. 2006. Discover Physics, Light and Mauer, California: Fullerton.
Ferry TS. 1985. Safety Management Planning. 2nd ed. Santa Monica: The Merril Company. Flynn
A Et Shaw J. 2008. Safety Mattersl A Guide to Health 11 Safety at Work. Dublin:
Management Briefs.
Fuller LW Et Vassie LH. 2004. Health and Safety Management: Principles and Best Practice,
London: Prentice Hall.
Geller ES, 1996. Working Safe: How to Help People Actively Care for Health and Safety.
Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Germain LG, Arnold RA. Rowan JR Et Roane JR. 1998. Safety. Health. Environment and
Quality Management: A Practitioner's Guide. Loganville. Georgia: International Risk
Control America.
Goetsch DL. 2010. The Basics of Occupational Safety. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Grimaldi JV H simonds RH, 1989. Sa,fery Management. 5th ed. Homewood: Irwin,
Kunus R. 2003. States of Matter. Ron Rums' School for Champions. Available: www.school-
for-champions.comfscience, matter states.hon. (Accessed 1 June 2013).
Manuele FA. 1993. On rhe Practice of Safety. New York: Van Nostrand-Reinhold.
NPA11113. n.d. Indian leadership far Indian health. Haddon's Matrix. Available: hrtp:Ilwyryt.
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12 October 20151.
Reason J. 2007. Human Error. Cambridge: University Press.
Reese CD. 2009. Occupational Health and Safety Management. Florida: Lewis Publishers, Ridley
J. 2008. Health and Safety in Brief 4th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Simon MR. n.d. Using the Haddon Matrix to identify strategies to prevent playground
Injuries. Available: www.playgrounds.uokik.govplidownloadien_matrix.pdf. (Accessed
12 October 2015).
Stnit PJ, Cronje Brevis T Ft Vrba MJ. 2007. Management Principles: ,A Contemporary
Edition for Africa. 4th ed. Cape Town: luta,
Smit Si. 2009. Introduction to Health and Safety Management. Module CFHSM501. Pretoria:
Foundation for Professional Development.
Smit SI Et Esterhuyzen E 2014. The Basics of Safety Hazards and the Origins of Safety Risk.
Pretoria: Business Print.
23
Steenkamp R Et Van Schoor A. 2013. Occupational Safely ft Heahh: A TQM ft Quality of

Work Life Approach. Cape Town: _luta.
Stranks J. 2010, Health and Safety at Work; An Essential Guide for Managers, 91h ed. London:
Kogan Page.
Legislation
Acts
Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996.
Occupational Health and Safety Act f15 of 1993.
24
Chapter 2
Safety in industry
Cheryl Rietander
Learning outcomes
• explain the legislative requirements linked to safety in industries
• explain the international standards of the International Organization For
Standardization (ISO) and how these standards link into industry
• describe what industrial safety is
• describe industrial management and work practices
• explain who the safety-man is and the responsibilities of this person
• describe safety practices in industry
• explain the essentials of hazard communication
• describe emergency management and response plans_
Key terms
Administrative controls Mechanical hazards
Biological hazards Physical hazards
Chemical hazards Programme hazards
Emergency management Psychosocial hazards
Engineering controls Occupational health and safety (OHS)
Ergonomical hazards Occupational Safety and Health
Hazard communication (HAZCOM) Administration (OSHA)
Industrial safety OHSAS 18000: Occupational health
International Organization for and safety system
Standardization (ISO) Response plan
ISO Standard Safety-man
ISO 9000: Quality management system Safe practice
ISO 14000: Environmental System hazards
management system
2.1 Introduction
Safety has been a concern of humankind since the development of civilisation.
Samarian laws in 3500 Bc provided compensation for injured workers and
this ultimately led to the development of similar codes in Greece. Rome and
Arab countries. Hanunurahi, a Babylonian king who reigned from about 1792 BC to
1750 BC, developed a code of law, known as the Code of Hammurabi. It was
thought to have been one of the earliest surviving codes of law known to us
until the discovery of the Code of Lipit-Ishtar in 1930, which was written around
L780 BC. The Code of Hammurahi consisted of 282 sections, some of which made
reference to injuries, that are similar to the current laws on workers' compensation.
The Industrial Revolution took place in Europe in the I Rib century and had a
significant effect on society and individuals. Before the Industrial Revolution,
manufacturing work took place in homes and on farms using simple hand tools
and small basic machines. The Industrial Revolution led to the development of
factories, power-driven machinery and mass production, albeit on a smaller scale
than we know today in the 21st century.
Many workers were seriously injured or died during the Industrial Revolution
because their employers forced them to work in dangerous conditions in factories or
to use machinery with few safety precautions. In the 21st centw-y, employees are
protected by legislation and thus there should be fewer injuries and fatalities in
industrial environments owing to safer working conditions.
2.2 Legal requirements of safety in industry

If we look at today's society and the statistics linked to occupational injuries and
diseases in industry, the question that should he asked is: Are employers expecting
employees to work in unsafe and unhealthy conditions? Let's take a look at the
legislation that relates to health and safety in South Africa.
2.2.1 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa is the foundation of South Africa's
democracy and the supreme law of the country. lt preserves the rights of all people in
South Africa and is the basis upon which other laws are written. According to
section 7(2) in Chapter 2 of the Constitution, the 'state must respect, protect,
promote and fulfil the rights in the Bill of Rights:
In addition, section 24(a) and 04 of the Constitution states that every South
African citizen has a right to a healthy and safe working environment that is not
harmful to his or her health and well-being.
2.2.2 Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996

Section 5 of the Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996 ensures the protection of
miners against unsafe and unhealthy conditions and ensures that hazards and/or
risks are identified, assessed, removed and controlled.
2.2.3 Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 and regulations

Section 8(11 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 (OHS Act)
stipulates that employers must ensure a safe and healthy working environment
26
Chapter 2: Safety in industry
For employees. Section 8(2) further requires that employers should ensure that any hazard
or risk is removed or mitigated to avoid potential injury or disease. It also requires that
employers should identify potential hazards and/or risks and establish measures to control
these hazards and/or risks.
The OHS Act has specific regulations linked to it that place emphasis on these
hazardous conditions. namely:
• Asbestos Regulations
• Construction Regulations
• Driven Machinery Regulations
• Electrical Installation Regulations
• Electrical Machinery Regulations
• Environmental Regulations for Workplaces
• Explosives Regulations
• Facilities Regulations
• General Machinery Regulations
• Hazardous Chemical Substances Regulations
• Lead Regulations
• Major Hazard Installation Regulations
• Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Regulations
• Pressure Equipment Regulations
• Regulations concerning the Certificate of Competency
• Regulations on hazardous work by children in South Africa.
2.3 Managing occupational health and safety in industry

Occupational health and safety (OHS) laws have been in existence since Egyptian times
even though thousands of workers were exploited and died. These laws have continued
into modern times but today, in the 21st century. we have far more stringent laws.
Without proper and effective OHS laws in our dynamic and dangerous industrial
environments, the employers of today would he no different to the ancient Egyptian
employers and employers during the Industrial Revolution who exploited workers. But how
do the employers of today ensure safety in industry?
Numerous safety management systems have been developed to ensure legislative
compliance and the safety of employees. However, one needs to ensure that whatever
system is implemented is the correct system for that type of industry. The International
Organization for Standardization, better known as ISO. is an independent non-
governmental organisation (NGO) that develops world-class products. services and
systems to ensure the standardisation of quality. safety and efficiency. There arc 161
member countries and more than 21 000 international standards have been published.
According to the ISO (n.d.), the standards of importance to industry are:
27
• ISO 9000 Quality management system

• ISO 14000 Environmental management system
• OHSAS 18000 Occupational health and safety management system
(OHSAS 18000 will become ISO 45001 in 2017).
Definition
Standards developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

are documents providing specifications and guidelines that are used within an
organisation to ensure that products, materials, processes and services are within
the legal parameters and fit for the purpose intended (ISO n.d.),
2.3.1 150 9000: Quality management system

The ISO 9000 quality management series addresses all aspects of quality and
provides guidance to organisations to ensure that the quality of products and
services meet customer requirements. The ISO 9000 series consists of:
• ISO 9000:2015, which discusses the basic concepts and principles of quality
management
• ISO 9001:2015. which discusses the requirements for a quality management
system
• ISO 9004:2009. which emphasises the effectiveness of quality management
systems
• ISO 19011:2011, which focuses on internal and external audits related to
quality management systems.
2.3.2 150 14000: Environmental management system

The ISO 14000 environmental management series provides tools for companies
and organisations to help them manage their environmental responsibilities. The
ISO 14000 series consists of:
• ISO 14000, which focuses on the environmental aspects an organisation is
required to address to ensure environmental responsibility
• ISO 14001:2015. which emphasises environmental systems
• ISO 14006:2011, which focuses on aspects such as communication, labelling,
audits. life-cycle analysis and the environmental challenges of climate change.
2.3.3 OHSAS 18000(150 45001): Occupational health and safety

management system
OHSAS 18000 emphasises occupational health and safety management within an
organisation in order to improve and control health and safety risks. OHSAS 18000
consists of two parts:
• OHASAS 18001, which includes occupational health and safety management
system specifications
28
• OHASAS 18002. which includes guidelines for the implementation of an

occupational health and safety management system.
It must be noted at this paint that the 01-1SAS 18000 is undergoing changes and
will become ISO 45001 in 2017.
2.4 Key principles

Occupational health and safety is a diverse field comprised of many different
scientific fields. There are various role-players, all of whom have an essential part to
play in making OHS a success in an organisation.
Safety in industry, although not new, requires that staff members other than
the 'safety-man' pay attention to safety (AIli 2008:17). The employer is the crucial
component within a safety system as he or she takes the ultimate responsibility and
accountabil i'fy. However, the employer is not the only person responsible for safety:
each individual is responsible for his or her own safety and for the safety of those
around them (Speegle 2013:4).
In the context of occupational health and safety, industrial safety can be defined as
follows:
Definition
Industrial safety refers to all aspects within an industrial setting concerning the
protection of employees and assets by minimising hazards, risks, incidents and
accidents (Safeopedia n.d.).
Industrial safety covers aspects such as:
• process and production safety
• material safety
• workplace safety
• fire safety
• electrical sa fety
• building and structural safety
• environmental safety.
An industrial facility's safety is dependent on the management of its operations and

culture. One must, however, bear in mind that there is no 'risk-free environment*.
There are always hazards and risks in anything we do. Industry safety is enforced by
law and the law requires that employees are informed of all exposure to risks.
Industrial decision making is risk-based as it consists of activities that cannot be
managed and controlled by simple rules and regulations. However, industries strive
to operate within a risk-free environment in an effort to keep employees, the public
and the surrounding environment safe. Risks in industry cannot be totally
eliminated but can be minimised to an acceptable level by means of engineering
controls and good design (Speegle 2013:4).
29
In today's competitive industrial environment, employees often assume

multidisciplinary rotes and tend to fulfil more than one role. For example, one
employee might be concerned with safety, environmental management, quality
management and even public relations as delegated by management. Evolving
technological developments require that industry sets the pace and keeps abreast
of the latest safety developments within this dynamic system in order to survive
and remain competitive in the market (Speegle 20 k 34-5).
In the past. safety was regarded as a 'low-tech job but this is no longer true.
Safety has become a scientific discipline in its own right within the business
management sphere. where management acknowledges that a safe environment
means better production and thus better profits. Safety officers in industry today
are required to quantify the costs, savings and benefits of working safely.
It should be noted that co-operation between management and employees
develops trust and openness. One can claim that management must be considered as
just another part of the safety workforce (Speegle 2013:6).
According to Speegle (2013:6), industry has changed over the past 30 years and
includes:
• workforce diversification
• technological enhancement (such as computers and social media)
• stringent legislative requirements (envisioned in the OHS Act)
• more emphasis on teamwork
• quality improvement
• involvement of employees in hazard analysis.
As a result of these industrial changes, automated control systems and complexities as

well as employment requirements have changed, meaning that employees are
required to be knowledgeable, experienced and trained to function in the industrial
environment. No longer can employees be taken off the street to conduct simple
industrial tasks, as was often done during the Industrial Revolution and early 1900s.
As the Industrial Revolution progressed, so did the technical training of employees, to
the point that they became operators. instrument technicians and analysts, and were
no longer seen as mere 'blue-collar workers'. As more complex technologically
developed machinery came on the scene, the nerd for skilled, knowledgeable and
trained employees increased. According to Speegle (2013:9-11), these employees
require various skills and knowledge, namely:
• technical expertise
• communication skills
• computer literacy
• interpersonal skills
• problem-solving skills
30
• legislative knowledge
• knowledge of quality and continuous improvement
• training knowledge and skills.
2.5 Management responsibilities and work practices

Occupational safety is concerned with the improvement of workplace conditions
and the elimination and management of risks. it is also concerned with reducing
profit losses and increasing organisational productivity to meet organisational
objectives, and to enhance stakeholder confidence through a structured and
systematic management programme (Guild et al 2001:21).
Chief executive officers (CEOs) and managers know that good occupational health
and safety principles lead to good business and that in today's dynamic society no
business will flourish if the CEO and managers do not demonstrate good safely
principles through their leadership (Ohio Bureau of Workers* Compensation n.d,:5).
Management is confronted daily with challenges that require immediate
attention. The temptation to overlook safety and even health aspects is a reality in
many organisations. However, experienced, knowledgeable managers will establish
and follow through with safety policies. procedures and practices to ensure
employee safety and the prevention of unnecessary incidents and accidents (Ohio
Bureau of Workers' Compensation n.d.:5).
In an effort to ensure that safety is maintained and managed, employers must
become knowledgeable about safety legislation as it outlines and guides employers
and empluyees about their responsibilities. Occupational health and safety
legislation has in the past decade Or so become more prescriptive and rule-based.
with specific actions initiated to meet employee and stakeholder expectations. It is
from these guidelines that employers develop safe work practices to identify
potential hazards, to provide guidelines of control and to communicate safety
policies, for example accident prevention policies (Guild et al 2001:21).
A risk-based approach has been accepted by most industries as the means to
establish internal industrial controls together with consistent reviews and reporting
systems, There are numerous systems that employers can implement and many of
them can be run parallel to one another and consecutively, such as the 1S0
standards. As illustrated in Figure 2.1. these ISO standards have certain aspects in
common, namely:
• policy
• organisational planning
• implementation and operational programmes
• monitoring
• management review
• corrective actions.
31
nt
continual Improveme
S. Review' ,2
,
111,79
Figure 2.1: The ISO management loop
Source: Guild et al {2601.211
2.6 Process safety management

Throughout history, we have heard of industrial disasters that have taken innocent
lives and destroyed property and the environment. One disaster was at the Union
Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal. India. where 30 tonnes of highly toxic gas
(methyl isaryanate) was released into the environment, resulting in the exposure of
over 600 000 people and a fatality rate of over 16 000 (Taylor 2014). This disaster
occurred in 1984 when safety systems failed to contain the leakage of methyl
isocyanate (The Bhopal Medical Appeal n.d.).
Hazardous chemical substances (HCS) remain in the atmosphere for years and even
centuries. Exposure to HCS can have physiological effects on the body; for example, on
those who have survived industrial disasters such as a gas leak incident. More than
3(1 years later, the disastrous consequences of the Bhopal disaster are still evident and
many of the younger generation are now giving birth to mentally and physically
disabled children because of their exposure to the release of HCS in 1984 (Taylor 2014).
As a result of the increase in devastating industrial disasters, many countries began to
look into preventative ways of managing and controlling these catastrophes. The
US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) was tasked with
developing a standard that could manage and control these types of disasters,
with the main aim of minimising the consequences if toxic, flammable, corrosive
32
and/or explosive substances were released. The result was the process safely
management (PSM) standard called CFR 1910.319, where 14 key demerits were
identified that industry should address in order to minimise catastrophic disasters.
According to Speegle (2013:205-206), these 14 elements are:
L. Management of change
2. Employee involvement
3. Process safety data
4. Process hazard analysis
5. Operational procedures
6. Contractors
7. Safety reviews leg pre-stan-up)
11. Permit systems
9. Mechanical reliability and integrity t0.
Incident and accident investigations It.
Compliance audits
L2. Emergency preparedness
13. Training
14. Trade secrets.
Since the inception of the PSM standard, there have been many positive changes. It has
been proven that a change in attitude has the greatest influence on employees. In
industry today, no employee should consider beginning any action before conducting
a pre-start-up safety check on equipment or machinery. These prestart-up safety
procedures have expanded into the fields of environmental and industrial hygiene
(Speegle 2013:205-206).
It must, however, be emphasised that process safety management alone will not
minimise and eliminate all incidents but it has helped to reduce industrial accidents
(Speegle 2013:205-2061.
2.7 The safety-man

The safety-man is known by many names such as a safety officer a safety adviser; a safety
practitioner; a safety manager; a safety. health, environment and quality (SHEQ) manager; and
a safety, health, environment, risk and quality (SHERQ) manager.
=m i g i i MimamM . = m
The safety-man performs the function of advising, guiding and supporting the
organisation's operational management. It is the operational management's
responsibility to ensure that the organisation fully complies with OHS requirements in the
workplace. Besides maintaining and co-ordinating safety programme records and activities,
a safety-man has no line authority to implement, control or enforce safety matters in the
working environment.
33
Regardless of the name or industry the major responsibility of the safety-man is to

implement an effective and efficient safety management system. The safety-man is
often given additional tasks and has to manage subordinates. He or she is therefore
also involved in management functions, namely planning, organising, motivating
and controlling (Saunders 1991:101).
According to Youth in Construction (n.d.), responsibilities of the safety-man include

but are not limited to:
• acting as adviser to the CEO and management on health and safety aspects in
the organisation
• implementing, maintaining and managing health and safety programmes
and systems, including analysing legislation, formulating and implementing
policy, and monitoring and maintaining policy and OHS systems
• managing OHS planning, which includes reviewing policy, plans and
programmes; identifying various options; and compiling policy, plans and
programmes
• promoting health and safety in the workplace and conducting workplace
inspections
• managing and maintaining hazard identification and risk assessments (H1RA.$)
• implementing safety controls; implementing accident prevention
programmes. including rehabilitative programmes and assistance to injuries
and sick employees; and conducting accident investigations
• managing and maintaining safety programmes, including toolbox talks,
personal protective equipment (PPE) programmes and hazardous substance
programmes for the safe handling, storage and transport of these hazardous
substances
• managing safety committees and ensuring the legal appointment of safety
representatives
• co-ordinating emergency programmes with fur teams
• identifying, managing and conducting,g safety training
• identifying, managing, maintaining andfor developing OHS resources, OHS
life cycles, and OHS reporting and recording systems
• identifying, developing, managing and maintaining OHS surveillance
progra nimes
• conducting OHS research and development.
The job description of a safety-man is not that of a nine-to-five office worker, but of
a person who is out in the field and visible on the plant. It may also involve
extensive travelling from plant to plant. A safety-man should only be in the office
when compiling reports. A safety-man is required to interact with various types of
people from different walks of life and even with people in different industrial
environments. Teamwork is an essential part of a safety-man's portfolio.
34
According to Youth in Construction (n.d.). a safety-man needs different character

traits, namely tact and diplomacy, independence (being able to work on his or her
own as pan of a team), integrity and honesty. Other traits include being disciplined,
open-minded, hard-working, friendly and energetic. A safety-man should possess
the following skills:
• the ability to master the science of safety (technical knowledge) as a basis for
supporting management
• the ability to perform the supportive role effectively
• good communication and interpersonal skills
• language skills
• co-ordinating skills
• analytical skills
• problem-solving skills
• management skills
• networking skills
• computer literacy.
2.8 Safety practices

In industry, employers and employees are faced daily with hazards and risks that
need to be managed, treated and/or eliminated (Speegle 2013:205-206). These
hazards and risks include the following:
• Physical hazards: These include thermal (hoticohn. ventilation, illumination,
vibration and radiation hazards.
• Chemical hazards: These include liquids and gases, fumes and vapours,
chemical dust, irritants and asphyxiates.
• Biological hazards: These include bacteria, viruses, fungi and moulds, and
womis and parasites.
• Mechanical hazards: These include electricity and human-error hazards as
well as machine safeguards and lack of machine maintenance.
• Ergonomic hazards: These include load handling, lifting and bending, and
human-machine design.
• Psychosocial hazards: These include work stress, shift work. fatigue and
boredom.
• System and programme hazards: These include policies. appointments and
registers.
Speegle (2013:103) refers to dealing with hazards and risks as part of the safety-
man's responsibilities. He or she should thus have knowledge of safety practices to be
used in managing, treating and/or eliminating these hazards and risks. According to
Speegle (2013:130), these include engineering and administrative controls.
35
2.8.1 Engineering controls

Once hazards and risks have been identified, they need to be controlled. The primary
means of reducing and/or eliminating hazards and risks is through engineering
controls, which consist of principles such as enclosure, isolation and ventilation.
Engineering controls could include indication devices such as alarms as well as
shutdown devices. Engineering controls are built into processes and systems and
form part of the process equipment (Speegle 2013:1031.
Good design and good procedures are means of eliminating and controlling
hazards. Speegle (2013:1301 refers to the following sequence when conducting
hazard control:
• Use of manufacturer-safe machine guards is preferred. Where no safeguards
are available, safety devices are used, for example belt guards and railings.
• Automatic warning signal devices should be installed where safeguards and
safety devices are impractical, for example signs, labels and/or flashing lights.
• If neither of these controls is feasible, there should be clear, brief and concise
procedures and instructions. PPE and implementation of effective training.
Types of engineering eontrols

Engineering controls are vast and varied, ranging from less expensive to extremely
expensive, and from simple to complex controls. The main purpose of engineering
controls is to prevent catastrophic failures that could ultimately result in severe
property damage and fatalities. According to Speegle (2013:131-1321. examples of
engineering control are:
• fire alarms and sprinklers
• detection systems
• toxic-gas alarms
• fail-safe devices
• interlocks
• process containment systems
• process upset control systems
• ventilation
• redesign and modification of machines and/or equipment.
Hazard elimination
According to Speegle 12013:1321, hazard elimination means that the hazard has
been eliminated and removed, which is achieved by:
• good housekeeping
• substitution
• modification, for example rounding off sharp edges.
36
Intrinsic safety
Speegle 12013:132) refers to intrinsic safety as safety that has been built into the
design, instead of being an add-on system. Intrinsic safety is achieved by eliminating
the hazard completely or by reducing the hazard to an acceptable level where harm
cannot be caused.
Fail-safe designs
Equipment failure accounts for most injuries that occur in industry. One way to
minimise these injuries is through fail-safe designs (Speegle 2013:134). These are
automated shutdown devices triggered by temperature, pressure, flow level and process
structure found in most systems. Fail-safe designs ensure that machines and/or
equipment are placed in an idle state, where no injury can occur. According ta Speegle
(2013:134-135), the purpose of installing fail-safe devices is to prevent:
• injury
• major catastrophes. for example fire and explosions
• equipment damage
• process system dilapidation.
Interlocks
interlocks, also known as lock-outs and isolators, are commonly used safety methods.
According to Spergle (2013:141), interlocks comprise three basic principles:
I. isolating ihe hazard after identification
2. preventing conflicting events from taking place at the wrong time or in the
wrong sequence, or from taking place at all
3. offering release once corrective action has been taken.
Interlocks arc mainly used to prevent unsafe actions or conditions. Some interlocks will
prevent action or motion and some will send warning signals to other devices and
interrupt them when action or motion deviates from specifications. Examples of
interlock usage include lubrication levels, temperature, vibration and speed. Speegle
(2013:141) divides interlocks into two types:
L. Process interlocks are automatic systems to detect abnormal conditions
where action is either stopped or corrective measures are automatically taken. 2.
Safety interlocks are designed to prevent catastrophes that could result in
injury, loss of life and property damage.
Process containment systems

Process containment systems are designed to enclose liquids and vapours and prevent
them from entering the environment and resulting in a hazard. According to Speegle
(2013:137-138), process containment systems consist of the following:
37
• Closed systems, which prevent the release of liquids and/or vapours by

means of vents or drains.
• Closed loop sampling, where the liquid or vapour stream is returned via
pipes to minimise its potential release into the environment.
• Floating roof tanks that float on top of a liquid, resulting in a seal between the
sides and the roof, thus preventing the release of vapours into the environment.
• Ventilation systems, which are used to control the release of airborne
substances by using either local exhaust ventilation or general exhaust
ventilation. Local exhaust ventilation is the most common as it aims to
control the release of airborne substances as near to the spume as possible.
• Safeguarding against electrical shock, such as static dissipation devices.
grounding and bounding machines and ground fault circuit interrupters.
Process upset control systems

Some control systems are designed to manage an 'upset system, for example
when there is a danger of fire, explosion or chemical release (Speegle 2013:138),
Examples include the following:
• Flares that are used to burn waste gas during an emergency dumping from
an 'upset' unit.
O Pressure relief values that are used to avoid over-pressurisation and thus the
potential bursting of pipes.
O Deluge systems, which are similar to sprinkler systems and are used to put
out fires and suppress the release of toxic substances.
• Explosion suppression systems, which are barricaded walls that can contain
an explosion. These walls are referred to as blast walls and are built around
specific areas, units or vessels.
• Dike and eurb areas, which are used to diveri spills. They are generally
found around storage tanks.
Ventilation
According to Speegle (2013:136), ventilation refers to the air around us in the
working environment and can consist of natural ventilation systems (eg wind) and
artificial ventilation systems ieg fans and air-conditioners). Artificial ventilation
systems are used to control airborne contaminants by means of local exhaust
ventilation and general exhaust ventilation. Local exhaust ventilation is more
advantageous as it is placed near to the source. for example chemical or gas
extractors. An example or general exhaust ventilation would be a ventilation hood,
such as when a grinder is being used, to minimise injury. However, exposure is still
present (Speegle 2013:136).
38
2.6.2 Administrative controls

As previously indicated, there are many hazards and risks in industry that must be
identified, analysed, evaluated and controlled (Speegle 2013:145). In 2.8.1 on page
36 we looked at engineering controls that could be used to minimise injury and
exposure. However. in cases where engineering controls are not possible or
effective, administrative controls could be implemented to minimise and control
hazards and risks.
Den n it ion
Administrative controls are procedures that are implemented to minimise employee

exposure, with the main aim of encouraging employees to obey operational, safety
and environmental procedures. Enforcement of these procedures should include
strict penalties that could vary in severity, for example fines, with the ultimate
penalty being termination of employment (Speegle 2013:145, 146).
Administrative controls are divided into two categories, namely programmes and
activities. Administrative programmes are written procedures and administrative
activities are the actions taken on the written programmes.
Written procedures include the following:

• permit systems
• HAZOP
• training.
Administrative activities include:
• safe work observation
• housekeeping
• occupational (industrial) hygiene
• inspections
• investigations
• audits.
Procedures describe how hazards and risks should he managed and controlled and
arc usually seen on the walls of organisations in the form of organisational policy,
plans and rules (Speegle 2013:146-1471.
These programmes help to explain the management and control of hazards and
risks. According to Speegle (2013:1511, programmes that have been put into action
could consist of the following:
• on-the-job training
• housekeeping
• permit systems and job-site preparations
• safety audits and inspections
39
• hazard and operability (IIAZOP) studies with the aim of identifying problem
areas
• industrial hygiene monitoring with the aim of identifying potential risks of
exposure to toxic chemicals
• fugitive emissions monitoring with the aim of testing valves and flanges for
leakages that could result in exposure to toxic gases. fumes and/or vapours
• safe work observations with the aim of the early identification of unsafe
practices and acts.
Administrative activities are, however, ineffective if management does not support
and commit to a safer working environment. According to Speegle (2013:151),
administrative activities are expensive and include:
• overtime costs
• training of personnel, including specialised training
• equipment and machinery costs, for example fire-protective clothing and
self-contained breathing apparatuses
• consultancy fees.
2.9 Hazard communication (HAZCOM)

Communication between employees is an essential part of one's daily activities.
Without communication, the risk of injuries and fatalities in the workplace would be
enormous. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is a federal
agency that enforces safety legislation in the USA. One piece of legislation is the
Hazard Communication Standard, which gives the workers 'the right to know'. This
standard is performance-based and thus very flexible. It gives guidelines on what
must he done and then management decides on how to achieve these requirements
(Speegle 2013:181. 191).
According to OSHA, workplaces should have a written programme on hazard
communication (HAZCOM), and it should be regarded as the 'blueprint' of the
organisation that helps ii to achieve its objectives. According to Spergie (2013:181), it
should address the following six critical issues:
1. material safety data sheets (MSDS)
2. labelling of containers
3. hazards within unlabelled piping
4. non-routine activities
5. employee information exchange
6. training of employees.
Although many of these aspects are addressed in South African industries through
various programmes and/or processes, there is no set HAZCOM standard. The closest
equivalent is South Africa's HCS register, which guides the hazard identification and
risk assessment (HIRA) process.
40
2.10 Emergency management and response plans

All organisations require emergency management and response plans for disasters,
with the main purpose of identifying potential hazards and risks to prevent
accidents and develop systems that could minimise injury, fatalities and damage
(British Columbia n.d.).
in order to manage an emergency, an organisation requires a response plan, which is

developed to ensure that immediate action is taken in the event of a disaster. This
disaster plan must be compatible and integrated into the fire and emergency
response plans of the local and provincial fire departments. According to British
Columbia (n.d.), the response plan is based on four main objectives. namely:
I. risk or exposure (understanding the type and degree of the disaster)
2. equipment and personnel
A. operating procedures (with methodical and timely derision-making and
response procedures)
4, incident command system (with well-defined lines of authority and
communication systems).
A disaster response plan should be able to change over from normal operation to
emergency operation, inclusive of delegation and authority, with little to no
difficulty or obstructions. According to British Columbia (n.d.), each type of disaster
should have an individual response plan, which should include the following
actions:
• Identify the type of disaster.
• Identify the source of immediate risk.
• If alarm has not been made, raise the alarm.
• Alen the local emergency services.
• Isolate the hazard where possible.
• Administer first-aid to injured employees.
• Initiate security and evacuation procedures.
• Account for employees at assembly points and log events.
• Activate emergency communication lines.
• Inform neighbouring organisations, where applicable.
• Remain informed about developments.
• Convey information to news networks, according to approved organisational
procedures.
• Implement rehabilitative procedures afterwards, where required.
Each person's responsibilities, duties and reporting lines, including detail on all
critical activities, should be outlined in relation to the incident command centre (ICS). The
ICS is the area that effectively manages and controls emergency operations with
41
direct supervision and where operational decisions are made and taken. According to
British Columbia (n.d.), it is here where the identification of local or provincial
assistance is determined and contact numbers should be made available for:
• fire departments
• police
• hospitals and doctors
• additional organisational facilities
• organisations such as air transport services, medics, hazardous materials
and items (HAZMAT) removal services, ambulance services, safety and
monitoring equipment providers, contactors and those that offer relevant
assistance and resources.
Communication systems are another important aspect to consider during disasters as
these may have been damaged and disconnected. The response plan should thus
address additional means of communication that could be used during disasters.
Today everyone has a cell phone: however. this should not be the contingency plan as
the cellular senrice could be interrupted, especially with natural disasters such as
earthquakes or tornados (British Columbia n.d.)..
Post-incident evaluation must be conducted in order to determine the strengths and
weaknesses of the disaster response plan so as to ensure that corrective action is
taken where needed. According to British Columbia (n.d.), post-incident evaluation
should include:
• organisational structure
• equipment
• training gaps
• effectiveness of warning devices
• communication plans and systems
• spill containment and recovery procedures
• contingency plans
• media communication
• emergency response assistance.
The most common discrepancies usually identified during the evaluation process
include incorrect telephone numbers, inadequate response personnel, incomplete or
inadequate training, defective equipment and the non-availability emergency
services (British Columbia mil.).
42
2.11 Conclusion
Goods worth billions of rand arc imported and exported annually by the industrial sector, with
enormous profit gain worldwide, 11 is with this in mind that industrial tycoons need to pay special
attention to the health and safety of employees as well as environmental conservation by
correctly managing, maintaining and controlling hazards and risks within the workplace
through engineering and administrative controls.
1, Define the following concepts:
a) 150 9000
la) ISO 14000
OHSAS 18000
d) HAZCOM.
2, What is a standard? Discuss.
3. What is industrial safety? Discuss.
4, What skills do employees working in the industrial sector require?
5. What are the responsibilities of industrial managers? Discuss.
6. Discuss the 14 elements found in the process safety management WSW standard. 7_ Explain who the
safety-man is. What are his or her responsibilities?
8. What skills are required by a safety-man? Discuss.
9, Discuss what hazard categories can be found in the industrial sector.
10. Engineering controls are one means of eliminating and controlling hazards.
Discuss the types of engineering controls that can be used in industry.
11. What administrative controls can be implemented? Discuss.
12. Hazard communication is an essential part of everyday business. Explain.
13. What is a response plan? Discuss.
14. To manage an emergency, an organisation requires a response plan. List the four
main objectives of a response plan.
15. Post-incident evaluation must be conducted to determine the strengths and
weaknesses of the disaster response plan. Explain what should be included in
post-incident evaluation.
43
References
All! no. 2008. Fundamental Principles of Occupational Health and Safely. 2nd cd. Geneva:
International Labour Office_
The Bhopal Medical Appeal. n.d. What happened: Union Carbide's luxic gas release.
Available: http:Hhhopal.orgiwhat-happened. (Accesssed 30 October 20151.
Briiish Columbia. n.d. Guidelines for industry emergency response plans. Available: hap://
www.2.gov.bc.calgovicontentienvironment/air-land-waterispills-environmental-
emergenciesIplanni ng -prey ent ion-resp onse/ind ustry- emergency-resp onse-p tans.
(Accessed 30 October 2015).
Business Dictionary. n.d. Available: hap://www.businessdictionary.cornklehnition/danger.
html. (Accessed 8 August 2015).
Encyclopaedia Britannica. n.d. Bhopal disaster: Industrial accident. Available: littp:// www.
britannica.comievent/Bhopal-disaster. (Accessed 30 October 2015).
Guild R. Ehrlich R. Johnston J ft Ross M. 2001. Handbook of Occupational Health Practice in
tire South African Mining Industry. Johannesburg: Safety in Mines Research Advisory
Committee (51MRAC).
History. n.d. Industrial Revolution. Available: http://www.history.comitopicslindustnal-
revolution. (Accessed 11 April 20161.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). n.d. Available: hitp://wwwisosug.
(Accessed 11 April 2016),
Ohio Bureau or Workers Compensation (BWCI. n.d. Safety industry manual. Available: hnps;1/
www.bwc.oldo.govidownloadsiblankpdfilndustry.pdf. (Accessed 23 October 2015).
Rielander C. 2012. Safety beginnings. National Safety. 72(3)14-36.
Safeopedia. n.d. Industrial safety. Available: https://www.safeopedia.comidefmition/1052/
industrial-safety. (Aeccessed 23 October 20151.
Saunders RA. 1991. Handbook of Safety Managment. London: Pitman.
Spregle M. 2013. Safety, Health and Environmental Concepts for the Process Industry.
2nd ed. New York: Delmar Cengage Learning.
Taylor A. 2014. Bhopal: The world's worst industrial disaster. 30 years later. The Atlantic,
Blog post. Available: http://www.tbeatlantir.conalphoto/2014112/bhopai-1he-worlds-
worst-industrial-disaster-30-years-later/100864. (Accessed 30 October 2015)..
Williams S. n.d. The manual of industrial safety_ Available: http://www.citehr.com1370310-
book-reguest-industrial-safety-pdf-downloadltml. (Accessed 23 October 2015).
Youth in Construction. n.d. Job title: Health and safety officer. Available: httpli www.
you th i nconstructi on. co.z aiinc ludes) pages/careers/healtha rids a fet y. pd f. (Accessed
27 October 20151.
Legislation
Constitution
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996
Acts
Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996.
Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993.
44
Chapter 21. Safety in industry
Regulations
(Listed alphabetically according to the title of the regulations)
ON R155. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Asbestos Regulations. 2001. Government
Gazette 23108 of 10 February 2002.
ON R84. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Construction Regulations. 2014.
Government Gazerre 37305 of 7 February 2014.
ON R540. Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Driven Machinery Regulations. 2015.
Government Gazette 38905 of 24 June 2015.
ON R242. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Electrical Installation Regulations.
2009. Gorrntment Gazette 31975 of 6 March 2009.
ON R251. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Electrical Machinery Regulations.
2011, Government Gazette 34154 of 25 March 2011.
ON 2281. Machinery and Occupational Safety Act, 1983: Environmental Regulations for
Workplaces. 1987. Govermnent Gazette 10988 of 16 October 1987.
ON R109, Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Explosives Regulations. 2003.
Government Gazette 24272 of 17 January 2003.
ON R1045. Occupational Health and Safety Ad, 1993: Facilities Regulations, 2004.
Government Gazette 26636 of 3 August 2004.
ON R1521. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: General Machinery Regulations.
1988. Government Gazette 11443 of 5 August 1988.
ON R1031. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1986: General Safety Regulations. 1986.
Government Gazette 10252 of 30 May 1986.
ON R1179, Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Hazardous Chemical Substances
Regulations. 1995. Government Gazette 16596 or 25 August 1995.
ON R236. Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Lead Regulations. 2001. Government
Gazette 23175 or 28 February 2002.
ON R692. Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Major Hazard Installation Regulations.
2001. Government Gazette 22506 of 30 July 2001.
ON R307, Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Noise-Induced Hearing Loss
Regulation‘, 2003. Government Gazette 24967 of 7 March 2003.
ON R734. Occupational Health and Safety Art, 1993: Pressure Equipment Regulations. 2009.
Government Gazette 32395 of 15 July 2009.
ON R533. Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Regulations Concerning the Certificate
of Competency. 1990. Govenrment Gazette 12337 of 16 March 1990.
ON R7. Basis Conditions of Employment Act, 1997: Regulations on Hazardous Work by
Children in South Africa. 2010. Government Gazette 32862 of 15 January 2010.
45
Chapter 3
General workplace safety and the OHS Act
Eiriza Bterhuren and Leonie Louw
Learning outcomes
• explain OHS in tern-is of the Constitution otSouth Africa. NEMA and the COM Act
• discuss the history and purpose of the OHS Aet
• explain OHS policy as stipulated in the OHS Act
• list the general duties of employers to their employees
• explain the general duties of employers and self-employed people to people
other than their employees
• discuss thy employer's duty to inform
• list the general duties of employees at work
• explain the duty to not interfere with, damage or misuse things
• explain the roleand functionsof health andsafetyrepresentatives and committees
• describe reporting incidents to the inspector
• discuss victimisation
• discuss the role of the Department of Labour in ensuring OHS compliance
• differentiate between direct and indirect costs of incidents or accidents
• discuss the role of ethics and moral obligation in OHS
• explain the importance of and ways to ensure OHS communication across
languages.
Key terms
Bill of Rights Health and safety representative
COlD Act National Environmental Management
Communication Act (NEMA)
Constitution of South Africa Occupational Health and Safety Act
Direct and indirect costs (OHS Art)
Duty to inform OHS policy
Ethics and moral obligation Victimisation
Health and safety committee
3.1 Introduction
Businesses have a legal obligation to ensure the health and safety of employees.
With a constantly changing business environment. it has become increasingly
important that safety managers should keep up to date on applicable legislation,
which also changes constantly. Safety managers must ensure that they have a
proactive approach to health and safety in the workplace and that they deal with
safety and health issues before they become a problem.
This chapter focuses on the basic applicable health and safety laws that apply to
all businesses. Please take note that occupational health and safety (OHS)
legislation might affect businesses differently depending on. among other Things, the
industry in which they operate.
3.2 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. 1996 (the Constitution) is the
highest law in South Africa. This means that the Constitution overrides other laws in
the sense that if an Act (such as the OHS Art) contains something that contradicts the
Constitution, the courts will follow the law as stipulated in the Constitution.
3.2.7 The Bill of Rights

Section 24(a) of the Constitution stipulates the basic rights of people. including
OHS. it states:
'Everyone has the right—
(a) to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being,'
This means that all employees have a constitutional right to an environment that is
not harmful to their health or well-being, and that employers are legally obliged to
provide this environment.
3.3 National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 (NEMA)

Even though it is a fundamental right of people to live and work in an environment
that is not harmful to their health or well-being, many people in South Africa still do
not live and work in this type ofenvironment according to the National Environmental
Management Act (NEMA). The National Environmental Management Act states that a
healthy and safe environment most be respected, protected and promoted in order to
fulfil the social, economic and environmental rights of all people ENEMA 1998).
According to NEMA. businesses must:

• Take responsibility for the health and safety consequences of a policy.
programme, project, product, process, service or activity throughout its
lifecycle.
• Report on incidents that occurred during the course or a person's employment
as part of the control of emergency incidents. These reports should include:
48
Chapter 3: General workplace safety and the OHS Art
• the nature of the incident

• the risks posed by the incident on public health, safety and property
• the toxicity of substances or by-products, if applicable, that were
released during the incident
• the steps that could be taken in order to avoid or minimise the effect of
the incidents on public health and the environment.
• In the event of an incident:
• take all reasonable measures to contain and minimise the effects of an
incident that occurred in the business in order to minimise its effect on
the health and safety of employees and their property
• undertake clean-up activities
• remedy or fix the effects of the incident
• assess the immediate as well as the long-term effects of the incident on
the environment as well as on public health.
Even though this explanation of NEMA contains only a small portion of the Art it is
clear that businesses need to take notice of, and adhere to, the provisions for health and
safety as indicated in this Act.
3.4 Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act 130 of

1993 (COID Act)
Unfortunately, accidents and incidents do happen in the workplace. The Annual Report
of the Compensation Fund indicates that R189 million was paid out in the Fund's
previous financial year ending on 31 March 2013 for temporary and permanent
disabilities and R798 million in pensions (Compensation Fund 2013:9).
The Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act {COM Act) provides
compensation for:
• disablement caused by occupational injuries sustained by employees in the
course of their employment
• diseases contracted by employees during the course of their employment
• death resulting from these injuries and diseases
• matters connected with these injuries and diseases.
Employers have certain responsibilities in terms of the COID Act. Employers'
responsibilities are to:
• report any accident to the Compensation Commissioner within seven days
after receiving notice of an accident
• be registered with the Compensation Commissioner
• pay assessment to the Compensation Commissioner.
49
3.5 Occupational Health and Safety Act 65 of 1993 (OHS Act)

The Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 (OHS Act) consists of 50 sections
and 20 different sets of regulations (see also Section 2.2.3 on page 27).
3.5.1 History of OHS legislation in South Africa

To better understand where we are today in terms of OHS law in South Africa, we
will briefly look at the history of OHS legislation in South Africa:
• Factories. Machinery and Budding Work Act 22 of 1941
The factory engineer was solely responsible for safety in the workplace. This Act
was mostly ineffective and its implementation was badly enforced_
• Machinery and Occupational Safety Act 6 of 1983
The chief executive officer (CEO) was responsible for safety. There was no 'buy-in'
from the employees on health and safety in the workplace.
• Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 (as amended by the Occu-
pational Health and Safety Act 181 of 1993)
Occupational health and safety (also environmental issues) is everyone's responsi-
bility. This shared responsibility is in line with international standards and trends.
3.5.2 Purpose of the OHS Act

It is stated in section 1 of the OHS Act that:
The purpose of this Act is to provide for the health and safety of persons at
work and for the health and safety of persons in connection with the use of plant
and machinery: the protection of persons other than persons at work against
hazards to health and safety arising out of or in connection with the activities of
persons at work: to establish an advisory council for occupational health and safety;
and to provide for matters connected therewith: (Own emphasis added to
the quoted text to highlight the purpose of the OHS Act.)
3.6 General sections of the OHS Act

As mentioned above, the OHS Act comprises 50 sections with an additional 20
sets of regulations. For the purpose of this chapter, we will only focus on some of
the general sections of the OHS Act. Many of the other sections in the OHS Act are
industry specific and should therefore be taken into consideration, when applicable,
to manage safety in the workplace.
Please note that the sections below contain extracts taken from the OHS Act. It
does not contain all the information of the specified sections of the OHS Act.
50
Chapter 3: General workplace safety and the OHS Art
3.6.1 Occupational health and safety policy

Section 7 of the OHS Act stipulates that any employer may be directed to prepare an
OHS policy. This OHS policy should:
• be in writing
• concern the protection of health and safety of employees at work
• include a description of the business as well as arrangements for
implementing and revising the policy
• include guidelines on the content of the policy
• be displayed, after being signed and copied, where employees report for work.
3.6.2 General duties of employers to their employees

Section 8 of the OHS Act indicates that employers must:
• provide and maintain a workplace that is, as far as possible, safe and without
risk to the health and safety of employees
• provide and maintain safe systems of work
• eliminate or mitigate safety hazard interaction and energy exchange before
making use of personal protective equipment WM
• ensure safety and the absence of safety risk, as far as possible (safety risk
management)
• identify safety hazards that are present and provide precautionary measures,
such as safe working procedures
• provide information, instruction, training and supervision on OHS
• not allow employees to work unless precautionary measures are taken
• ensure compliance with the OHS Act
• enforce the necessary OHS measures
• provide supervision by a trained person who understands the safety hazards
in the workplace
• inform employees of the scope of their authority on 01IS.
3.6.3 General duties of employers and self-employed people to people other

than their employees
Section 9 of the OHS Act provides the general duties of employers and selfemployed
people to people other than their employees:
• Employers must ensure that people directly affected by their activities, even
though they are not employees, are not exposed to unacceptable safety risk to their
health and safety.
• Self-employed people should ensure that they and other people directly
affected by their activities are not exposed to unacceptable safety risk.
51
3.6.4 Duty of employers to inform

In terms of section 13 of the OHS Act, employers must make sure that:
• employees are aware of the threats or dangers that are present
• employees are aware of the necessary precautionary measures for hazardous
areas
• health and safety representatives are informed of inspections. investigations
as well as formal inquiries by inspectors
• health and safety representatives are informed of incidents in the workplace
or their area of work_
3.6.5 General duties of employees at work

Employees should, in terms of section 14 of the OHS Act, ensure that they:
• take care of their own health and safety as well as the health and safety of
other people affected by their actions (what they do) and omissions (what
they don't do)
• comply with the OHS Act
• comply with additional lawful health and safety rules indicated by their
employer or any authorised person
• report any unsafe or unhealthy conditions
• report accidents as soon as possible.
This section makes it clear that OHS is also the responsibility of employees. There-
fore, employers and employees should work together to ensure OHS In the workplace.
3.6.6 Duty not to interfere with, damage or misuse things

According to section 14 of the OHS Act, no person is allowed to do the following to any
item that is provided in the interest of health or safety:
• intentionally or recklessly interfere with it
• damage it
• misuse it_
This means that no person, including employees and employers, may interfere with,
damage or misuse anything in the business that was provided in the interest of health or
safety. Examples include PPE, guards on machinery, ventilation, clear walkways and good
housekeeping.
3.6.7 Health and safely representatives

Section 17 of the OHS Act provides for the appointment of health and safety
representatives. According to this section, health and safety representatives must:
• be appointed by the employer when more than 20 employees are employed
• be appointed in writing
52
Chapter 3: General workplace safety and the OHS Act
• be elected by employees
• be full-time employees
• perform their duties during normal working hours.
This section states that shops and offices must have at least one health and safety
representative for every 100 employees or part thereof, and all other workplaces
must have at least one health and safety representative for every 50 employees or
part thereof. The inspector may inform the employer, in writing, that more health
and safety representatives must be appointed.
Section 18 of the OHS Act indicates the various functions of health and safety
representatives. Health and safety representatives must do the following:
• review the effectiveness of health and safety measures
• identify health and safety hazards
• examine the causes of incidents in the workplace
• investigate complaints of employees about health and safety in the workplace
• make presentations to the employer or the OHS inspector on the
effectiveness of:
• health and safety measures
• health and safety hazards
• the causes of incidents
• employee complaints
• any other general matter that affects health and safety in the workplace.
• participate in consultations with inspectors and accompany them while they
are doing inspections of the workplace
• be a member of the health and safety committee and attend meetings of the
health and safety committee.
Furthermore, section 18 stipulates that health and safety representatives have the
right to:
• visit incident sites at reasonable times and to attend any related inspection
• attend any investigation or formal inquiry if they want to do so
• accompany inspectors on any inspection
• participate in any internal health or safety audit.
The employer must provide the facilities, assistance and training that a health and
safety representative may reasonably require in order to carry out the functions
indicated above. It is important to note that section 18 specifically stares that a
health and safety representative will not incur any civil liability for only failing to do
what is required according to the OHS Act.
53
3.6.8 Health and safety committees

Section 20 of the OHS Act indicates the following on health and safety committees:
• The employer has to establish one or more safety committees when two or
more safety representatives have been appointed.
• The employer must consult with the health and safety committee when
health and safety measures are initiated, developed, promoted. maintained
and reviewed.
• All health and safety representatives must he members of the health and
safety committee.
• The employer may not nominate more members for the health and safety
committee than the number of health and safety representatives (as elected
by employees) on the health and safety committee.
• People who were nominated for the health and safety committee must be
designated or appointed in writing.
• Meetings must be held at least once every three months, or more frequently,
if necessary.
• The procedure of the meetings will be determined by the health and safety
committee.
• One or more people may be used as advisory members of the health and
safety committee, but advisory members may not vote on any matter.
• The employer may be directed by the inspector, in writing, to establish the
number of health and safety committees that the inspector deems necessary.
The functions of health and safety committees are indicated in section 20 of the
OHS Act as being to:
• make recommendations to the employer (or inspector) on any matter
affecting the health and safety of employees
• discuss any incident in the workplace
• keep a record or all recommendations and reports made to inspectors
• ensure that the committee complies with the OHS Act.
However, it is important to mention that the health and safety committee or its
members will not incur civil liability if only failing to do what is required in terms of
the OHS Act.
3.6.9 Reporting of incidents to the inspector

The following incidents must be reported to the inspector in terms of section 24 of the
OHS Act:
• Incidents that occurred at work, or in connection with work activities, or in
connection with the use of plant or machinery leading to a person:
• dying
• becoming unconscious
54
• losing a limb or part of a limb

• being injured or becoming ill to the extent that it is likely to cause death
or a permanent physical defect
• being unable to work for 14 days
• being unable to do the work that he or she was employed to do or
normally did.
• Any major incident that occurred.
• If the health or safety of any person was endangered where:
• a dangerous substance was spilled
• the uncontrolled release of any substance under pressure took place
• machinery (or any part of the machinery) fractured or failed. resulting in
flying, falling or uncontrolled moving objects
• machinery ran out of control.
The incident site may not be disturbed without the prior consent of the inspector.
Section 24 of the OHS Act indicates that the site may be only be disturbed:
• when action needs to be taken to prevent a further incident
• to remove the injured or dead
• to rescue people from danger.
This section of the OHS Act does not apply to traffic accidents and private households.
3.6.10 Victimisation forbidden

Victimisation is forbidden according to section 37 of the OHS Act. When a particular
employee has provided information, or the employer suspects that the employee has
provided this information, on workplace health and safety the employer may not:
• reduce the salary of the employee
• change the terms and conditions of employment to make it less favourable to
the employee
• change the position of the employee.
Furthermore, employees may not:

• be penalised for giving evidence in a court of law
• be victimised for doing something that should be done in terms of the OHS
Act
• be victimised For refusing to do something that may not be done in terms of
the OHS Act.
From the above, it can be seen that employees are protected from being victimised by
employers when doing what they should be doing in terms of workplace health and
safety, reporting on workplace health and safety, as well as giving evidence or
refusing to do something that may not be done in terms of the OHS Act
55
3.7 Occupational health and safety compliance

The Department of Labour (DoL) is responsible for ensuring the correct
implementation of health arid safety law in all industries in South Africa except
in the mining industry. The Department of Mineral Resources performs this function
for the mining industry,
3.7.1 Inspectors
In fulfilling the responsibility to ensure the correct implementation of health and
safely law (compliance). the DoL makes use of inspectors to ensure that businesses
comply with applicable legislation (Da 2013:1). ln a business, inspectors may:
• ask for health and safety documentation
• talk to anyone and everyone
• take samples of substances
• remove machines or substances.
However, inspectors may not:
• arrest anyone - they do not have the authority to do so.
3.7.2 Types of notices

Sections 29 and 30 of the OHS Act state that inspectors of the DoL may serve
certain notices to the employer based on adverse or hazardous conditions in the
workplace. The types of notices that may be served by inspectors are:
• impravernent notice: This means the employer is compliant but there is
room for improvement.
• Contravention notice: This means that a provision or Act is being or has been
contravened. Contravention of the Act may result in immediate prosecution.
When a regulation is contravened, the employer may he given an opportunity to
rectify this contravention within a specified period, usually within 60 days.
• Prohibition notice: This means that a particular action, process or use of
a specific machine or equipment is too dangerous for work io continue, as a
threatening danger to the health and safety of employees or damage to
equipment is present. Work must stop immediately and this notice may not be
disregarded by any employer.
3.7.3 Offences and penalties

Section 38 of the OHS Act provides for a person to be found guilty of an offence
should he or she contravenes, or fails to comply, with provisions of the OHS Act. If
found guilty, this person can receive a fine not exceeding R50 000 or he imprisoned for
up to one year, or both a fine and prison sentence. Some of the actions that are seen
as an offence in terrns of the OHS Act include:
• providing information or giving a statement that is false
• stopping an inspector from performing his or her functions
56
Chapter 3: General workplace safety and the ORS Act
• failing or refusing to comply with a requirement or request made by an

inspector in the performance of his or her functions
• failing or refusing to answer a question of the inspector
• providing false or misleading information
• tampering with evidence (such as a book, document or thing) that must be
provided
• tampering with or misusing of safety equipment
• failing to provide safety equipment
• failing to use safety equipment
• doing something that threatens the health and safety of any person.
Even though the above-mentioned actions only comprise a small part of the actions that
may lead to a fine or imprisonment, it is clear that employers and employees should be
aware that their actions may be seen as an offence in terms of the OHS Act.
Employers and employees should ensure that they understand what is expected from
them in terms of the OHS Act.
3.8 Direct and indirect costs of incidents or accidents

Compliance with OHS requirements should he enhanced in order to save resources that
are necessary for job creation and sustainable development iDoL 2013:1). Direct and
indirect costs related to accidents, injuries, illnesses and fatalities in the workplace amount
to millions of rand (DA 2013:I).
The economic results of OHS incidents and accidents are made up of both direct
and indirect costs. Direct costs are associated with damage and production interruption,
with indirect costs being related to loss of life, support of dependants and the reputation of
the business (Herrnanus 2007:5311.
Direct costs include (Goetsch 2014:271:
• medical treatment and hospitalisation of injured and ill employees
• repair or replacement of equipment or machinery
• repair of damaged facilities
• compensation claims of employees or families owing to Loss of income
• legal fees
• increased insurance premiums.
Indirect costs include (Goetsch 2014:19):
• loss of business income due to employee recuperation
• finding and training employees to replace injured, ill or dead employees
• damage to the image or reputation of the business.
57
As can be seen from the above, incidents and accidents can be very costly
(financially and in terms of reputation) to any business and to society as a whole. For
this reason, employers and employees should ensure that they do what they can to prevent
incidents and accidents from occurring.
3.9 Ethics and moral obligation
Definition
Corporate social responsibility refers to the economic and legal responsibility of any
business in order to have a positive impact on society by going beyond the
interest of the business and legal compliance (Maarnoun 20E3:8).
There is an increasing emphasis on human rights that needs to be incorporated Into

business practices (Hamann et al 2009:469). Occupational health and safety Is a crucial,
fundamental right of employees and ii should therefore he clearly recognised in all
business activities. For this reason, it is important that the government, employers
and employees work together to ensure a safe and healthy workplace based on a
system of human rights, responsibilities and duties (Tshoose 2014:280, 295).
Ethically responsible businesses stay clear of questionable practices and should do what
is right, fair and just. This means going over and above what is legally required (Buchholtz
Ft Carroll 2012:37).
Occupational health and safety incidents and accidents have a social impact on society
in that more state funds are required in order to include injured or ill people, and their
dependants. in the social security system (G20 2014:10). Occupational health and safety
should therefore be practised in businesses, not for mere legal compliance, but because it
is simply the right thing to do.
3.10 Communication across languages

Effective communication of health and safety information is crucial to reduce the risk
or injury and illness in the workplace (WorkSafe 2008:3). A problem faced by South
African businesses is that many employees do not speak the same language owing to the
ll official languages of South Africa. Employers must be able to communicate OHS
across languages. The OHS Act, and other legislation, indicates that employers should
ensure a workplace that is not harmful to the health and well-being of employees. Part
of this responsibility lies in ensuring that employees receive the necessary OHS
information. instruction, training and supervision in order to enable them to work
safely (WorkSafe 2008:2). This implies that this information, instruction, training and
supervision should be provided in a language and way that is understood by employees.
58
The following guidelines might assist in managing health and safety in workplaces
with diverse cultures and languages (WorkSafe 2008:3-4):
• Establish ongoing communication on health and safety at work in order to
mitigate safety risks.
• Do not limit OHS communication to English only.
• Do not assume that all people are literate.
• Present OHS information in the simplest and deafest way possible.
• Remember that people's ability to communicate or their language
competency does not reflect on their ability to leant.
• Be aware of cultural and language barriers that may have an impact on
communication and take steps to address these issues {such as making use of a
translator or interpreter).
• Proper consuhation, as early as possible, will save time and money as it can
help to identify the different languages that are spoken and the employees'
preferred means of communication.
• Encourage employers to talk about OHS issues without fear of being victimised,
and to bring unacceptable safety risks to the attention of the employer.
• Bilingual (speaking two or more languages) employees or health and safety
representatives can play the tole of facilitator during consultation.
• If providing written information:
• make sure it is translated into, or explained in, the appropriate languages
• make sure it is simple, clear and brief
• support it with a short summary in English or a translation in the
appropriate language.
ln order to ensure that OHS communication in a multicultural and multilingual
business complies with OHS legislation, employers or managers could use the
following compliance checklist (WorkSafe 2008:6-11):
• Work out how to consult
Make provision for non-English-speaking employees.
• Know the workforce
Ensure that the business has an up-to-date language profile ails employees.
• Make a plan
Occupational health and safety procedures and the budget must be explained
and made available. Current OHS information must be reviewed to see if it is
still relevant and accessible.
• Communicate for understanding
Make sure that OHS is properly understood by doing the following:
• Use appropriate forms of communication such as face-to-face
communication and demonstration.
• Allow enough time for non-English-speaking employees to ask questions
if anything is unclear.
59
• Use plain language to make the information as clear as possible.

• Be active by talking. doing demonstrations and using charts, pictures
and diagrams.
• Speak slowly and in short, complete sentences.
• Use audio and audio-visual material in appropriate languages to support
written material and discussion.
• Use standard safety signs and teach employees the meaning of these signs.
• Use consistent terms and symbols.
• Ensure that information is properly translated into the appropriate
languages.
• Check that employees understand the training, instruction and information
provided. Ask them to do the task. identify the equipment, explain the
meaning of safety signs or ask questions related to the content.
• Provide language support
Make provision For interpreters and use people who speak more than one language
to assist with communication in the workplace.
• Provide training
The following should he achieved by OHS training:
• Provide induction training for new employees in order to teach them
about their general OHS rights and responsibilities.
• Teach new employees common workplace terminology.
• Offer English-language training for employees who are not conversant
in English.
• Ongoing training should be tailored to the language needs of non-
English-speaking employees to help them understand and discuss the
content of this training.
• Train supervisors and manai.4ers in communication techniques and assist
them to understand the difl'erent cultures.
Even though businesses di ffer, it is important that OHS communication is understood by all
people, employers and employees.
3.11 Conclusion
It is important to be aware or all relevant OHS legislation that is applicable to a
business. Awareness of this legislation enables the business to comply with
legislation, thus avoiding unnecessary costs (direct and indirect) associated with
incidents and accidents as well as fines and/or imprisonment for non-compliance. Ethical
and moral obligations on OHS should also be taken into account. Furthermore,
OHS communication should he understood by all in order to reduce the risk of injury and
illness in the workplace.
60
1.. Explain OHS in terms of the Constitution of South Africa.
2. Explain OHS in terms of NEMA.
3. Explain OHS in terms of the COID Art.
4. Discuss the history of the OHS Act.
5.. Indicate the purpose of the OHS Act.
6. Explain OHS policy as stipulated in the OHS Act.
7. List the general duties of employers to their employees_
8. Explain the general duties of employers and self-employed people to people other
than their employees_
9.. Discuss the employer's duty to inform.
10. List the general duties of employees at work.
11. Explain the duty to not interfere with, damage or misuse things.
12. Explain the role and functions of health and safety representatives.
13. Indicate the role and functions of health and safety committees.
14. Discuss reporting incidents to the inspector.
15. What incidents must be reported to the inspector?
16. When may an incident site be disturbed without prior consent of the inspector?
17. Discuss victimisation as forbidden by the OHS Act.
18. Discuss the role of the Department of Labour (DoLl in ensuring OHS compliance.
19. Differentiate between the notices that an inspector may serve.
20. List the actions that are seen as an offence in terms of the OHS Act.
21. Differentiate between direct and indirect costs of incidents or accidents.
22. Discuss the role of ethics and moral obligation in OHS.
23. Explain the importance of and ways to ensure OHS communication across languages.
61
Safety Management in an Organisationa1 Context
References
Burhholtz AK ft Carroll AB. 2012. Business and Society: Ethks and Sulkehoider Management.
8th ed. Canada: Cengag,c Learning.
Compensation fund. 2013. Annual report of the Compensation Fund for the year ended
31 March 2013. Available: hnplifwvrw.labour.gov.zalDOL/documentsfannual-reports/
compensation-for-occupational-injuries-and-diseases120131compensation-fund-
annual-repon.2013. (Accessed 17 November 20151.
Dot. Department of Labour. am. Let's make compliance with OHS a norm to save resources
for job creation. Available: http://www.labourgov.za/DOLimedia-desk/media-
statements/20131 I et2019s-make-compliance-w ith- obs-a-norm-to-sa ve-resources-for-
job-creation-la hour. (Accessed 17 November 20151.
G20, 2014. Employment Plan 2014: South Africa. Available: https:11g20.orgivip-contenti

uploads/2014/12/g20 employment_plan_south africa.pdf (Accessed 19 November 2015).
Goetsch DL 2014. Occupational Safety and Health far Technologists, Engineers and
Managers. 7th ed. Harlow: Pearson.
Hamann R. Sinha P. Kapfudzaruwa F Et Schild C. 2009. Business and human rights in South
Africa: An analysis of antecedents of human rights due diligence. Journal of Business
Ethics, 87(21:453-473_
Hermanus MA. 2007. Occupational health and safety in mining - status, new developments.
and concerns. The Journal of the Sari them African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
10a(8):531-538.
Maamoun A. 2013. Corporate social responsibility and the developing world: Commitment
or duplicity? Business Studies Journal, 5121:7-26.
Tshoose C. 2014. Placing the right to occupational health and safety within a human rights
framework: Trends and challenges for South Africa. Comparative and International Law
Journal of Southern Africa. 47(21:276-296.
WorkSafe. 2008. Communicating occupational health and safety across languages. Available:
littps://www.worksafe.vic.gov.aul_datafassers1pdf file)0003/9228/Communicating_
across Ianguages_CC.pdf. (Accessed 19 November 20151.
Legislation
Constitution
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. 1996.
Acts
Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Amendment Act 61 of 1997.
Factories, Machinery and Building Work Act 22 of 1941.
Machinery and Occupational Safety Act 6 of 1983.
National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998.
62
4.1 introduction
As explained in the previous chapter, it is important for businesses to ensure the health
and safety of employees The various Acts referred to and discussed indicate what a
business should do about occupational health and safety (OHS). This chapter Focuses on
how it should be done. The Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHS Art) contains
'what' should be done, and the regulations of the OHS Act explain 'how it should be
done.
For the purpose of this and the next chapter, the regulations of the 01-IS Act are
discussed in four parts: general regulations, health regulations, mechanical regulations and
electrical regulations. Please note that not all the regulations are applicable to all
businesses and all industries. This chapter briefly looks at the regulations but does not
attempt to present all information contained in the OHS Act.
4.2 General regulations

The OHS Act stipulates certain general regulations about occupational health and safety.
These general regulations are discussed below.
4.2.1 General Administrative Regulations

Employers and employees should take note of these regulations in order to work
together towards a safe and healthy workplace. The following is contained, among other
things, in the General Administrative Regulations of the OHS Act:
• No person may stop an inspector from entering the business's premises and
from performing his or her functions. An inspector may request the employer
to make a person available to the inspector who has the full knowledge of
the safety hazards in the workplace to accompany the inspector on his or her visit to
the workplace.
• Every employer with five or more employees must have a copy of the OHS Act
and its regulations available. If an employer with fewer than five employees is asked
for a copy of the OHS Art by art employee, the employer must provide it.
• If a health and safety committee has been established, the employer must
provide a suitable place for a committee meeting to take place. Furthermore, the
employer must ensure that records of these meetings are kept for a period of at least
three yea's.
• Negotiations and consultations must take place before the appointment of
health and safety representatives.
• Incidents and occupational diseases must be reported within seven days to
the provincial director. The information that should be supplied includes the:
• name of the person who was injured or who has an occupational disease
• address of the person who was injured or who has an occupational
disease
• name of the employer
• address of the employer
64
Chapter 4
South African OHS general and health regulations
Priza kirrhuven and Lennie Lauw
Learning outcomes
• explain the General Administrative Regulations of the OHS Act
• discuss the General Safety Regulations of the OHS Act
• explain the Major Hazard Installation Regulations of the OHS Act
• discuss the Regulations for Hazardous Biological Agents (HBA) of the OHS Act
• describe the Explosives Regulations of the OHS Act
• explain the Construction Regulations of the OHS Act
• discuss the Regulations on Hazardous Work by Children in South Africa of the
OHS Act
• explain the Asbestos Regulations of the OHS Act
• describe the Diving Regulations of the OHS Act
• discuss the Environmental Regulations for Workplaces of the 01-IS Act
• list and explain the elements of the Facilities Regulations of the OHS Act
• explain the Hazardous Chemical Substances (FIN Regulations of the OHS Act
• discuss the Lead Regulations of the OHS Act
• explain the Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Regulations of the OHS Act.
Key terms
Asbestos Regulations Lead Regulations
Construction Regulations Major Hazard Installation Regulations
Diving Regulations Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Regulations
Environmental Regulations for Offences and penalties
Workplaces Personal protective equipment (PPE)
Explosives Regulations Regulations for Hazardous Biological
Facilities Regulations Agents (HBA)
General Administrative Regulations Regulations on Hazardous Work by
General Safety Regulations Children in South Africa
Hazardous Chemical Substances ((I(S)
Regulations
4.1 introduction
As explained in the previous chapter, it is important for businesses to ensure the health
and safety of employees The various Acts referred to and discussed indicate what a
business should do about occupational health and safety (OHS). This chapter Focuses on
how it should be done. The Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHS Art) contains
'what' should be done, and the regulations of the OHS Act explain 'how it should be
done.
For the purpose of this and the next chapter, the regulations of the 01-IS Act are
discussed in four parts: general regulations, health regulations, mechanical regulations and
electrical regulations. Please note that not all the regulations are applicable to all
businesses and all industries. This chapter briefly looks at the regulations but does not
attempt to present all information contained in the OHS Act.
4.2 General regulations

The OHS Act stipulates certain general regulations about occupational health and safety.
These general regulations are discussed below.
4.2.1 General Administrative Regulations

Employers and employees should take note of these regulations in order to work
together towards a safe and healthy workplace. The following is contained, among other
things, in the General Administrative Regulations of the OHS Act:
• No person may stop an inspector from entering the business's premises and
from performing his or her functions. An inspector may request the employer
to make a person available to the inspector who has the full knowledge of
the safety hazards in the workplace to accompany the inspector on his or her visit to
the workplace.
• Every employer with five or more employees must have a copy of the OHS Act
and its regulations available. If an employer with fewer than five employees is asked
for a copy of the OHS Art by art employee, the employer must provide it.
• If a health and safety committee has been established, the employer must
provide a suitable place for a committee meeting to take place. Furthermore, the
employer must ensure that records of these meetings are kept for a period of at least
three yea's.
• Negotiations and consultations must take place before the appointment of
health and safety representatives.
• Incidents and occupational diseases must be reported within seven days to
the provincial director. The information that should be supplied includes the:
• name of the person who was injured or who has an occupational disease
• address of the person who was injured or who has an occupational
disease
• name of the employer
• address of the employer
64
Chapter 4: South African OHS general and health regulations
• telephone number of the employer

• name of the contact person
• nature of occupational injuries diagnosed occupational diseases
• details of the incident (what happened, where it happened, when it
happened, how it happened and why it happened]
• names of witnesses.
• Records of incidents and the investigation of incidents must be kept for at
least three years.
• When an inspector has to hold a formal inquiry into an incident, he or she
must inform the employer of the date, time and place of this inquiry_ The
employer must inform witnesses, in writing. that their presence is required at
the date, time and place of the inquiry.
• If found guilty of an offence, a fine or imprisonment (for not more than
12 months) may be imposed, and an additional fine of R200 per day or an
additional one day in prison for each day that the offence continues.
Additional imprisonment may not exceed 90 days.
The General Administrative Regulations include template forms that the employer
may use. These two forms are;
• Form 1: Recording and investigation of incidents
This form includes sections on:
• Recording of the incident: Information to be completed includes the
name of the employer; the name of the affected person: the identity
number of the affected person; the date of the incident; the time of the
incident; the part of the body that was affected; the effect on the person; the
expected period of disablement; and the type of work performed.
• Investigation of the above incident by a designated person:
Information to be completed includes the name of the investigator;
the date of the investigation: the designation of the inspector; a short
description of the incident; the suspected cause of the incident; and
recommended steps to prevent a recurrence. This section has to be
signed and dated by the investigator.
• Action taken by the employer to prevent the recurrence of a similar
Incident: This section has to be signed and dated by the employer.
• Remarks by the health and safety committee: This section has to be
signed and dated by the chairman 01 the health and safety committee.
• Form 2: Subpoena to attend inquiry
Information to be completed on this form includes the name and address of the
witness: the address, date and time of the inquiry; and the evidence that the witness
should bring (such as books, writings or things). Furthermore, this subpoena warns
the witness that his or her failure to obey the subpoena renders him or her subject to
prosecution.
65
4.2.2 General Safety Regulations

The following aspects, among others, are addressed under the General Safety
Regulations of the OHS Act:
• Personal safety equipment and facilities
Every employer must evaluate the safety risk associated with any condition or situation
that may arise from activities and to which employees may be exposed at the workplace
or during the course of their employment. Steps must be taken to make this condition or
situation safe. If it is not practicable to safeguard a condition or situation, the employer
must take steps to reduce the safety risk as much as possible. Furthermore, the employer
must provide safety equipment free of charge and must ensure that it is maintained in a
good and clean condition. Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes. among other
things:
• goggles, visors, welding shields, aprons. jackets, overalls and protective
footwear that will effectively prevent bodily injury
• waterproof clothing. chemical-resistant clothing, flameproof clothing
and ice jackets that will effectively protect the wearer against harm
• belts, harnesses, nets, lifelines and safety hooks that will effectively
protect employees against falls
• barriers, lock-out devices and safety signs to prevent slipping, unsafe
entry or unsafe conditions
• earmuffs, earplugs, respirators, masks and helmets that will effectively
protect employees against harm
• insulating material on the floor where employees work on a floor made
from metal, stone, concrete or similar material.
Furthermore, PPE may not be removed from the workplace or premises. except for
cleaning, maintenance, repair, modification, mending or replacement. The employer
must ensure that employees are properly trained in the use, maintenance and limitations
of PPE. No employee must be allowed to work unless the required safety equipment such
as PPE) is used.
• Intoxication
A person may not be allowed to enter or remain in the workplace if the person is under the
influence of liquor or drugs or appeals to be under the influence of liquor or drugs.
• Admittance of people
Employers may not allow a person to enter a workplace where the health and safety of this
person is at risk or may be at risk.
• First-aid, emergency equipment and procedures
An employer must take all reasonable steps to ensure that employees at work receive
prompt first-aid treatment in case of injury or emergency. if five or more employees are
employed, the employer must provide a hist-aid box, or first-aid boxes. at or near the
workplace, which must be available and accessible for the treatment of injuries at the
workplace.
66
• Use and storage of flammable liquids

An employer may not allow or require any person to work in a place where the
vapour of a flammable liquid is generated to such an extent that it poses a fire or
explosion hazard or endangers the safety of a person.
• Work in confined spaces
An employer may only allow people to enter a confined space after the air has
been tested and pronounced to be safe by a person who is competent to do this test.
Furthermore, this person must confirm, in writing, that the confined space is safe
and will remain safe while a person is inside the confined space.
• Work in elevated positions
A person may only work in an elevated position if this work is performed safely
from a ladder or scaffolding. or a position of safety as if working from scaffolding.
• Welding, flame cutting, soldering and similar operations
An employer may only allow welding, Flame cutting, soldering or similar work to
be done if the person operating the equipment has been fully instructed on how
to use this equipment safely, has been informed of the safety hazards of this
equipment, and has been provided with effective protection, among other things.
• Ladders
An employer must ensure that the ladders are made of proper Material and that
they are suitable for the purpose for which they are used. The ladders must he fitted
with non-skid devices at the bottom and hooks at the upper ends in order to ensure
stability during normal use.
• Ramps
An employer must ensure that ramps are constructed according to acceptable
technical standards.
• Offences and penalties
Any person who contravenes or fails to comply with the provisions of this regulation
will be guilty of an offence and, if convicted, may be fined or imprisoned for a
maximum of six months. If the offence is continuous, an additional fine of R200
per day or one day in prison may be added for each day that the offence continues,
but this additional imprisonment may not be for more than 90 days.
The offences and penalties for the other regulations of the OHS Act are similar to
those discussed above.
4.2.3 Major Hazard Installation Regulations

The Major Hazard Installation Regulations apply to employers who have on their
premises, either permanently or temporarily, a major hazard installation or a
quantity of a substance that may pose a risk that could affect the health and safety of
employees and the public. Employers must carry out a safety risk assessment after
consultation with the relevant health and safety representatives or health and safety
committee, at intervals of not more than five years, and must record and
67
submit this safety risk assessment to the relevant parties. Employers must also have an
on-site emergency plan in place that must be:
• developed in consultation with the relevant health and safety representatives
or health and safety committee
• discussed with relevant parties
• reviewed and updated, if necessary, at least every three years
• signed in the presence of two witnesses
• readily available at all times for implementation and use
• communicated to employees to ensure that they are conversant with the plan
• tested in practice at least once a year, and a record of this test must be kept.
Risk and emergency occurrences must he reported. All near-misses (which are
unforeseen events that could have led to a major incident, hut did not owing to
mitigation, actions or systems that were in place) must be recorded in a register
that is kept on the premises. The offences and penalties for this regulation is the
same as those mentioned above for General Safety Regulations.
4.2.4 Regulations for Hazardous Biological Agents

Hazardous biological agents (HBA) are any micro-organisms that may cause an
infection, allergy. toxicity or any other danger to the health of people. Employers
must ensure that employees are trained on and informed or the practical and
theoretical knowledge about HBA before exposing them to these agents. According to
the Regulations for Hazardous Biological Agents, employees must be informed and
trained on the:
• contents and scope of this regulation
• potential health risks caused by exposure to HBA
• measures taken by the employer to protect employees against exposure to HBA
• importance of good housekeeping at the workplace and personal hygiene
requirements
• precautions they must take to protect themselves against the health risks
associated with HBA. also including the wear and use of PPE and respiratory
protective equipment
• necessity, correct use, maintenance and potential of PPE, facilities and
engineering control measures that are provided
• necessity of medical surveillance
• safe working procedures regarding the use, handling, storage, labelling and
disposal of HBA at the workplace
• procedures that must he followed if there is an exposure, spillage, leakage,
injury or similar emergency situation, and decontaminating or disinfecting
contaminated areas
• potential negative effect of exposure on the human reproductive process.
58
From the above, it can be seen that employers should ensure that employees are properly
trained and informed about HBA in order for them to identify safety risks and precautions
that should be taken.
4.2.5 Explosives Regulations

The Explosives Regulations apply to all employers who operate an explosives workplace to
manufacture, test, store or use explosives. A licence must be applied for. in writing, from
the chief inspector of OHS. At, employer must keep a register of who enters and exits a
danger area, and no person may:
• enter or exit a danger area through an unauthorised point of entry or exit
• enter or exit the area without first submitting themselves to a search by the
authorised gatekeeper
• enter the area with tobacco, matches, lighters, or any other device that can
generate heat or a spark: intoxicating liquor or narcotics (drugs); food,
medicine or drinkable fluids: radio transmitters: or cellular telephones
• do anything that will increase the safety risk attached to work being
performed in the area
• erect a building in the danger area without prior approval from the chief
inspector of OHS.
A hazardous area must be fenced in and appropriate warning signs must be clearly
displayed at the entrance to this area. Employers must ensure, with regard to
emergencies. that:
• an emergency plan is established and implemented
• the emergency plan is tested in practice at least once every 12 months
• if there is a dangerous gas escaping or being emitted, all people evacuate the
area immediately.
4.2.6 Construction Regulations

A construction site is a workplace where construction work is being performed. The
Construction Regulations stipulate duties of designers and principal contractors, among
others. The designer of a structure must:
• ensure that the applicable safety standards are complied with in the design
• take the health and safety requirements of the client into consideration
• make a report for the client that contains the relevant health and safety
information about the design of the structure that might affect the cost of the
construction work
• inform the client, in writing, of any known or anticipated dangers or threats
on the construction work
• refrain from using materials and equipment that poses a risk to the health
and safety of people if it can be avoided.
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According to these Construction Regulations, a principal contractor must:

• provide and demonstrate a suitable, sufficiently documented and coherent
site-specific health and safety plan
• apply this health and safety plan from the date of commencement of and for
the duration of the construction work
• review and update the health and safety plan as work progresses
• open and keep on site a health and safety file in accordance with the OHS Act
• ensure that subcontractors appointed by the principal contractor act in
accordance with the applicable regulations
• appoint a full-time competent person as construction manager and additional
assistant managers (if necessary), in writing, to manage all construction work
on a single site, including the duty to ensure OHS compliance
• have safety risk assessments done by a competent person before and during
construction that include:
• the identification of safety risks
• an analysis and evaluation of the identified safety risks and safety hazards
• a documented plan and safe working procedures to mitigate, reduce or
control these safety risks and safety hazards
• a monitoring plan
• a review plan.
4.2.7 Regulations on Hazardous Work by Children in South Africa

The purpose of Regulations of Hazardous Work by Children in South Africa is to
prohibit or place conditions upon the work that may be required, expected or permitted
to be performed by child workers. and which is not prohibited by any law. No child
under the age of 15, or who is subject to compulsory schooling, may be employed.
Every employer who employs or provides work to a child must undertake a safety risk
assessment process of the work done in order to, at least:
• identify the safety risks and safety hazards to which the child may be exposed
• analyse and evaluate the safety risks and safety hazards that are identified
• prepare and implement a documented plan of safe work procedures to
remove, mitigate. reduce or control safety risks and safety hazards
• prepare and implement a monitoring plan.
Owing to the fact that children are more vulnerable, an employer must take the
following additional factors into account:
• Children are more sensitive to chemicals, biological agents and carcinogens,
among others.
• Children are more vulnerable to sleep disruption.
• Children are more vulnerable to direct and indirect coercion and abuse from
other people.
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• Children lark experience and maturity in making safety judgements.

• Children have a reduced ability to adapt to inflexible work routines.
• Children have a reduced ability to perceive dangers correctly.
• Children have a reduced capacity to understand safety messages.
• Machinery, tools, equipment and PPE may not be appropriate for use by
children.
• The skeletal structures and bones of children are still developing.
• Children's physical development in relation to ergonomics needs to be
considered to ensure a healthy and safe work environment.
Employers should prepare carefully for the employment of child workers and for
the safety risk assessment that should be done. in doing a safety risk assessment.
employers should understand the relevant child labour and health and safety
regulations, walk through the workplace in order to identify job activities that are
not allowed, as well as ensure that they, as well as supervisors and co-workers, are
informed about the special needs of child workers. Furthermore, employers should
ensure that children receive health and safety training that is age-appropriate and
that special considerations for child workers are included in the employers' plan of
safe work procedures. The parents andfor schools of child workers should be
involved when work issues are discumed, if and when necessary
4.3 Health regulations

The following regulations of the OHS ACE are seen as health regulations. As
Indicated previously in this chapter, this chapter only discusses certain sections of
the regulations and does not claim to summarise all regulations completely.
4.3.1 Asbestos Regulations

Asbestos work is any work that exposes or is likely to expose a person to asbestos
dust. Asbestos dust comprises airborne or settled dust that contains or is likely to
contain regulated asbestos fibres. According to the Asbestos Regulations, an
employer has to notify the provincial director, in writing, prior to undertaking
any asbestos work. No employer may require or allow a person to work in an
environment in which the person would be exposed to asbestos over the prescribed
occupational exposure limit of 0.2 regulated asbestos fibres per millilitre of air
averaged over any continuous period of four hours.
Employers should provide information and training to employees prior to doing
asbestos work in order to ensure that employees, among other things, know the:
• contents and scope of the Asbestos Regulations
• potential sources of asbestos exposure
• potential health risks caused by exposure to asbestos
71
• measures taken by the employer to protect an employee against any safety

risk from exposure
• precautions to be taken by the employee to protect himself or herself against
the health risks caused by exposure
• necessity correct use, maintenance and limitations of the provided PPE.
facilities and engineering control measures
• assessment of exposure
• occupational exposure limit and its meaning
• importance of good housekeeping at the workplace and personal hygiene
• safe working procedures
• procedures to be followed in emergency situations likely to result in the
release of asbestos dust
• procedures for the reporting and correcting of defects that are likely to result
in the release of asbestos dust
• safe disposal of asbestos waste
• procedures for record-keeping.
Refresher training should be provided at least once a year, but more frequently if:
• work methods change
• signiftcant changes occur in the type of work carried out
• the type of equipment used to control exposure changes.
An employer should control the exposure of a person to asbestos. where reasonably
practicable. by:
• using a substitute for asbestos
• limiting the number of people who will be exposed or may be exposed
• limiting the period during which people may or will be exposed
• limiting the amount of asbestos dust that may contaminate the working
environment
• introducing engineering controls to control exposure
• introducing written safe working procedures that employees must follow
• developing and applying a system of biological monitoring and medical
surveillance.
Employers should ensure that they control exposure to asbestos of people other than
employees and that records are kept of all asbestos-related assessments and monitoring,
among other things.
4.3.2 Diving Regulations

Diving, in terms of the Diving Regulations, implies entering water (or any other liquid) or
a pressurised environment in which a person gets subjected to pressure greater than WO
millibars above atmospheric pressure, where air (or other gas) is breathed to survive at a
pressure greater than atmospheric pressure.
72
The employer or client must do the following, among other things, in terms of these
regulations:
• Prepare a documented health and safety specification for the diving work.
• Provide the diving contractor with any information that may affect the
health and safety of divers.
• Take reasonable steps to ensure that each diving contractor's health and
safety plan is implemented and maintained at the diving site.
• Ensure that, if changes happen. sufficient health and safety information and
appropriate resources are made available to do the work safely.
4.3.3 Environmental Regulations For Workplaces

The Environmental Regulations for Workplaces include specifications dealing with
different aspects of the work environment that people are exposed to while at work.
The following aspects, among other things, are addressed in these regulations;
• Thermal requirements: Temperatures and maximum exposure to them are
indicated. Temperatures from 0-18 degrees Celsius have no limit, thus no
maximum exposure level.
• Lighting: Employers must ensure that every workplace is lighted in
accordance with the provisions contained in these regulations.
• Windows: Employers must ensure that rooms or less than 100 square metres
have windows in order to ensure visual contact with areas outside the workplace.
• Ventilation: Employers must ensure that every workplace is ventilated so
that the air breathed by employees does not endanger their health or safety.
• Housekeeping: Clear and unobstructed space must be maintained by the users
of machinery to enable work to be carried out without danger to people.
• Precautions against flooding: If a substantial risk for flooding exists,
employers must take measures to be informed of imminent flooding.
• Fire precautions and means of egress: In case of a fire, a workplace must
be evacuated quickly and employers must ensure that this will happen by. for
example, fitting emergency doors to open outwards, keeping exits clear,
providing handrails on staircases and steps. and constructing staircases from
non-combustible materials.
4.3.4 Facilities Regulations

Facilities in the workplace are regulated by the Facilities Regulations. Employers
should ensure that they are aware of the specific detail contained in terms of the
fallowing aspects, among other things, contained in these regulations:
73
• Sanitation
Employers must provide sanitary facilities at workplaces that are lively and readily
accessible and should provide toilet paper free of charge; provide every water
closet pan designed to have a seat with a seat: supply a towel to every employee for
his or her sole use, or disposable paper towels, hot air blowers, or clean portions of
continuous cloth towels; provide toilet soap or a similar cleansing agent free of
charge; provide running hot and cold (or mixed) water for washbasins and showers;
provide a sign to the entrance of rooms indicating male or female: ventilate rooms:
and provide privacy such as partitions or doors.
• Facilities for safekeeping

Employers must provide employees, excluding office workers, with a personal
facility to keep their clothes and other personal items safe and in a good condition.
• Changing rooms
Employers must provide change rooms for employees who need to undress and
shower and these rooms must be separate for males and females.
• Dining rooms
Employers must provide separate dining rooms at a workplace for employees who
are exposed to chemicals, dust, filth and so on.
• Drinking water
Employers must provide employees with an adequate supply of drinking water at
the workplace.
• Seats
Employers must provide seats for employees whose work can be performed while
sitting, and to allow employees who do their work in a standing position to have a
seat when they have the opportunity to sit down.
• Condition of rooms and facilities
Employers must ensure that all rooms and facilities are kept clean, hygienic, safe.
whole, leak-free and in a good condition.
4.3.5 Hazardous Chemical Substances Regulations

Hazardous chemical substances (}ICS) are any toxic, harmful, corrosive, irritant, or
asphyxiant substance for which an occupational exposure limit is prescribed or
which creates a threat or danger to health. Before allowing any employee to work
with HCS, employers should, according to the Hazardous Chemical Substances
Regulations, ensure that employees are properly informed and trained on the:
• content and scope of these regulations
• potential sources of exposure
• potential safety risks to health caused by exposure
• potential negative effect of exposure on reproduction ability
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Chapter 4: Sauth African OHS general and health regulations
• measures taken by the employer to protect employees against safety risks

from exposure
• precautions to be taken by the employee to protect himself or herself against
health risks from exposure
• necessity, correct use, maintenance and potential of PPE, facilities and
engineering control measures
• necessity of personal air sampling and medical surveillance
• importance of good housekeeping and petsonal hygiene
• safe working procedures on the use, handling, storage and labelling of HCS
• specific procedures to be followed if there is spillage, leakage or other
emergency situations.
Regulations pertaining to HCS do not only consist of the employer's responsibilities.

People who work with HCS and may be exposed to it must ensure that they:
• prevent the 1-ICS from being released
• wear PPE
• wear monitoring equipment to measure exposure
• report on health evaluations and biological tests as required
• clean up and dispose properly of materials containing HCS
• do good housekeeping at the workplace, and ensure personal hygiene and
environmental and health practices
• receive the information and training as indicated above.
These regulations further contain information and specifications on air monitoring; medical
surveillance; respirator zones: records; handling and control of HCS: PPE: control measures:
prohibitions; labelling, packaging, transportation and storage. disposal of HCS as well as offences and
penalties. Hazardous chemical substances guidelines and calculation of exposure, among other things,
are also included as annexures to these regulations.
4.3.6 Lead Regulations

Lead refers to lead, lead alloys and lead compounds that can be absorbed in any way by any
person. The Lead Regulations indicate that employers should ensure that employees receive the
necessary information and training before being allowed to work with or be exposed to lead.
Employers who may be exposed to lead must obey any lawful instruction given by the employer
or on behalf of the employer and they have the following duties:
• prevention of lead being released into the environment
• wearing and use of PPE
• wearing of monitoring equipment to measure exposure
• reporting for medical surveillance
75
• notifying the occupational health practitioner of pregnancy

• cleaning up and disposal of materials that contain lead
• good housekeeping, personal hygiene and health practices
• getting the information and undergoing training provided by the employer.
These regulations also contain information and specifications on the assessment of

potential exposure to airborne lead; medical surveillance; respirator zones;
records; control of exposure to lead; PPE; cleanliness of the premises and plant;
maintenance of control measures of the labelling, packaging, transportation and
storage of lead: disposal of lead waste; as well as offences and penalties regarding
the contravention of these regulations.
4.3.7 Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Regulations

The Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Regulations state that no employer or self-
employed person may allow anyone to enter a workplace where the noise is at or
above the noise-rating limit of 85 dBA (8-hour working day rating level). Hearing
impairment is likely to result if the noise level is at or above 85 dBA. Information
and training should be provided for employees who may be exposed to noise at or
above the noise-rating limit. This training programme should include the:
• contents and scope of these regulations
• potential sources of exposure to noise
• potential risks to health and safety caused by exposure to noise
• measures taken by the employer to protect employees against the negative
effects of exposure to noise
• precautions to be taken by employees to protect themselves against the
health and safety risks associated with exposure to noise (including the use
and wearing of earplugs and earmuffs)
• necessity. correct use, maintenance and limitations of provided hearing
protectors, facilities and engineering control measures
• assessment or noise exposure, the purpose of noise monitoring, the necessity
for medical surveillance as well as the long-term benefits and limitations of
these aspects
• noise-rating limit for hearing conservation and what that means
• procedures to follow for the reporting, correcting and replacing of defective
hearing protectors as well as for engineering noise control measures.
New employees should receive training before their placement. Training should be
conducted at least once every year or at intervals determined by the health and
safety representative or the health and safety committee. A competent person with
appropriate personal practical experience and theoretical knowledge should conduct
the training. People who may be affected by noise exposure at the workplace, other
than employees, should receive adequate information, instruction and training.
Employers must keep a record of all training.
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Chapter 4: South African MIS general and health regulations
Employees exposed to noise have certain duties according to the Noise-Induced

Hearing Loss Regulations. These duties include:
• using the measures adopted for noise control
• reporting defective, damaged or lost noise control equipment immediately
• using the PPE provided
• not remaining in or entering into an area where PPE is required unless
authorised to do so and wearing the required PPE
• co-operating with the employer in order to determine noise exposure, also
including the wearing of PPE
• reporting for medical surveillance if and when required
• ensuring that they get the appropriate information and training provided by
the employer on noise-induced hearing loss.
Medical surveillance an noise-induced hearing loss provides, among other things, for the
following:
• A baseline audiogram must he recorded before a new employee starts
employment or within 30 days of starting employment.
• A periodic audiogram during the first three years of employment. and
annually thereafter, must be recorded.
• There must be a six-month interval between audiometric testing for an
employee working in a noise zone.
• Audiometric testing must be provided for employees who are regularly
exposed to gunshots or other explosives.
• An exit audiogram must be recorded for every employee leaving the
organisation or moving to a different workplace.
• Audiograms must be performed by a competent person.
• Records of audiograms must be entered into employees' records of medical
surveillance.
• A copy of each audiogram must be provided to an employee leaving
employment.
• New employees must be provided with copies of their baseline audiogrants
and most recent audiograms as well as the percentage of hearing loss.
• Hearing loss of more than 10% must be reported to the health and safety
representative and to the provincial director.
An employer should ensure that employees are not exposed to noise, and if it is not
reasonably practical to avoid noise exposure. that adequate control is taken to reduce the
exposure. Noise exposure must be reduced, as far as is reasonably practical, in the
Following order of priority:
• engineering control measures to eliminate or reduce noise at its source (or
modifying the routes by which noise reaches workplaces)
77
• administrative control measures in order to limit the number of people and

the duration of exposure to noise
• the use of personal protective equipment to reduce the level of exposure to
below the noise-rating limit.
Employers must ensure that hearing protective equipment is provided, if necessary,
and must ensure that:
• the equipment can 'keep the level of exposure below the noise-rating limit
• the equipment is selected correctly and used properly
• employees receive the necessary information, instruction, training and
supervision on the use of the equipment
• the equipment is kept in a good condition and in efficient working order
• reusable hearing protective equipment, if appropriate, is only issued if it is
properly decontaminated and sterilised
• separate containers or storage facilities are provided for hearing protective
equipment when ills not in use
• hearing protective equipment is stored in the place provided for it when it is
not in use.
The regulations contain much more information, also on record-keeping. This section
only summarises a few of the sections contained in these regulations.
4.4 Conclusion
11 is important that employers and employees are aware of the different regulations
contained in the OHS Act. This chapter only focused on some of the information
contained in the regulations and did not attempt to summarise all the applicable
information from all the regulations. However. from the short explanation of each
regulation above, it is clear that information and training on specific applicable
regulations should form part of any organisation's health and safety efforts and that
employers and employees must work together in order to ensure a healthy and safe
workplace.
78
1_ Explain the General Administrative Regulations contained in the OHS Act
1 Which template forms are included in the General Administrative Regulations of
the OHS Act?
3. What elements are addressed under the General Safety Regulations of the OHS Act?
4. Discuss the Major Hazard Installation Regulations of the OHS Act.
5_ Define hazardous biological agents (FIBAI,
6_ Explain the Regulations for Hazardous Biological Agents of the OHS Act
7_ Discuss the Explosive-s Regulations of the OHS Act.
8_ List the responsibilities of the designer of a structure in terms of the Construction
Regulations of the OHS Act.
9_ What is a principal contractor responsible for in terms of the Construction
Regulations of the OHS Act?
10, Explain the components of a safety risk assessment process of the work done by
children in terms of the Regulations on Hazardous Work by Children in South Africa.
11. According to the Regulations on Hazardous Work by Children in South Africa,
children are more vulnerable, list the additional factors that employers should
take into account.
12. Explain the Asbestos Regulations of the OHS Act.
13. Discuss the Diving Regulations of the OHS Act.
14. List and explain the aspects covered in the Environmental Regulations for
Workplaces of the OHS Act.
15. Facilities in the workplace are regulated by the Facilities Regulations of the OHS
Act Explain the elements that employers should be aware of,
16. Define hazardous chemical substances (HCS).
17. Explain the Hazardous Chemical Substances Regulations of the OHS Act.
18. Discuss the Lead Regulations of the OHS Act.
19. What is meant by the noise-rating limit?
20. Explain the Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Regulations of the OHS Act
79
References
Legislation
Acts
Regulations
ON R155. Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Asbestos Regulations. 2001. Government
ON R1010. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Construction Regulations. 2014.
Governinrin GE:2Nle 37305 of 7 February 2014.
ON RIO. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Diving Regulations.. 2001. Government
Gazette 72991 of 11 January 2002.
ON R2881. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Environmental Regulations for
Workplaces. 1987. Government Gazette 10988 of 16 October 1987.
UN R109. Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Explosives Regulations. 2002.
Government Gazette 24272 of 17 January 2003.
ON R1045. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Facilities Regulations. 2004.
Government Gazette 26636 of 3 August 2004.
ON R929. Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: General Administrative Regulations.
2003. Government Gazette 25129 of 25 June 2003.
ON R1031, Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: General Safety Regulations. 1986.
Government Gazette 10252 of 30 May 1986.
GM R1179. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: lIazardous Chemical Substances
Regulations. 1995. Government Gazette 16596 of 25 August 1995.
ON R236, Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Lead Regulations. 2001. Govenrmera
ON R692. Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Major Hazard Installation Regulations.
2001. Government Gazette 22506 of 30 July 2001.
ON R307. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Noise-Induced Hearing Loss
Regulations. 2003. Government Gazette 24967 of 7 March 2003.
ON R1390. Occupational Health and Safety Act 1993: Regulations for Hazardous Biological
Agents. 2001. Government Gazette 22956 of 27 December 2001.
ON R7. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Regulations on Hazardous Work by Children
in South Africa. 2010. Government Gazette 32862 of 15 January 2010.
ao
Chapter 5
South African OHS mechanical and
electrical regulations
Etriza kterhoyzen and Leonie Louw
Learning outcomes
• name the five mechanical regulations of the OHS Act
• explain the Driven Machinery Regulations
• discuss the General Machinery Regulations
• explain the Lift. Escalator and Passenger Conveyor Regulations
• indicate what is included under the Regulations Concerning the Certificate of
Competency
• discuss the Pressure Equipment Regulations
• name the two electrical regulations of the OHS Act
• explain the Electrical Installation Regulations
• discuss the Electrical Machinery Regulations.
Key terms
Approved inspection authority Portable electric light
Band saws and band knives Bare Portable electric tools
conductors Pressure and safety accessories
Circular saws Pressure equipment marking
Door interlocks Revolving machinery
Earthing Risk-based inspection
Electric fence system certificate Rollers and calenders
Electrical contractor Safeguarding of machinery
Electrical control gear Slitting machines
Gas reticulation equipment and systems Supervision of machinery
Goods hoists Switchgear and transformer premises
Lifting machines and tackle Transportable gas containers
Lifts, escalators and passenger Transportation plants
conveyors Washing machines and centrifugal
Mixing and agitating machines extractors
Moving or electrically alive machinery Wood moulding and mortising machines
Operation of machinery
5.1 Introduction
The previous chapter included information on the general and health regulations of
the OHS Act. This chapter provides information on the mechanical and electrical
regulations of the OHS Act that employers, employees as well as safety and health
practitioners should be aware of.
Please take note, once again, that the purpose of this chapter is not to summarise
all aspects of these regulations. The purpose is to give an overview of some of the
aspects of these regulations to create awareness.
5.2 Mechanical regulations

Mechanical regulations contain five regulations and each is briefly discussed below.
5.2.1 Driven Machinery Regulations

Driven Machinery Regulations include the following:
• Revolving machinery
• Every shaft, pulley, wheel, gear, sprocket, coupling, collar, clutch or
similar object must be securely fenced or guarded if they are not already in
such a position or constructed in such a way that they are safe.
• Every set screw, key or bolt on revolving parts, such as shafts, couplings,
pulleys and gears. must be countersunk, enclosed or guarded.
• Every square shaft or spindle end that projects for more than a quarter
of its diameter must be guarded by a cap or shroud.
• Every driving belt, rope or chain must be guarded.
• The underside of every overhead driving belt, rope or chain that is
hanging above passages or workplaces must be guarded to avoid broken
parts falling and injuring people.
• Circular saws
• No person may operate a power-driven circular saw at a speed in excess
of the maximum speed set by the manufacturer for the saw blade: or if the
saw blade is damaged or dull or if the blade is not the regular blade or
correctly sharpened and set.
• The saw blade of a power-driven bench saw must be effectively guarded
below the table; and the part of the saw blade above the table must be
covered with a guard at all times. lf not possible, the top of the saw must he
covered by a strong manually adjustable guard as near as practically
possible to the cutting point of the saw.
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Chapter 5: South African OHS mechanical and electrical regulations
• Every power-driven circular saw used for ripping wood must be provided
with a riving knife placed as close as practicable to the saw blade. It
must be in the form of an arc of a circle and extend to a height above the
table to within 5 mm of the saw blade. It must also have a smooth
surface and be strong, rigid and easy to adjust.
• The user of a lilting saw or tilting table saw must ensure that it is
arranged so that the adjustment of the riving knife and the guard is
effective with any position of the saw or the table; that a suitable push
stick is available if it is fed by hand; that suitable mechanical means are
available to hold rough timber; and that an effective guard is provided for
automatic feed rollers, if used.
• The person using a swing or radial saw that is moved towards the
material must ensure that it is guarded in such a way that only the
cutting position of the saw blade is exposed; that it will automatically
move away from the material after cutting; and that it is fated with a
device that ensures that timber is FM thrown back at the operator when
used to rip timber.
4 The user of a portable power-driven circular saw must ensure that a
guard is fixed above the shoe or slide; and that the guard automatically
covers the portion of the saw blade below the slide or shot when it is
not being used.
• Band saws and band knives
• All moving parts. except the working part of the blade at the point of
operation, must be properly guarded.
• Wood-planing machines
• A cylindrical cutter block must be fitted to every wood-planing machine
that is used for overhand planing and that is not fed mechanically.
• These machines must be provided with a bridge guard that covers the
full length and breadth of the cutting slot in the table. The bridge guard
must be adjustable vertically and horizontally.
• Wood that is less than 300 mm long may not be manually fed into this
machine unless a safe holder is used.
• A wood-planing machine used for thicknessing must have an effective
guard for its feed roller.
• Wood-moulding and mortising machines
• The cutter and chain of every wood-moulding or mortising machine
must be effectively guarded.
• If the guard does not allow the work to be performed. the user of this
machine must ensure that the wood that is moulded is held in a holder or jig
in order to ensure safe work. If a holder or jig cannot be used, the user must
be provided with a push stick or spike to ensure the user's safety.
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• Sanding machines
• Effective guards must completely enclose the revolving drum of drum
sanding machines, except the portion necessary to perforrn the work.
• Disc sanding machines must have effective guards that completely
enclose the periphery and back of the sanding disc as well as the portion of the
working face of the disc under the table.
• Belt sanding machines must have guards at the trap points where the
sanding belt runs into its pulleys and must enclose all sections of the
belt that is not used for sanding,
• Grinding machines
• Grinding machines must indicate the manufacturer's rated speed or
speeds of the spindle in revolutions per minute.
• The grinding wheel of a power-driven grinding machine may not be
used at a speed that is greater than the maximum speed indicated by the
manufacturer.
• A grinding wheel of more than 100 mm in diameter may only be used if
the recommended operating speed is clearly indicated on it.
• Grinding wheels must be mounted with flanges and suitable compress-
ible material, or secured if mounting is not possible, in order to
eliminate. as far as possible, displacing or rupturing the wheel in motion.
• A guard must enclose the grinding wheel as far as practicable and must
be strong enough to withstand the force of a rupturing grinding wheel.
• If the user of the machine must apply the workpiece by hand to the
grinding wheel, an adjustable work rest must be provided that is
securely fixed and adjusted to within 3 mm from the grinding face of the
grinding wheel.
• The user of this machine must have a transparent shield to protect his or
her eyes, or other suitable eye protection, that he or she must wear.
• Notices must be posted at all grinding machines informing people that
no work may be carried out, inspections done or work observed without
suitable eye protection.
• Shears, guillotines and presses
• A guard must be fixed to all shears, guillotines and presses, which have
an opening of more than 10 mm, to prevent hands or fingers from
reaching its point of operation.
• This guard must be self-adjusting to automatically fit the thickness of
the material being worked,
• A manual or automatic moving guard must be so arranged so that it
cannot be opened unless the blade is stationary.
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• These machines may have an automatic sweep-away or push-away

mechanism that pushes any part of the user's body out of the danger zone
when work starts.
• An electronic device that senses if a part of the user's body or any
foreign object is in the danger zone may he used to prevent the machine from
working.
• Guards need not be used if the operator of these machines is working
from a distance that ensures that he or she cannot reach the danger zone with
any part of his or her body.
• Guards need not be used if the operator of the machine needs to use
both hands to operate it, and sensors will stop the work if the operator
removes his or her hand from thy controls.
• Any full-revolution clutch shear, guillotine or press that is fed by hand
must have an anti-repeat device.
• Slitting machines
• The cutting edge of the disc cutter must be guarded effectively.
• Mixing, agitating and similar machines
• All moving parts of these machines must he placed out or reach of
people by using doors, covers, guards or other means.
• The machines must be designed in such a way that if the doors, covers
or guards are open they will not work, and they will stop working if any
one of them is opened.
• Rollers and calenders

• Any machine that uses two or more rams that rotate in opposite
directions and which are less than 7S mm apart must be guarded for the
full length of the in-running side or nip of the rollers if it is within the
reach of people.
• These guards must be faxed or a trip bar, a cable or an electronic sensing
device must he placed within NO mm from the nip. These guards or
devices must stop or reverse the rotation of the rollers if the bar or cable
is touched or if any foreign object is in the danger area.
• An inspector may require or permit any other means of protection.
• Washing machines, centrifugal extractors and similar machines

• Machines that have an inner cylinder, drum or basket that rotates must
be provided with a door or lid on the outer cylinder.
• The inner cylinder, drum or basket must not be able to work unless the
door or lid is closed.
• It must not be possible to open the door or lid unless the inner cylinder,
drum or basket is standing still.
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• Air compressors
• Air compressors must have an automatic means for limiting the
operating temperature, and if it does not have automatic means. it must
have a fusible plug that is fated close to the outlet valves of every stage
of compression.
• Refrigeration and air-conditioning installations
• Refrigeration and air-conditioning installations may only be used if
they comply with the safety standard with regard to their construction,
installation, operation and inspection.
• Transportation plants
• A transportation plant must comply with the safety standards applicable
to its design. construction, operation and inspection.
• Written authorisation to use the plant must be obtained From an inspector.
• A person who wants to use a transportation plant must apply in writing
to the divisional inspector for permission to use it. This application
must include, among other things, a complete set of design calculations.
drawings of the proposed installation, and a certificate from a registered
engineer indicating that the design will be safe to use.
• An inspector may withdraw his or her permission to use the plant, in the
interest of safety.
• The whole installation and all working parts must be examined and
performance-tested by a person with the applicable knowledge and
experience.
• Structures, ropes, machinery and safety devices must be examined and
performance-tested before they are used and at least every 12 months
after the first examination and performance test.
• The whole installation of the transportation plant must be tested at
120% of the rated mass load in order to test all parts of the installation.
• Ropes, hooks and other devices used for load-attaching must be
examined hy a competent person at least every six months.
• A record book of examinations and tests of and at the plant must be
kept on the premises at all times.
• Goods hoists
• The hatchway of hoists must be enclosed with walls or grilles.
• Even), hatchway landing entrance must be provided with a door or gate
that has a mechanical lock (that can only be opened when the conveyance is
at that landing] and a circuit breaker that ensures that the conveyance cannot
be moved by power unless the door or gate is properly closed.
• An automatic device must cut the power if the conveyance moves
300 mm past the top or bottom landing.
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• The conveyance must have the means to be held at any position with its
maximum load when power is not being supplied.
• The conveyance must be enclosed on all sides, except the access side.
• The chains and steel-wire ropes carrying the conveyance and
counterweight must have a breaking load of at least six times the rated load
of the hoist.
• The hoist must be controlled from the landings only, not from inside the
conveyance.
• The hoist must be Inspected at least every three months by a competent
person.
• A notice must indicate the maximum mass load of the hoist and indicate
that people may not ride on the goods hoist.
• No people may be permitted or required to ride on the goods hoist.
• Lifting machines and lifting tackle
• Lifting machines and lifting tackle may not be used unless they have
been designed and constructed according to a generally accepted
technical standard.
• The lifting machine or tackle must be clearly marked with the maximum
load that it is designed to carry safely.
• It must have at least three full turns or rope left on the drum of each
winch when run to its lowest limit.
• Every power-driven lifting machine must have a device capable of holding
the maximum load if the power fails and to prevent the uncontrolled
downward movement of the load.
• A device must stop the driving effort if the maximum load of a power-
driven lifting machine is exceeded or if the load is greater than the rated mass
load of a winch-operated lifting machine.
• Every chain or rope used must be safe according to the applicable
standard.
• The hooks or other load-attaching devices must be designed and
proportioned to prevent accidental disconnection during working
conditions.
• The whole installation and working parts must be examined and
performance-tested by a competent person before use and at least every
12 months thereafter.
• The installation of the lifting machines must be tested with 1103k of the
rated mass load.
• All ropes, chains, hooks and other attaching devices, sheaves, brakes and
safety devices must be examined by a competent person at least every six
months.
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• A register must be kept on the premises with all details about the
performance tests and examinations performed_
• No person may be moved or supported by a lifting machine unless it is
fitted with a cradle for this purpose.
• A lifting tackle may only be used if every item it consists of is well
constructed of sound material, is strong enough, and is constructed in
accordance with a generally accepted technical standard.
• Every part of a lifting tackle must be clearly marked with its particulars
as well as the maximum load that it can lift safely.
• Ropes or chains must have a Factor of safety by indicating the maximum
load that they are designed to lift with safety.
• Steel-wire ropes must not be used again for lifting purposes if showing
signs of excessive wear, broken wires, corrosion or other defects.
• lifting tackle must be examined at least every three months by a
competent person and the results of the examination must he indicated in
a book kept for this purpose.
• Lifting tackle must be stored and protected to prevent damage and
deterioration when it is not used.
• Lifting machines must be operated by operators who are specifically
trained to operate that particular type of lifting machine.
Any person who contravenes these regulations or who fails to comply with a
provision of any of these regulations will he guilty of an offence and may be fined up
to R1000 or imprisoned for not more than six months. If this offence continues, an
additional fine of R5 for each day that ii continues or an additional one day in
prison For each day that it continues may be given, but the period of this additional
imprisonment may not be more than 90 days.
5.2.2 General Machinery Regulations

General Machinely Regulations include the following:
• Supervision of machinery
• A responsible person must be designated, in writing, in a Full-time
capacity for every premises on or in which machinery is being used.
• The chief inspector may permit an employer to designate more than one
responsible person.
• This responsible person must be competent. meaning the person must:
• have served an apprenticeship in an engineering trade or must have
five years' practical experience in the operation and maintenance of
this machinery: or
• have obtained an engineering diploma in either the mechanical
or electrotechnical fields and have at least two years practical
experience in the operation and maintenance of this machinery: or
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a be a graduate engineer with at least two years' postgraduate practical

experience in the operation and maintenance of this machinery; or
• be a certified engineer.
• The designated person must supervise the machinery on or in the
premises for which he or she has been designated.
• Safeguarding of machinery
• Every employer or user of machinery must ensure that all machinery is
suitable for the purpose that it is used.
• All machinery must be installed, operated and maintained in such a
way that the exposure of people to hazardous or potentially hazardous
conditions or circumstances is prevented.
• All exposed and dangerous parts of machinery that is within the normal
reach of a person must be effectively safeguarded by, among other
things, insulation, fencing or guarding.
• Safety equipment must be maintained in good working order and used
correctly.
• The quality of material used and the construction of machinery roust be
suitable for the purpose for which the machinery is intended.
• If machinery constitutes a danger to people, the employer or user of
the machinery must ensure that the premises are enclosed and that the
entrances to the premises are closed and locked.
• No person may remove safety equipment from machinery unless
authorised to do so by the employer or user of the machinery.
• Operation of machinery
• Every person authorised to use machinery must be fully aware of the
dangers involved in using the machinery and of the precautionary
measures to be taken.
• if a person operates a machine that requires constant attention to avoid
accidents, he or she may not leave his or her post unless a person takes
over who is authorised and competent to operate that machine. The use of this
type of machine also requites the supervision of a shiftsrnan, who must be
present on the premises when the machine is in operation or attended to.
• No person who is supervising or operating machinery may authorise
another person to do his or her job without the permission of his or her
superior.
• If machinery threatens, or may threaten, the safety of people when it is
unexpectedly set in motion, precautionary measures must be taken to
ensure that this machinery cannot be set in motion or made electrically
live. Any person intending to set this machine in motion or to make it
electrically live must take all reasonable precautionary measures to ensure
the safety of people.
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• If machinery that is in operation threatens or may threaten the safety

of people, the supervisor or operator or the machinery must stop the
machinery.
• Working on moving or electrically alive machinery
• No person may be permitted or required to work on or near electrically
alive machinery unless he or she is competent or trained to the
satisfaction of an inspector. This does not apply if the operation of the
machinery takes place under the general supervision of a shiftsman.
• All reasonable precautionary measures to prevent people from being
injured must be taken when work is performed on or near machinery
that is in motion or electrically alive. Additional precautions must be
taken if the inspector requires it in the interest of safety.
• No loose-fitting clothing, loose-hanging hair, jewellery, watches or
similar items may be worn close to moving machinery as these items
may get caught in the moving parts of the machinery.
• Devices to start and stop machinery
• Devices to start and stop machinery must be placed where they can be
easily and conveniently reached by the operator of the machinery.
• These devices must not be constructed and placed so that they can lead
to the accidental starting of machinery.
• The controls of an electric motor must not be working while repairs or
adjustments are being made.
• Machines operated by two or more people must be provided with
stopping devices that lock-out when they arc being used (and require
manual resetting before the machinery can be restarted' and audible
warning devices that make a sound before the machinery is set in motion.
• The inspector may give written permission for alternative precautionary
measures to ensure the safety of people.
• Reporting of incidents in connection with machinery
• Each incident I hat involved the fracture or failure of any pan of
machinery that resulted in failing or flying objects must be reported to
an inspector.
• It must be reported to an inspector if machinery ran out of control
owing to the failure of a control or safety equipment and that could
have caused an injury to a person.
• The fracture or failure of any part of machinery in which gas is under
pressure and which resulted in the sudden release of this gas must he
reported to an inspector.
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• information on regulations
• The designated responsible person for machinery must be provided, free
of charge, with a copy of the OHS Act as well as the regulations of the
OHS Act.
• Notices must be presented in different official languages and put in a
place on the premises where it can be seen.
• Any notice must be explained to all employees who do not understand
the official languages used.
A person who contravenes these regulations or who fails to comply with a provision of
any of these regulations will be guilty of an offence and may be fined up to R1000 or
imprisoned for not more than six months. If this offence continues, an additional fine
of R5 for each day that it continues or an additional one day in prison for each day
that it continues may be given, hut the period of this additional imprisonment may
not be more than 90 days. These offences and penalties correspond with those
indicated for the Driven Machinery Regulations above.
5.2.3 Lift. Escalator and Passenger Conveyor Regulations

Lift, Escalator and Passenger Conveyor Regulations include the following:
• Permission to install and use
• No person may install or permit the installation of a new or used lift,
escalator or passenger conveyor unless the appropriate form has been
submitted to the relevant provincial director, who must allocate an
official number to the lift. escalator or passenger conveyor.
• The installation must meet the requirements set out in these regulations
and it must comply with the relevant standards and specifications.
• No person may use or require or permit the use of a lift, escalator
or passenger conveyor unless the person is in possession of a valid
comprehensive report that was completed by an inspection service
provider.
• The user of a lift that does not operate automatically must appoint an
operator for this lift, in writing, and inform the operator of the dangers
involved in its operation.
• Design and construction

• No person may use, install or modify (or give permission to do so) any
lift, escalator or passenger conveyor unless it has been designed and
constructed or modified in accordance with the relevant standard and
complies with the requirements of the National Building Regulations.
• All electrical components of a lift, escalator or passenger conveyor that
are installed in a location where there is a fire danger or a danger of an
explosion must comply with the Electrical Machinery Regulations.
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• Particulars of lifts and escalators and passenger conveyors

• Every lift, escalator or passenger conveyor must be marked, in the
machine compartment, indicating the following information:
the name of the manufacturer
• the year of installation
• the year of modification
the official number allocated to it
▪ the rated speed in metres per second
• the rated load in kilograms.
• If more than one lift. escalator or passenger conveyor is used. the
Information of each must be clearly distinguished from the other.
• An up-to-date, legible and schematic electrical wiring diagram for
each lift, escalator or passenger conveyor must be kept in the machine
compartment.
• The name and telephone number of the competent lift service provider
must be clearly indicated at the main landing and in each car or lift.
• Inspections and tests
• inspections and tests, in accordance with the relevant health and safety
standards, must be performed on every lift, escalator or passenger
conveyor:
• before using it for the first time
• after any modification
• when the competent lift service provider has been changed
• at least every 24 months (a separate report must be written and kept
for each lift. escalator or passenger conveyor, and submitted within
30 days to the user).
• If any defect or weakness is found during inspections and tests, the
inspection service provider must report this to the user, and no person may
use the lift, escalator or passenger conveyor until it has been rectified.
• A comprehensive report for a lift, escalator or passenger conveyor must
be completed:
• before It is put Into use
• after any modification
• after a reportable incident occurred
• after a change in the designated competent lift service provider
• at least every 24 months
• when an inspection or test is done (all documents must be kept in
good order and must be up to date).
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• An inspector may at any reasonable time conduct an inspection on any

lift, escalator or passenger conveyor. Workmen and equipment that are
reasonably required to carry out this inspection must be provided to the
inspector free of charge.
• Inspection service providers must be registered with the accreditation
authority of this regulation.
• Maintenance
• A designated competent lift service provider must examine and maintain
a lift, escalator or passenger conveyor at least once a month, or as
indicated by the manufacturer.
• The competent lift service provider must examine the parts of a lift.
escalator or passenger conveyor as prescribed by the manufacturer.
• In the case of a lirt, the gates and door locks must be tested at each
examination.
• The suspension ropes of a lift must be examined every 6 months and the
safety gear, overspeed governor and buffers must be examined at least
every 12 months,
• If any weakness or defect is found that may endanger people, the
competent lift service provider must immediately report this to the
provincial director and the user, and no person may use the lift,
escalator or passenger conveyor until the weakness or defect has been
fixed and the inspection service provider is satisfied with it.
• If the use of a lift, escalator or passenger conveyor is dangerous or
likely to be dangerous to people, the working and starting of it must be
stopped.
• The user of the lift, escalator or passenger conveyor must provide to the
provincial director, in writing, the name and address of the competent lift
service provider that will carry out tests and examinations.
• The competent lift service provider must immediately notify the
provincial director and the user if a lift, escalator or passenger conveyor
is used without a valid comprehensive report, which must be kept in the
machine compartment as indicated in these regulations.
• Record-keeping
• The user of a lift, escalator or passenger conveyor must keep a record in
the machine compartment that contains the following information:
• the name, address and telephone number or the user
• the name, address and telephone number of the competent lift
service provider
• a report on the results of every examination that was performed;
any modifications. repairs, adjustments and tests carried out must
also be included
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• a copy of the latest comprehensive report

• a copy of all suspension rope certificates as well as the results of the
examination on the condition of the suspension ropes
• registers or files and technical documents of the relevant SANS
specifications
• the commissioning acceptance report of the relevant SANS
specifications
• each report of an incident.
• These records must be kept for at least 10 years.
• Approved inspection authority
• An inspection service provider must be registered with the accreditation
authority.
• The chief inspector may withdraw any approval of an approved
inspection authority at any time.
provision of any of these regulations will be guilty of an offence and may be fined or
imprisoned for not more than 12 months. If this offence continues, an additional fine
or R200 for each day that it continues or an additional one day in prison for each day
that it continues may be given, but the period of this additional imprisonment may not be
more than 90 days.
5.2.4 Regulations Concerning the Certificate of Competency

Regulations Concerning the Certificate of Competency are applicable to certificates of
competency that can be issued to mechanical or electrical engineers (as specified in
regulation 2(I)). The following information can be found in these regulations on the
issuing of certificates:
• Certificates are issued by the chief inspector in accordance with the
recommendations of the Commission of Examiners.
• A person who has been issued with this certificate is deemed to be a
certificated engineer.
• A person must apply to the Commission of Examiners to obtain this
certificate of competence.
• The person must pass the qualifying examination or satisfy the Commission
or Examiners that he or she has sufficient knowledge (of the design,
assembly, erection, running and maintenance of machinery. apparatus and
installations, as well as of the OHS Act and its regulations) before a certificate
of competence will be issued.
If the person who has been issued with a certificate of competence is found to be guilty
of gross negligence or misconduct in performing his or her duties, the chief inspector
may suspend or cancel the certificate of competence or refer the matter to the
Commission of Examiners for further investigation. The holder of the
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certificate of competence must return the cancelled or suspended certificate to the chief
inspector within one month.
A person may apply to the chief inspector for a duplicate certificate if his or her
certificate of competence has been lost, damaged or destroyed. Proof that the certificate
has been lost, damaged or destmyed must be provided. The application for a duplicate
certificate costs R130.
The chief inspector must appoint a Commission of Examiners after consultation with the
government mining engineer. Members of the Commission of Examiners may be
appointed for a period determined by the chief inspector and may be reappointed
when their terms of office expires. The functions of the Commission of Examiners include
to:
• evaluate if candidates are suitable for a certificate of competency
• make recommendations to the chief inspector on the curriculum for the
qualifying examination
• report to the chief inspector on its activities
• perform other functions that are described.
The Commission or Examiners must be made up of:
• two inspectors
• two officers
• at least two people with certificates of competency as mechanical engineers
• at least two people with certificates of competency as electrical engineers.
Meetings of the Commission of Examiners are held at the time and place determined by the
government mining engineer, and take place under the chairmanship of a member of the
Commission of Examiners. If these is a difference of opinion on whether or not a
candidate should be accepted or examined, the majority vote of the members will decide
the matter. A candidate may appeal against the decision of the Commission of Examiners
and must do so. in writing, within 60 days, to the chief inspector. The decision of the chief
inspector in appeals is final.
The qualifying examination is conducted by the Department of Education and Culture.
The two subjects of the qualifying examination are:
I. Plant Engineering
1 the OHS Act and Regulations.
An application to he examined may only be lodged with the Department of Education and
Culture after the person has been accepted as a candidate by the Commission of Examiners.
Examination fees are payable to the Department of
Education and Culture.
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In order to he accepted as a candidate, a person must provide proof to the

Commission of Examiners that he or she:
• is at least 23 years old
• has the required practical experience.
The application to be accepted as a candidate costs R130.
5.2.5 Pressure Equipment Regulations

Pressure Equipment Regulations include the following;
• General requirements
• Any person who manufactures. imports, sells, offers or supplies pressure
equipment, as described in these regulations, must ensure that this
equipment complies with these regulations.
• Any person who erects or installs pressure equipment for use in
South Africa must ensure that this equipment is, as far as reasonably
practicable, erected or installed in a safe manner and without risk to the
health and safety of people when used properly.
• All pressure equipment must be categorised and submitted to the
applicable conformance assessments of the South African National
Standard (SANS) 347 (Categorization and conformity assessment criteria for
all pressure equipment) as well as to the requirements set out in these
regulations.
• Duties of manufacturers
• Manufacturers must ensure that all equipment that they design and
manufacture conforms to SANS 347 requirements.
• Manufacturers must ensure that the pressure equipment is
manufactured, modified. inspected, tested arid repaired according to the
health and safety standards and that it is safe arid without safety risk when used
properly.
• A certificate of manufacture for all pressure equipment must be
issued, and this certificate must he verified and signed by an approved
inspection authority.
• If a manufacturer determines that pressure equipment that is in use has
a latent defect, the chief inspector must be informed, in writing, of this
defect and the measures taken to correct it.
• Duties of importers and suppliers
4 Importers and suppliers of pressure equipment must ensure that it
complies with the requirements of these regulations,
• The imponer assumes the liability of the manufacturer.
• Pressure equipment that requires a permit must be approved by the chief
inspector before being placed in the market.
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• Duties of users
• Pressure equipment must be used and maintained within its design and
operating parameters.
• The user must provide the manufacturer, repairer or modifier with
relevant detailed information of the operating conditions of the pressure
equipment.
• Pressure equipment must have a certificate that has been verified and
signed by an approved inspection authority.
• Modified or repaired pressure equipment must have a certificate that has
been verified and signed by an approved inspection authority.
• Gas systems must have a valid certificate issued by an authorised person.
• Approval and duties of the approved inspection authority

• An approved inspection authority must have an approval certificate from
the chief inspector and must act within the scope of its accreditation_
• Registration of a steam generator

• A steam generator may only be used after obtaining a certification of
registration for that steam generator.
• Any user of a steam generator must make the certification of registration
available to an inspector or an approved inspection authority if
requested to do so.
• If the certificate of registration is lost, defaced or destroyed, the user must
apply for a duplicate certificate within seven days at a cost of R100.
• The provincial director must be notified immediately if:
• the steam generator is no longer in use
• the right of control of the steam generator is given to another user
• the steam generator is moved to another premises.
• The certificate of registration will lapse if the right of control is given to
another user and if the steam generator is moved to another premises.
• Pressure equipment marking
• Every manufacturer of pressure equipment must ensure that Ills marked
in accordance with the relevant health and safety standard-
• A data plate must be permanently fixed to any steam generator or pressure
vessel by the manufacturer. This data plate must at least contain the:
• name of the manufacturer
• country of origin
• year of manufacture
• manufacturer's serial number
• reference number, date and edition of the health and safety standard
• pressure capacity in units or pascals
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• minimum and maximum temperature capacity in degrees Celsius

• capacity in cubic metres
• unique mark of an approved inspection authority
• hazard category of SANS 347.
• No person may remove a marking or data or alter the information
marked on the pressure equipment.
• If pressure equipment is modified, changing the original design
conditions, an additional data plate must be fixed.
• Pressure and safety accessories
• No pressure equipment may he used if' the safety accessories required by
the relevant health and safety standard are not provided.
• Safety accessories must be selected, arranged and installed to be safe for
the particular purpose for which they are intended.
• The user of any steam generator or pressure vessel must ensure that it is
fitted with at least one pressure measuring device.
• The user of any steam generator or pressure vessel must also ensure that
it is fitted with at least one safety valve and that this safety valve is kept
locked or sealed to prevent unauthorised people from reaching it.
• The automatic controls and indicators of a steam generator or pressure
vessel or its piping must be arranged, installed, maintained and operated
as indicated in the relevant health and safety standard.
• Inspection and test
• Steam generators and pressure vessels, including pressure and safety
accessories, must be subjected to a witness's internal and external
inspection of a hydraulic pressure test at 1,25 times the design pressure.
• Piping must be inspected and tested after manufacture, installation,
modification and repair as well as before commissioning as required by
the relevant health and safety standard.
• Fire-tube steam generators must be subjected to an external inspection
at least every 12 months.
• If an inspection or test reveals any weakness or defect that may
endanger the safety of people, it must be reported and the use of the
equipment stopped until it has been fixed to the satisfaction of the
approved inspection authority.
• Risk-based inspection
• The user may implement a risk-based inspection management system in
accordance with the relevant health and safety standard.
• This risk-based inspection process and implementation must be verified
by a certification body accredited by the accreditation authority and
approved by the chief inspector.
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• Repairs and modifications

• All modifications or repairs must he carried out in accordance with the
relevant health and safety standard.
• Any modifier or repairer must issue a certificate that describes what has
been done and that the work is in accordance with the relevant health
and safety standard. The certificate must be signed by the approved
inspection authority.
• Re-certification. if required, must be performed under the supervision of
an approved inspection authority.
• If an inspection shows that the pressure equipment cannot be used
safely, and the user chooses not to have the necessary repairs done
immediately, the pressure equipment must be re-rated, the amended data
plate fixed, and the equipment used within the re-rated criteria.
• Records
• Users of pressure equipment must keep a record that must be open for
inspection by an inspector. This record must include:
• the certificate of manufacture
the results of all inspections, tests, modifications and repairs.
• When pressure equipment is sold, the manufacturer must ensure that
it is accompanied by instructions for the user containing all safety
information related to:
a mounting (also including the assembling of the different pieces)
a putting it into service
• maintenance as well as checks by the user
a technical documents, such as drawings and diagrams, if appropriate
to understand the instructions.
• The manufacturer of pressure equipment must keep the original
manufacturing records for a minimum of 12 years.
• Access
Pressure equipment must be erected and maintained in such a way that access to and
exit from any chamber, manhole, inspection opening, control, accessory and so on is
safe and free from obstructions.
a Door interlocks
Pressure equipment with a quick-actuating opening must be provided with an interlock
or other means to prevent a rise of pressure inside the pressure equipment before the quirk-
actuating opening is closed and locked. The release of the quickactuating opening must
not be able to be released before the pressure inside the pressure equipment has been
reduced to atmospheric pressure.
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• Gas reticulation equipment and systems

• No person may handle, store or distribute gas in any manner if not in
accordance with the relevant health and safety standard.
• No person may install or remove an appliance, pressure equipment or
system for gas in any manner that is not in accordance with the relevant health
and safety standard.
• No person may install or remove a gas appliance, a gas system or a gas
reticulation system if he or she is not an authorised person.
• No person may use pressure equipment or systems for gas in any way
that is not in accordance with the relevant health and safety standard.
• An external inspection and a leak test must be performed after
installation or reinstallation and before using the gas system.
• An authorised person or an approved inspection authority must issue
a certificate of conformity after the completion of a gas installation,
modification, alteration or change.
• Transportable gas containers
• No user may use, or permit or require anyone to use, any transportable
gas container if not in compliance with the relevant health and safety
standard.
• No person may fill, place in service, handle, modify, repair, inspect or
test any transportable gas container in a way that is not in compliance with
the relevant health and safety standard.
• The inspection and testing of transportable gas containers must be
performed by an approved testing station.
• The application for approval of a testing station must include proof of
accreditation as well as full contact details and address information.
• Fire extinguishers
• No person may use, or permit or require anyone to use, a fire
extinguisher unless it was designed, constructed, filled, recharged,
reconditioned, modified, repaired, inspected or tested according to the
relevant health and safety standard.
• Only an authorised person employed by a permit holder may fill,
recharge, recondition, modify, repair or test any fire extinguisher.
imprisoned for not more than 12 months. If this offence continues, an additional f ine of
R200 for each day that it continues or an additional one day in prison for each day that it
continues may be given, but the period of this additional imprisonment may not be more
than 90 days.
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Chapter 5:South African OHS mechanical and electrical regulations
5.3 Electrical regulations

Electrical regulations comprise Electrical Installation Regulations as well as Electrical
Machinery Regulations. Each of these is briefly discussed below. Once again, it
must be emphasised that this is not a complete summary of these regulations. It
merely serves to provide a brief overview.
5.3.1 Electrical Installation Regulations

Electrical Installation Regulations include the following:
• Responsibility for electrical installations
• The user or lessor of an electrical installation is responsible for the
safety, safe use as well as the maintenance of the electrical installation
that he or she uses or leases.
• The user or lessor is also responsible for the safety of the conductors on
his or her premises that connects the electrical installation to the point of
supply if the point of supply is not the point of control.
• A written undertaking between a user or lessor and a lessee may be done
where the lessee becomes responsible for the electrical installation.
• Approved inspection authorities for electrical installations
• The chief inspector may approve any person as an approved inspection
authority for electrical installations, provided that the person has been
accredited by the accreditation authority.
• An application must be made to the chief inspector in order to become
an approved inspection authority.
• Functions of approved Inspection authorities for electrical installations

• An approved inspection authority may enter premises and conduct an
inspection, test or investigation of an electrical installation when:
• contracted by the chief inspector or provincial director to perform
this inspection, test or investigation on a specific electrical
installation
• the user or lessor of an electrical installation requests it.
• An approved inspection authority for electrical installations may not
operate as an electrical contractor.
• Design and construction

• No electrical installation may take place if not in accordance with the
relevant health and safety standards.
• The components used within an electrical installation must comply with
tile relevant standards and proof of compliance must be indicated on the
components or be available from the manufacturer.
• Control over all electrical installation work carried out must be done by
a registered person.
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Safety Management in an Organisatiorkal Context
• An approved inspection authority must be appointed where five or more

users are to be supplied from a new point of supply.
• No supplier may restrict the application of a health and safely standard.
• Electrical contractor
• Electrical installation work may only be done by a registered electrical
contractor.
• Any person doing electrical installation work as an electrical contractor
must register every year with the chief inspector or be appointed by the chief
inspector.
• A person registered or appointed by the chief inspector, whose
registration will be entered into the national database. This person must:
• have a fixed address and a telephone
• employ a registered person in a full-time capacity or be a registered
person.
• Certificate of compliance
• Every user or lessor of an electrical installation must have a valid
certificate of compliance for that installation.
• The valid certificate of compliance for an installation must be accompanied
by a test report in the format approved by the chief inspector.
• The certificate of compliance must be produced on request to ark inspector,
a supplier or an approved inspection authority for electrical installations.
• If an addition or alteration has been done to an electrical installation
that has a certificate of compliance, a certificate of compliance must be
obtained For the addition or alteration at least.
• The user or lessor may not allow a change of ownership if' the certificate
of compliance is older than two years.
• The supplier may inspect or test the electrital installation at any
reasonable time and may not charge a fee for it. A fee may be charged if the
inspection or test is done at the request of the user or lessor.
• If any fault or defect in any electrical installation is found during
inspection or testing, the user or lessor may be required to obtain a
new certificate of compliance. If this fault or defect poses an immediate danger
to people, the supply to that circuit in which it was detected must be
disconnected.
• If the fault or defect indicates negligence on the part of a registered
person, it must be reported to the chief inspector.
• Commencement of and permission to connect installation work

• No installation work that requires a new supply or an increase in
electricity supply capacity may be done before the supplier has been
notified.
/02
6 No completed, or partially completed, electrical installation may be

connected before it has been inspected and tested by a registered person
and a certificate of compliance has been issued for that electrical
Installation.
• issuing of certificate of compliance
• Only a registered person may issue a certificate of compliance.
• A certificate of compliance may only be issued after the registered
person is satisfied and the test report is attached.
• The inspection and test is done by the registered person before a
certificate of compliance can be issued. The registered person must
ensure that
• the new electrical installation complies with the provisions of the
applicable regulation and was carried out under his or her control; or
• an electrical installation to which extensions or alterations has been
done complies with the applicable regulation (the existing and new
parts) and was carried out under his or her control.
• If a defect or fault is detected prior to issuing the certificate of
compliance, this defect or fault must be fixed before the certificate of
compliance can be issued.
• If the defect or fault is an immediate danger to people and the electricity
is already supplied, the electricity supply must be mu and the chief
inspector notified.
• Any person who undertakes to do electrical installation work must
ensure that a valid certificate of compliance is issued for this work.
• No person may make changes to a cenificate of compliance.
• Disputes
• If a dispute arises about the interpretation of a health and safety
standard, an affected person may appeal against that interpretation to
the chief inspector.
• A notice of dispute, with all applicable detail, must he provided to the
chief inspector as well as to the person whose interpretation is being
disputed.
• The prison whose interpretation is being disputed must send a notice,
within 14 days, to the chief inspector explaining the reasons for his or
her interpretation.
• The chief inspector may confirm or set aside or vary the interpretation of
the health and safety standard.
• Application for registration as a registered person

• An application for registration as a registered person must be made to
the chief inspector.
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• A person will be registered after the chief inspector is satisfied that this
person:
has sufficient knowledge of the applicable electrical installation rules
• has appropriate practical experience of electrical installation,
verification and certification of the construction, testing and
inspection of the type of electrical installation.
• A person may be registered as an electrical tester for single phase, an
installation electrician. or a master installation electrician.
• A registered person will receive an appropriate certificate and be
registered on the national database.
• A registered person has to produce his or her certificate of registration to
an inspector, an approved inspection authority for electrical installations, a
supplier or any person to whom a certificate of compliance must be issued
• A registered person most inform the chief inspector of any changes that
may affect his registration within 14 days.
• Withdrawal of registration and approval
• The chief inspector may withdraw an approval issued to an approved
Inspection authority, a registration issued to an electrical contractor or a
certificate of registration if this person:
• no longer complies with any applicable condition; or
• is convicted of an offence of this regulation.
• A registration or approval may not be withdrawn before:
w the holder or the registration or approval has been informed of the
intended withdrawal and the reasons on which it is based
• the holder has been given an opportunity to state his or her case.
• The person may appeal the chief inspector's decision to the Director-
General who will then confirm, set aside or amend the decision.
• Substitution of lost, damaged or destroyed certificate
• If any registration cenificate is lost, damaged or destroyed. the person
to whom it was issued may apply to the chief inspector for a duplicate
certificate.
• After proving that the certificate is lost. damaged or destroyed. the chief
inspector will issue a duplicate certificate on which it is indicated that it is
a duplicate certificate.
provision of any of these regulations will be guilty of an offence and may he fined or
imprisoned for not more than 12 months. If this offence continues, an additional fine
of R200 for each day thai it continues or an additional one day in prison for each day
that it continues may he given, but the period of this additional imprisonment may
not be more than 90 days.
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5.3.2 Electrical Machinery Regulations

Electrical Machinery Regulations include the following:
• Personal protective equipment (PPE)
• Personal protective equipment (PPE) must be provided free of charge and
maintained in good condition.
• It must be provided as necessary to prevent incidents.
• It must be provided for use by people working on or close to live
electrical machinery or dead machinery that might become live.
• Work on disconnected electrical machinery
• Electrical machinery that has been disconnected from all sources of
electrical energy, but which may acquire or retain an electrical charge.
must be provided with precautionary measures to discharge the electrical
energy (such as by earthing) and to prevent it from being charged or made
live.
• Notices
• Notices must be displayed at all entrances to the premises where plant
and transforming, switching or linking apparatus are situated. These
notices must:
• prohibit unauthorised people from entering
• prohibit unauthorised people from handling or interfering with
electrical machinery
* show procedures in rase of fire
▪ indicate how to resuscitate a person who suffers from the effects or
an electric shock.
• Small substations and distribution boxes that have doors that can be
locked or bolted and can only be opened by authorised people do not
need to have these notices displayed.
• Switchgear and transformer premises
• Enclosed premises housing switchgear and transformers must be big
enough to provide enough work space for operating and maintenance
staff.
• Switchgear and transformer premises must be sufficiently ventilated to
keep the equipment at a safe working temperature.
• The premises must be constructed to be proof, as far as practicable.
against rodents, leakage, seepage as well as flooding.
• The premises must provide adequate lighting for all equipment. passages
and working areas to be clearly visible and all instruments, labels and
notices must be easily readable.
• There must be doors or gates that can be opened From the inside,
opening outwards.
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Safety Management in an Organisationat Context
• Fire extinguishing appliances or systems suitable for use on electrical

equipment must be provided and maintained in good working order.
• People must not be able to reach in and touch hare conductors or live
parts of electrical machinery.
• Only authorised people must enter these premises.
• Electrical control gear
• All electrical machinery must be provided with controlling apparatus
and protective devices that are capable of automatically isolating the
power supply if a fault develops in the machinery.
• Switchgear must be provided with an interlocking device so that the
door or cover cannot be opened unless the switch is in the 'off position and
cannot be switched on unless the door or cover is locked-
• All controlling apparatus must he marked on the front and back to
identify the system or part of the system or the electrical equipment that it
controls, as well as where the control apparatus is accessible.
• A notice must be posted on the switchgear or control gear that has
been locked-out or switched off to enable people to work on electrical
machinery.
• Switchboards
• Space must be provided at the hack and front of switchboards for
operators and maintenance staff.
• The space at the back must be locked except for inspection. alteration or
repair.
• All switchboards must be selected, designed, manufactured, installed and
maintained according to sound engineering practice.
• Electrical machinery in hazardous locations
• All hazardous locations must be identified and classified according to
the relevant health and safety standards.
• No person may use eketrical machinery if a danger of fire or explosion
exists unless it meets the requirements set by the safety standards in the OHS
Act.
• A certificate must be issued by an approved inspection authority that the
electrical machinery has been manufactured and tested according to the
relevant health and safety standards incorporated in the OHS Act.
• When different items of electrical machinery are used, the safety of this
system must not be less than that of the individual items.
• Electrical machinery must be used under the conditions and in
surroundings indicated in the prescribed health and safety standards.
• No repairs or adjustments or other work may be done on electrical
machinery unless this machinery has been made dead and effective
measures are in place to ensure that It stays dead.
• If a possibility of static electricity is present. all metallic stmetures, machine

parts and so on must be earthed or other measures taken to prevent sparks.
• All electrical machinery used in hazardous locations must he visually
inspected and tested at least every two years, or at intervals as approved by
the chief inspector after a safety risk assessment has been done.
• The person doing the examination or inspection must enter, sign and
date the results in a record book that must be kept by the employer.
• Portable electric tools
• Portable electric tools with a voltage of more than 50 V must be connected
to a source of electrical energy that has an earth leakage protection device.
• No employer or user may use or permit the use of a portable electrical
tool that does not have a switch for starting and stopping the tool.
• All portable electrical tools, with their flexible cords and plugs, mast be
maintained in good working order.
• Portable electric light
• Portable electric lights with a voltage or more than 50 V must be fined
with an insulated handle.
• All live metal parts, or pans that may become live due to a faulty circuit,
must be completely protected against accidental contact.
• The lamp must be protected by a guard that is firmly fixed to the
insulated handle.
• The cable lead-in must be able to withstand rough use.
• Portable electric lights may not he used in wet or damp conditions.
confined spares of metal, or when the person is in contact with large
masses of metal.
• Issuing of electric fence system certificate
• Electric fences, and electric fence energisers. must be designed.
manufactured, sold, installed and used as indicated in the relevant health
and safety standard included in these regulations.
• The seller, importer and manufacturer of electric fence energisers must
prove SANS compliance.
• Every user or lessor of an electric fence system must have an electric
fence system certificate.
• If a fault or defect is detected in any part of the system, a certificate may
not be issued.
• The electric fence system certificate issued by a registered person may
not be changed.
107
• Application for registration as registered person

• An application to be registered must be made to the chief inspector.
• If the chief inspector is satisfied that the person has sufficient knowledge
of the applicable safety standards. he or she may be registered.
• The registree will be given a certificate of registration and this
registration will be entered into the national database.
• A registered person must produce his or her certificate when requested
to do so by any inspector, any supplier, or any person for whom an
electrical fence system is to be installed and for whom an electric fence
certificate must be provided.
• Withdrawal of registration and approval
• The chief inspector may withdraw an approval issued to an approved
inspection authority, a registration issued to an electrical contractor or a
certificate of registration if this person:
• no longer complies with any applicable condition: or
• is convicted of an ofknee of this regulation.
• A registration or approval may not be withdrawn before:
• the holder of this registration or approval has been informed of the
intended withdrawal and the reasons on which it is based
• the bolder has been given an opportunity to state his or her case.
• If a person has been notified that his or her registration or approval will
he withdrawn, the person may appeal the chief inspector's decision to the
Director-General who will then confirm, set aside or amend the decision.
• Substitution of lost, damaged or destroyed certificate of registration

• If any registration certificate is lost, damaged or destroyed, the person
to wham it was issued may apply to the chief inspector for a duplicate
certificate.
• After proving that the certificate is lost, damaged or destroyed. the chief
inspector will issue a duplicate certificate on which it is indicated that it
is a duplicate certificate.
• Inspection authorities
• The chief inspector may approve any person as an approved inspection
authority, provided that the person has been accredited by the
accreditation authority to be an approved inspection authority for the
manufacturing or testing of electrical machinery.
• An application must be made to the chief inspector, with the prescribed
fee, in order to become an approved inspection authority.
• Earthing
• All roofs, gutters, downpipes and waste pipes on premises to which
electricity is supplied must be earthed.
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• All metallic parts of electrical machinery that is accessible or may

become live accidentally must he protected by an insulating covering or
otherwise enclosed or be earthed.
• If a test of any electrical equipment is done and parts are found not to
he earthed, the supplier or inspector must request the owner or occupier
to do so within 30 days, If it is not done, the supplier may disconnect
electrical energy until the earthing has been done.
• Bare conductors on premises
• The employer or user must ensure that the bare conductors of a power
line that is installed on the premises and that cannot he completely
insulated be placed in such a way that accidental contact is prevented.
• Warning notices must be clearly and prominently displayed at the sites
of bare conductors.
imprisoned for not more than 12 months, If this offence continues, an additional fine
of R200 for each day that it continues or an additional one day in prison for each day
that it continues may be given, but the period of this additional imprisonment may not be
more than 90 days.
5.4 Conclusion
This chapter indicated some of the information as contained in the OHS regulations on
mechanical and electrical aspects. These regulations contain a lot of specific technical
and other information that should be studied by and known to the safety practitioner if
these regulations apply to the specific organisation in which he or she is involved. All the
specific detail of these regulations falls outside the scope of this chapter.
It is of great importance to understand that all the tools and machinery
(substances) that have been listed or referred to are safety hazards because they have the
potential to cause loss in the form of harm to people and damage to property. The
potential for loss lies in the damaging energy that all these substances possess and set free
when they interact with other safety hazards or humans.
log
1. Name the five mechanical regulations of the OM Act. 2.
Explain the Driven Machinery Regulations.
3, Discuss the General Machinery Regulations.
4, Explain the Lift. Escalator and Passenger Conveyor Regulations.
5. Indicate what is included under the Regulations Concerning the Certificate of
Competency.
6. Discuss the Pressure Equipment Regulations.
7. Name the two electrical regulations of the OHS Act_
8. Explain the Electrical Installation Regulations.
9. Discuss the Electrical Machinery Regulations.
References
Legislation
Acts
Regulations
ON R540, Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Driven Machinery Regulations. 2015.
Government O'a zet re 38905 of 24 June 2 0 15.
ON R242. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993: Electrical Installation Regulations.
2009. Government Gazette 31975 of 6 March 2009.
ON R251. Occupai ional Health and Safely Act. 1993: Elecirical Machinery Regulations.
2011. Govern ill ear Gazette 34154 of 25 March 2011.
ON R1521. Occupational I lealth and Safety Act, 1993: General Machinery Regulations.
1988, Government Gazette 11443 of 5 August 1988.
ON R828, 04.-cupational I leali h and Safety Act, 1993: Lift. Escalator and Passenger Conveyor
Regulations. 2009. Government Gazette 33561 of 17 September 2010,
ON 1211. National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act, 1977. Government
Gazette 5640 of 6 July 1977,
ON R734. Occupational Health and Safely Act. 1993: Pressure Equipment Regulations. 2009.
Government Gwent. 32395 of 15 July 2009.
ON R533. Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Regulations Concenting the Certificate
of Competency. 1990. Government Gazette 12337 of 16 March 1990.
110
Chapter 6
Functional safety
Elfin Esterhuyzen and Leonit Louw
Learning outcomes
• explain how functional safety forms part of our everyday INes
• define functional safety
• explain the goal and aim of functional safety
• discuss the functional safety of electrical, electronic or programmable electronic
systems
• explain computer and electronic safety
• discuss fire risk assessment of data centres
• list and explain the elements of computer security
• explain the safety of computer workstations
• discuss electrical safety
• elaborate on the role of organisational policies in functional safety
• explain the relationship between ethics and functional safety
• discuss failure mode effects analysis (FMEA) as a formal method for recognising
and mitigating hazards
• indicate the hierarchy of safety controls
• explain the functional safety of safety-related systems, including the role and
standards of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
Key terms
Computer safety Functional safety
Computer security Hierarchy of safety controls
Computer workstations IEC 61508 series
Data centre IEC 61511 series
Display screen equipment (DSE) IEC 62061 series
Electrical safety Information technology (IT) policies
Electronic safety International Electrotechnical
External hazards Commission (1EC)
Failure mode effects analysis (FMEA) Organisational policies
Fire and smoke detection systems Recovery measures
Fire and smoke suppression systems Response measures
Fire hazards Safety integrity levels (Ms)
Fire risk assessment
6.1 Introduction to functional safety

Safety is not a stand-alone concept. Safety is no longer focused only on individual
components that add to safety levels, but rather on the interworking of components at
the system level. It is important to understand that workplace safety should be dealt
with from both a quality and a business perspective to achieve success.
Functional safety focuses on the properties of the whole system, rather than
dealing with the properties of separate components, and depends upon the system or
equipment operating correctly in response to inputs. Functional safety also
includes the safe management or possible operator errors, hardware failures and
environmental changes.
According to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC 2015a:4).

functional safety forms part of our everyday lives as every industry relies on
functional safety to achieve safety in areas where the operation of equipment may
give rise to safety hazards. The following examples will help to clarify the role of
functional safety in different industries:
• Automotive industry: Functional safety ensures that your car's airbags
instantly deploy when you are involved in an accident to protect you and
your loved ones.
• Transportation industry: Functional safety ensures that the doors of
the train (such as the Gautrain) close before departure and that the railway
signalling systems prevent oncoming trains from crossing another train's
path.
• Medical industry: Functional safety ensures that alarms are activated when a
life-support machine malfunctions.
• Manufacturing industry: Functional safety is the best way to reduce
inherent safety risks when, for example. a crane safety load indicator
prevents the overloading of a crane, which could collapse and kill or injure
workers or innocent bystanders.
6.1.1 Defining functional safety

According to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC 20I5a:2),
functional safety can be defined as:
• part of the overall safety of a system or a piece of equipment
• focusing on electronics and related software
• looking at elements of safety relating to the function of a device or system
• ensuring that the device or system is working correctly in response to the
given command
• identifying potentially dangerous conditions, situations or events that could
result in an accident and cause harm to someone or something.
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Chapter 6: Functional safety
6.1.2 Goal and aim of functional safety

The goal of functional safety is to avoid failures and to make unavoidable failures as safe as possible to
prevent unacceptable risks to property and physical injury,
either directly or indirectly (Computing Now 2015:85).
Therefore, the aim of functional safety is to tiring the safety risk down to an acceptable level
and reduce the negative impact of this safety risk, keeping in mind that zero risk does not exist.
Functional safety measures the safety risk by analysing the likelihood that an event could occur and
how much harm this event
could cause (TEC 2015a:2).
6.2 Electrical, electronic or programmable electronic safety systems

According to the International Elecrrotechnical Commission (IEC 2015a:0, safety
systems should be designed in such a way as to prevent dangerous failures or to control
these failures if they arise. Even though it is impossible in practice to determine each and every possible
failure, testing is essential to rule out as many failures as possible. An example of functional safety in
power generation is given below.
Example
Functional safety is present when electricity is present When a wind turbine is suddenly hit
with gale-force winds, the turbine must be able to turn its blades out of the wind, otherwise the
blades could overspin and cause damage to, or the destruction of, the whole installation.
According to the International Electrotechnical Commission (1EC 2015a:8). all safety systems are
designed to automatically prevent dangerous failures or to control these failures if they arise.
Dangerous failures could arise from, for example:
• random and/or systematic failures of software or hardware
• human error
• environmental circumstances, such as temperature and water
• loss of electricity supply or other disturbances, such as load-shedding
• incorrect specification of the system. including both hardware and software
• omissions or leaving out the full specifications of safety requirements, such
as failing to put in place all the applicable safety functions for the different modes of
operation.
Electrical. electronic or programmable electronic systems include all the parts of a system or a device
that carry out automated safety systems in order to protect both humans and machines. These
include sensors, communication systems. human operators, and environmental conditions (lEC
2015a:8).
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6.3 Computer and electronic safety

In modern society, many organisations depend on computer systems for operational and other activities.
Computers and electronic data serve as the lifeline of many organisations and the protection of
computers and data systems has become a priority (Oustin 2007:195). Hazards that are threats to
computers and electronic systems are discussed below.
6.3.1 Fire hazards

Cables, wiring and various system components are made of plastic and are therefore combustible, making
fire hazards one of the most serious threats to computer systems. The vapours from burning plastic combines
with oxygen and moisture, thus causing the electronic circuitry to corrode_ This corrosion might increase
with the increased temperatures caused by the fire. in addition, the water from fire sprinkler systems
may cause malfunctions or electrical short-circuits (Gustin 2007:195).
The safety-man's knowledge of the origins of fire risk, fire prevention and fire protection forms
the basis for addressing all types of fire in the workplace.
6.3.2 External hazards

According to Gusiin (2007:196-197). external factors that may present hazards to the operations of
the data centre, which is where computers and data systems are stored, include:
• other energised elecirical equipment that can cause damage or exposure to
the computer systems, even though this equipment does not form pan of the data operations
when it malfunctions
• the interruption of electrical power systems, such as overloading, and power
Failures, such as load-shedding
• fires that have their origin in other areas of the facility, including snioke that
travels from these fires, which can have a damaging effect on computers and
other equipment.
6.4 Fire risk assessment of data centres

It is necessary to assess the potential risk to computer and electronic data. Facility managers and the
planning team, including safety professionals, should consider certain factors that are critical to data
centre operations. These factors, as identified by Gustin, are discussed next (2007:146-200).
6.4.1 Building and data centre site design

The organisation's data centre should ideally be housed in a separate fire-resistant facility However, this
is not always possible as the data centre operations of many organisations share a facility with other
business operations. The data centre should be located in areas that are:
114
• smoke-tight and protected by fire-resistant wails (with a fire-resistant rating

of at least one hour)
• equipped with doors that are equal in fire-resistance to that of the walls
• located as far away as possible from other business operations that involve
the use, handling, transport or storage of hazardous or combustible materials. It
is also important to ensure that cables or wires that are installed in walls are
sealed or plugged with the appropriate fire-resistant material. Furthermore, a
dedicated ventilation system should be installed in the data centre and the pressure
should be kept at a slightly higher level to prevent smoke or fumes from entering
this area, thus decreasing the risk.
6.4.2 Contents and furnishings or the data centre

The systems that are used for the storage of data should also have a fire-resistant
rating of at least one hour. Ensure that other furnishings such as desks, chairs and
Filing systems are made of non-combustible material.
6.4.3 Installed fire and smoke detection systems

The installation of fire and smoke detection systems is a prerequisite for preventing the
loss of property. These systems can activate alarms and take electrical current away
from the mainframe, among other things, and can also engage or activate fire
suppression systems, as discussed below.
6.4.4 Installed fire and smoke suppression systems

Different types of fire and smoke suppression systems can be installed, such as
the use of carbon dioxide. However, it is important to note that carbon dioxide
depletes oxygen (which is required for a fire to burn) and people must therefore he
given time to vacate the area. It is advised that carbon dioxide and other gaseous
suppression systems be used in areas that contain critical information as these
suppression systems quickly extinguish fire and smoke.
The data centre should be constructed so that it can he lightly sealed to allow
For the fast build-up of gases to reduce the fire and smoke as fast as possible.
Heat-sensitive systems only activate after a certain temperatine is reached. For this
reason, gaseous suppression systems are better as they engage at the early stages of
a fire, thus reducing the damage of the fire and smoke.
6.4.5 Response measures in place

If them is a fire in a data centre, a number of response measures are available.
These responses are contingent upon well-trained personnel who are familiar with the
operations of the data centre as well as with the methods and procedures of
emergency responses used in and available to the organisation. Basic methods and
procedures of response measures include:
115
• using portable fire-extinguishing equipment as a first-line defence in

fighting a localised fire
• ensuring that automatic fire suppression systems are in working order
• turning off power sources
• notifying the fire department and appropriately trained personnel.
6.4.6 Maintenance of the site

Routine inspection and maintenance of fire protection systems must be done as
part of disaster and emergency preparedness. Ensuring that fire protection systems,
including portable fire-extinguishing equipment. are properly charged with the
appropriate agent is of vital importance. All automated sprinkling or extinguishing
systems should be checked and cleaned after each use to ensure that these systems
are fully operational if and when needed. Routine inspections, as part of the
organisation's scheduled maintenance programme, will ensure the maximum
effectiveness of the fire detection and suppression systems.
6.4.7 Recovery measures in place

Recovery efforts of computers and data are significant, owing to the role that they
play in the operations of organisations. Specialists in data, equipment, media and
records restorations should be identified as part of planning for recovery. These
specialists should be deployed as soon as possible after an occurrence to begin
data salvage and recovery measures. Additionally, personnel should ensure that
measures are taken to limit the exposure to water and smoke damage, such as
by removing portable equipment and files, covering stationary equipment and
ensuring that power sources are de-energised. These response measures can help to
minimise the impact of a data centre fire on the operations of the organisation and
can speed up the recovery process.
6.4.8 Electronics safety rules

Electronics can he dangerous as any circuit from an electrical outlet can injure or
kill you. According to Lowe (2015:0. the following guidelines will assist you in
working safely:
• Do not work on a circuit while it has power.
• Do not connect power to a circuit before the circuit is finished and you have
checked it.
• If you smell something burning, disconnect the power immediately and
examine the circuit to find the problem.
• Ensure that your work area is dry.
• Always wear safety goggles.
• Always work in a space that is well ventilated.
• Ensure that you have safety equipment, such as a fire extinguisher. a first-aid
kit and a phone, nearby.
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6.5 Computer security

Sensitive organisational information should be protected. According to Gustin
(21307201-21)2}. an effective computer security programme should cover the
following areas:
• Physical access controls
Restrict the entry to and exit from the facility where the computers arid
computer systems are located.
• Climate
Computer systems should be protected from high temperatures. Climate
control in the areas where computer systems are located is important as
computer systems generate additional heat. Climate control units, such as
air conditioners, should be appropriate to deal with the amount of generated
beat and should ideally have built-in systems that automatically activate the
climate control units when the temperature of the room is not correct Water
generated by climate control units should be removed from the room as it can
also damage computers.
• Fire safety and suppression
Computer systems are sensitive to fire and smoke, and also to the water used by
sprinkler systems. It is therefore advised that non-water fur suppression
systems should be used in data centres. Water mist systems are now in use,
using distilled water atomised into a very fine mist to absorb the heat and limit
oxygen in order to extinguish the fire.
• Supporting utilities
Power spikes, such as those occurring after load-shedding, plumbing leaks
and other utility failures, can also cause damage to computer hardware
and software. Care should be taken that utilities function properly and that
measures are in place to minimise damage, for example using power surge
protection plugs and doing regular maintenance on utilities.
• Data
The interception of data poses a major threat to organisations. Mobile devices,
such as laptops, are especially vulnerable as they may contain sensitive
information that could damage the organisation if the laptop is stolen or
hacked. Ensure that measures are in place to minimise the chance of this
happening, such as storing laptops securely when they are not being used, and
encrypting data files.
6.6 Computer workstations

Complaints about posture and vision are the two most frequently reported health
problems about computer workstations and result in a stress-strain combination.
According to Plog ft Quinlan (2012:36), the principal causes of posnual problems are:
117
• workstations that are not designed properly

• furniture that has not been selected properly
• equipment that is poorly arranged.
The output or performance of computer operators is related to their well-being and
therefore they should receive the necessary attention to ensure their safety and health
(Plug Et Quinlan 20123971.
6.6.1 Working with display screen equipment (05E)

Display screen equipment (DSE) includes equipment or devices that have a graphic or
alphanumeric display screen, including computer display screens. laptops. touch screens,
tablets and other similar devices. Employees may experience fatigue, eye strain and
backache, among other things. from poorly designed workstations or work environments
(HSE 2013:11. According to the Health and Safety Executive (ESE 2013:11, if you
employ users of DSE, you must control the safety risks associated with the regular use
of these devices by:
• analysing workstations to assess and reduce safety risks
• ensuring that controls are in place
• providing information and training
• providing eye tests on request and special glasses. if needed
• reviewing the assessment when there is a new user or there is new DSE.
lt is important to involve employees in making decisions about their health and safety as
this leads to safer and healthier workplaces. According to the Health and Safety
Executive {FISE 2013:2). assisting employees who use DSE leads to the better
management of the potential health problems associated with DSE in that employees
can:
• help to spot the risks
• make sure that health and safety controls are practical
• increase the commitment level to working in a safe and healthy way.
6.6.2 Computer health and safety

Even though the chance of injury while working with information technology 1171 is not
high, persistent computer health and safety problems can cause employees to take time
off or be prevented from using computers at all. Taking care of IT should form part of
an organisation's health and safety strategy. Someone should be responsible for it and
have the necessary power and budget allocated to him or her to effectively deal with the
IT risk assessment. The IT risk assessment should be done to identify where the
dangers lie. A risk assessment should be done systematically, starting with listing the
most common IT problems and then asking employees to identify problems that were
missed (The IT Donut 2015:11.
LIB
6.7 Electrical safety

An unwanted and harmful transfer of energy is a factor that should be considered
when looking at occupational health and safety (Manuele 2008:237). It has been
determined that an electrical current of 100mA (milliampere) flowing through the
body for two seconds will cause death by electrocution. This might not seem like a
lot, but putting this into perspective, a small, light-duty portable drill draws thirty
times as much current, and even a current as small as 3rnA might cause a painful
shock (NSC 2009:485). For this reason electrical safety is important as these types of
electrical currents may lead to an unwanted energy release (Manuele 2008:237).
According to Manuele (2008:138), electrical hazards can be caused by:

• direct contact of persons with live electrical parts, for example by inserting a
screwdriver into a live wall plug
• indirect contact of persons with electrical parts that have become live under
faulty conditions, for example getting an electric shock from a toaster that is
faulty
• people approaching live electrical pans under high voltage, for example
when using a forklift and touching a high-voltage power line
• electrostatic phenomena, far example static electricity building up on an item
that is not eanhed. thus causing an electric shock
• thermal radiation or chemical effects from overloads and short-circuits, for
example when inhaling toxic fumes owing to fire damage to computers or
other electrical equipment.
The route taken by an electrical current through the human body affects the degree of
injury, and the voltage of the current determines how much current flows. High
voltage and a high current can heat up moisture in the body to such an extent that
body parts literally explode and body fluids turn into steam (NSC 2009:4861. Any
electrical shock should be investigated, even if no injury was caused.
According to the National Safety Council (NSC 2009:486), the main factors to
investigate are the voltage, the current and body resistance. The combination of
these factors must be analysed and action taken in order to eliminate or control
the hazard (NSC 2009:486). Every piece of electrical equipment has the potential to
induce an electric shock. Even if this shock is too small to cause injury. it may cause an
involuntary reaction that leads to a physical injury, such as a person losing his or her
balance after touching a live wire and falling off a ladder (NSC 2009:480.
According to the National Safety Council (NSC 2009:486), other factors that
determine the degree of an electric shock include:
• wet and/or damp places
• ground or grounded objects
• the current loop from the power source and back to the power source
• the path of the current through the body and the duration of the contact
119
• the area of the body where the contact takes place and the pressure of the
contact
• the size, condition and age of the person involved
• the type and amount of voltage involved
• the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), such as shoes and gloves
• metal objects worn, such as rings, necklaces, bracelets and watches
• the illumination or lighting of the workplace
• whether the person involved suffers from colour blindness
• the lack of safety training and knowledge about electricity
• the lack of safe working procedures
• tools that are not isolated or insulated.
The National Safety Council (2009:486-487) mentions four basic rules of electricity that everyone
should know:
1. Electricity is not live until the current flows.
2. Electric current will not flow until a loop is formed from and to the power
source.
3. Electrical current will always return to its power source.
4. Work can be accomplished when current flows.
According to Christensen Et Manuele (1999:112. 228-229), it is important to take the following electrical
safety elements into account to ensure a safe and healthy workplace:
• General requirements: Voltage and amperage levels should be considered
and the design should make provision for safe operations, maintenance and inspections.
• Protective devices and grounding: Engineer and install protective and
grounding devices to ensure maximum protection.
• Intrinsically safe equipment: Consider and design equipment and systems
that account for differences in explosive limits and ignition temperatures. among other
things.
• Heat generation from equipment: Make provision for the effects caused by
heat generation from equipment when it is installed.
• Isolation of high voltage equipment: Isolate indoor and outdoor high voltage
equipment with lockable doors, gates and fences, among other things.
• Energy isolation: Ensure that all equipment and systems can be locked out
(disconnect valves and breakers, among other things) to prevent the presence of uncontrolled
energy during maintenance activities.
Electrical safety management is about the prevention of injuries, deaths or damage caused by an electrical
system by addressing a series ofoperational activities to reduce the safety risks (IET 2013:12). In order to
manage electrical safety, it is important that staff familiarise themselves with the applicable code of practice
at their organisation.
120
6.8 Organisational policies

Organisations should have policies in place to ensure that everyone in the
organisation is familiar with the rules and responsibilities about specific issues or
elements within the organisation. The organisational policy should define the
overarching organisational approach to the management of health and safety
risks. It should also state the organisation's philosophy of health and safety, what
they want to achieve and how they want to achieve it (Fuller Ft Vassie 2004:318).
According to Fuller Et Vassie (2004:318). this written health and safety policy
should set the direction of the health and safety efforts by:
• demonstrating the commitment of senior management to health and safety
policy
• setting health and safety objectives in context with other organisational
objectives
• making a commitment to continuously improve health and safety performance.
6.8.1 Electronic data computer equipment policies

in order to safeguard electronic data and mobile computer equipment. organisations
should have policies in place to ensure the secure storage of data and equipment
when not in use, and on encrypting data files {Gustin 2007:203).
6.8.2 Information technology (17) policies

An organisation should have an information technology (71) policy in place that
explains computer health and safety best practice, sets out what equipment employees
should have access to, and states how problems can be resolved. All the employees
should know who is responsible for IT in the organisation (The IT Donut 2015:2).
According to The IT Donut (2015:3), the main reasons for establishing an CT policy are:
• to create a framework for the use of IT leg where to access support or training)
• to protect the organisation (erg to ensure that customer data is used within
legal boundaries)
• to protect the employees leg staff will know what is permitted and how much
privacy they have regarding email and Internet use)
• to assist in buying, supporting and using IT c g it assists in spending the
budget effectively and handle problems correctly and consistently).
Information technology and computer policy areas will depend on the nature of
the organisation and how IT is used iThe IT Donut 2015:3). Most IT policies have a
few common areas:
• Email use includes how employees may use email at work, such as only
being allowed to use email for work-related matters.
121
Sakty Management in an Organisational Context
• Internet use includes how employees may and may not use Internet at work,
such as not permitting Internet use for personal reasons.
• Social media use indicates the boundaries for social media, such as Facebook
and its use in the organisation.
• Data protection indicates how the organisation protects sensitive data.
• Website privacy is indicated on the organisation's website to inform visitors
how their data will be used.
• IT security includes the procedures and precautions that are in place to keep
data and systems safe.
• Training and support are provided by the organisation for the employees.
6.8.3 Electrical equipment policies

Every organisation should have an electrical safety policy in place that covers
the responsibilities of all employees. Furthermore, this policy should indicate
management's concern for and support of all safety issues, including electrical
equipment and safety performance standards. The National Safety Council
(NSC 2009:517) states that, in addition to policies and the implementation
procedures of policies, an electrical safety programme should include:
• Training and education: This is for supervisors and all employees who are or
could be exposed to electrical hazards.
• Reporting procedures: Procedures should be in place for reporting hazardous
conditions in writing.
• Work practices: These should be part of employee responsibilities and
employees should be rated on their performance of following safe work
practices.
• Housekeeping: The supervisor must monitor housekeeping closely as floor-
area problems. such as liquids that create slippery floors or obstructions that
prevent access to equipment in need of maintenance, present challenges.
Employees should be observant of and report conditions that might cause
electric shock.
6.9 Ethics
Situations arise in the life of every person - and every professional - in which they
are tempted to move away from accepted ethical behaviour. According to Gagnon
(2008;49). these types of situations pose ethical dilemmas in that they:
• place pressure on an individual to do something that is against what his or
her profession deems ethical
• put an individual in a situation in which it is not immediately obvious which
option would be more ethical.
122
A person could use rationalisation to attempt to justify his or her own action that is
known to be wrong and is evident in almost every case of unethical behaviour
(Gagnon 2e08:59). A previous section of this chapter dealt with minimising or
eliminating fire damage to computer equipment and systems. The firefighting
professionals dealing with these fires have a responsibility to conduct themselves in
accordance with complex, intermingled or even contradictory values. According to
Gagnon, these types of values include the following:
• Personal values: These are values obtained from our parents, mentors, peers,
television. etc.
• Organisational values: These are behaviours that are expected from
individuals in order to meet the goals of the organisation. Company manuals,
although not common, are a written set of regulations that convey the
organisation's values, and which must be signed by employees.
• Society's values: These are values that are related to the expected behaviour
about the safety of all people entering a building. One of these expectations is
that a building and/or the people inside the building are protected by a fire
protection system.
• Client's values: These are the values of the client of the organisation. For
example, an installed fire protection system should be compliant with the
relevant codes of practice.
• Fire protection professional's values: These individuals should adhere to
the professional codes of ethics for a particular profession. An engineer, for
example, should he concerned about the environment and for the safety,
health and welfare of the public.
It is important to realise that ethical considerations will and should always form
part of each and every decision that needs to be taken.
6.10 Formal methods for recognising and mitigating hazards

As indicated at the beginning of this chapter, functional safety is defined as a
property of the system as a whole and depends upon the system or equipment
operating correctly in response to inputs. It also includes the safe management of
possible operator errors, hardware failures and environmental changes.
The application of formal hazard recognition and mitigation methods, which
have been around for a number of years, assists in the design of complex systems with a
high number of possible failure modes and a great need for reliable performance
(Christensen Et Manuele 1999:75-76). Even though many of these methods are used in
practice. we will only discuss a failure mode effects analysis (FMEA).
6.10.1 Failure made effects analysis (FMEA)

A failure mode effects analysis (FMEA) is used for hazard analysis in systems and
subsystems to perform preliminary hazard analyses and operating hazard analyses
123
to identify critical items of safely and reliability. An FMEA takes a system or

subsystem and breaks it down into its components. it then identifies the differenl
ways in which each component could fail and the effect these failures could have on
the immediate assembly of the system or subsystem. as well as on the system or
subsystem as a whole (Stepharis 2004:156-157). It is advisable that an FMEA
should be performed on computer systems and electrical equipment. among others, in
order to identify the potential effect of each component on the system as a whole
and also on the organisation.
According to Stephans (2004:158-159), an FMEA should include the following
actions:
• Give a description of each component.
• List all the ways in which each component could fail to perform.
• List the effects of these failures on other components.
• List the effect of these failures on the system.
• indicate the risk assessment code or the hazard category (which must he
clearly defined). Failure might be evaluated by its severity or criticality.
• indicate the failure frequency and effects probability, which can be based on
previous occurrences or historical data.
• Add any relevant information that may assist in evaluating the risk
associated with the component being evaluated.
This information may be indicated in a table with a column for each of the elements.
As indicated, this analysis helps to identify critical items or components by their
safety and reliability.
Gil Hierarchy of safety controls
Definition
A hierarchy is seen as a system of things ranked one above the other. It provides a
systematic way of thinking by providing steps in a ranked or sequential order in order
to choose the most effective means of eliminating or reducing hazards and their
resultant risks Name's 2008:208-2151.
According to Manuele (2008:215). the hierarchy of safety controls, from most

effective to least effective, comprise the following:
• eliminating or reducing risks during the design process
• substituting existing materials with less hazardous materials. processes or
equipment to reduce risks
• using engineering controls such as machine guards, circuit breakers and
ventilation systems in reduce risks
124
• introducing warning systems such as smoke detectors, alarm systems and

signs to reduce risks
• applying administrative controls to reduce risks, for example through training,
developing appropriate work methods and procedures, and doing inspections
• providing personal protective equipment (PPE) such as safety glasses, gloves
and hearing protection. Personal protective equipment should be used as the last
resort.
6.12 Functional safety of safety-related systems

Computerised safety systems are being used more often and there is an increasing
concern as to whether these computerised systems will perform effectively (Fuller
ft Vassie 2004:314). Testing procedures that were developed for use on conventional
safety-related control systems have become less applicable to the newly developed and
widely used computer-controlled systems. For this reason, the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) developed a standard, and a series of substandards,
for safety-related control systems. referred to as IEC 61508 (Fuller Ft Vassie 2004:314;
IEC 2015a:10). It supports the assessment of risks to minimise failures in all electrical,
electronic or programmable electronic systems, irrespective of where and how they are
used (IEC 2015a:10).
6.72.1 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

The International Electrotechnical Commission (EEC) is a worldwide organisation with
the objective of promoting international co-operation on all questions related to
standardisation in the electrical and electronic fields. In order to achieve this
standardisation, the [EC publishes international standards, with international,
governmental as well as non-governmental organisations providing their input.
Furthermore, the IEC collaborates closely with the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in accordance with conditions agreed to between these two
organisations (WC 2003:5).
6.12.2 IEC 61508 series

The IEC 61508 series focuses on instrumented and computer-based safety control systems
and introduced the concept of safety integrity levels (S1Ls). The SILs link to the
probability of failure on demand of a safety-related protection system (Fuller Fi
Vassie 2004:3141. Systems should be designed, implemented, operated and maintained
to provide the required SIL based on the requirements set out in the IEC 61508 series
(1EC 2015a:10).
Safety integrity levels for systems are indicated on a scale of 1 (the lowest level) to
4 (the highest level). This means that if a plant failure is seen to have a high
consequential risk, a high SI should be associated with the control system; and where a
plant failure has a low consequential risk, only a low S11_ is needed (Fuller Ft Vassie
2004:314).
125
For example, an event that might cause slight injury (severity of consequences) with a rare
likelihood of exposure and with other available controls might not require a safety
control system with a Sit. However, an event that might lead to multiple deaths (severity
of consequences) frequently (likelihood of exposure) with no other control measures
available might require a safety system with a level 4 SM.
6.72.3 IEC 61511 series

Whereas the IEC 61508 series focuses on manufacturers and suppliers of devices, the
IEC 61511 series focuses on the designers. integrators and users of safety-
instrumented systems. The IEC 61511 series provides two main concepts that are vital
to performing safety-instrumented functions, namely the safety life cycle and safely
integrity levels 511-s (IEC 2003:7, II), Safety life cycle phases include:
• initial concept
• design
• implementation
• operation
• maintenance.
This standard sets out an approach for safety life cycle activities with the aim to
achieve minimum safety standards. In order to assist with this process. this standard
indicates that safety is best achieved by an inherently safe process design, combined with
a protective system or systems to deal with any residual risk that was identified. The
following actions will assist in this process:
• Carry out a hazard and risk assessment to identify overall safety requirements.
• Allocate the safety requirements to the safety-instrumented system or
systems.
• Work within a framework applicable to all instrumented methods with the
aim to achieve functional safety.
• Use applicable activities, such as safety management, as part of the methods
of achieving functional safety.
This international standard is intended to lead to a high level of consistency of. for
example. terminology, principles and information within the process industry. with the
aim of securing safety and economic benefits (IEC 2003:7).
6.12.4 IEC 62061 series

The IEC 62061 series specifies the requirements of and recommendations for the
design, integration and validation of safety-related electrical, electronic and
programmable electronic control systems for machines (IEC 2015b: I). This standard is
applicable to control systems used, on their own or in combination with other systems, to
carry out safety-related functions on machines that are not portable by hand while
working, or of a group of machines that work together in a co-
ordinated way. This standard provides applicable requirements for the system-level
126
design of safety-related electrical control systems of all types of machinety and for the design on non-
complex subsystems or devices DEC 2015b:1).
According to the International Eiectrotechnical Commission (IEC 2015h:1), a
risk assessment leads to a risk reduction strategy, which identifies the need for a
safety-related control function, which must be documented and must include the
following specifications:
• functional requirements (such as frequency of operation, response time and
fault reaction functions)
• safety integrity requirements (expressed in SW levels).
6.13 Conclusion
This chapter explained the concept of functional safety of safety-related systems. Functional safety
forms part of our everyday lives. Electronic and computer safety was discussed as well as some of the
international regulations and ethics pertaining to these topics. Organisations should strive to
foster a safe and healthy workplace environment for employees and their policies and
procedures should be aligned with their health and safety goals.
1. Explain how functional safety forms part of our everyday lives using examples.
2. Define functional safety. Next, explain the goal and aim of functional safety.
3. Discuss the functional safety of electrical, electronic or programmable electronic
systems.
4. Give some examples of failures that can arise even though systems are designed
to automatically prevent or control failures.
5. Explain how to keep computer and electronic systems safe from fire hazards.
6. Which external factors may present hazards to data centre operations.?
7. DiSCOS5 fire risk assessment for data centres.
8. List and explain the elements of computer security.
9. Explain computer workstation safety.
10. Name the safety risks associated with working with display screen equipment.
11. Discuss electrical safety.
12. Elaborate on the role of organisational policies in functional safety on electronic
data, computer equipment, IT and electrical equipment.
13. Explain the relationship between ethics and functional safety.
14. Discuss a failure mode effects analysis IFMEA1 as a formal method for
recognising and mitigating hazards.
127
15. Indicate the hierarchy of safety controls.

16. Explain the functional safety of safety-related systems, including the role and
standards of the international Electrotechnical Commission EIE-C)
References
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National Safety Council.
Computing Now. 2015. Implementing functional safety. Available: hnpWwww.eomputerorgi
csill/mags/so/2015/05/mso2015050084.pdf. (Ai ,rssed 27 October 2 0 1 .
Fuller CW ft Vassie LH. 2004. Health and Safety Management: Principles and Best Practice.
Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Gagnon 8M. 2008. Design of Special Hazard and Fire Alarm Sysirms. 2nd ed. New York:
Delmar Cengage Learning.
Gustin JF. 2007. Disaster ft Recovery Planning: A Guide for Facility Managers.
4th ed. London: Taylor Et Francis Ltd.
HSE. Health and Safety Executive. 2013. Working with display screen equipment [DSE).
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1EC. International Electrotechnical Commission. 2015a. Functional Safety: Essential to
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WC. International Electrotechnical Commission, 20156. Safety of Machinery: Functional
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[ET. The Institution of Engineering and Technology. 2013. Code of Practice for Electrical
Safety Management. Available: httpViwww.theietorgiresourees/standardsiesm-cop.
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The IT Donut. 2015. Computer health and safety. Available: http://www.itdonut.co_uk.
(Accessed 7 November 2015).
Lowe D. 2015. Electronics safety rules. Available: http://www.dummies.com/how-to/
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Stephans RA. 2004. System Safety for the 21st Century. New York: John Wiley a sons.
128
Chapter 7
Confined-space work risks
leighiGn Benno
Learning outcomes

• identify and explain what confined spaces are
• provide a brief overview of the applicable legislation on work in confined spaces
• explain the dangers of working in a confined space
• describe the important requirements relevant to entering and working in a
confined space
• describe what a confined-space entry permit is
• describe the purpose of a confined-space entry permit
• describe a confined-space entry safety programme
• explain what should happen when work is being done in a confined space
• describe the arrangements required for an emergency rescue
• describe what documentation is required should a confined-space incident occur.
Key terms
Competent person Oxygen deficiency
Confined-space entry permit Toxic limits
Confined space - life-threatening Safety observer or standby
Confined space - non-life-threatening Emergency rescue procedures
Flammable and explosive limits
7.1 Introduction
The general safety regulations for working in confined spaces were introduced in
Section 4.2.2 on page 67. Certain environmental conditions within confined
spaces are capable of causing death to anyone who enters the space without
taking precautionary measures. A number of people are killed or seriously injured in
confined spaces each year in South Africa. This happens in a wide range of
industries and can involve confined spaces ranging from complex plants to simple
storage vessels. The people killed in confined spaces include not only people
working in the confined space but also those who try to rescue them without
proper training and equipment. Each entry into a confined space must therefore be
evaluated by the employer, site manager or supervisor to determine (risk-assess) the
ha2ards involved and to ensure that the appropriate safety measures and controls
are taken to ensure a safe working environment.
Safe entry into a confined space is the responsibility of both the overall employer. site manager or
supervisor and the employee who performs the work. The employer, site manager or supervisor must
ensure that a safe prescribed procedure is followed and that all personnel understand and comply with
the safety requirements. This person must ensure that the employees who are planning to enter the
confined space are familiar with the confined-space entry procedure. the hazards involved and the
precautions required. The employee must inform the supervisor of any change or departure from
this procedure.
7.2 What is a confined space?
Definition
A confined space is defined in the OHS Act General Safety Regulations (GN R1031:1986) as:
'an enclosed, restricted or limited space in which, because of its location or
constraints or work activity carried on therein, a hazardous substance may accumulate
or an oxygen-deficient atmosphere may occur and includes any chamber, tunnel, pipe,
pit sewer, container, valve, pump, sump or similar construction, equipment, machinery
or object in which dangerous liquids or a dangerous concentration of gas, vapour, dust
or fumes may be present!
This definition indicates that there are two main types of confined spaces. namely a limited confined
space and a hazardous atmosphere confined space. each with conditions that can cause injury andior
death.
7.2.1 Life-threatening confined spaces

The most severe confined-space risk is a life-threatening confined space where the space contains a
hazardous atmosphere (eg a toxic, flammable or oxygen-deficient atmosphere), a material capable of
causing engulfment (burying alive), or where any other life-threatening safety of a health hazard exists_
This life-threatening type of confined space requires a confined-space entry permit to be issued and used.
7.2.2 Non-life-threatening confined spaces

A non-life-threatening confined space is a space where there is a safe atmosphere, but there could be
dangers such as inwardly converging walls (an entrapment wedge) or a floor that slopes downward
and tapers to a smaller cross-section. It could be where any other recognised serious
health hazard exists, such as where there is a risk that the floor or ceiling may fail owing
to inadequate load-bearing capacity.
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Chapter 7: Confined-space work risks
Figure 7.1: Entering a manhole with safety equipment in place
This type of non-life-threatening confined space is unlikely to cause death. but fatalities have
occurred because of falling (height risk). Most of these cases that have occurred have caused significant
physical harm. This type of space may be entered without a permit, provided the necessary normal
safety precautions are taken and that no hazardous item is taken into the space for performing the
required work.
Some confined spaces are fairly easy to identify, for example:
• enclosures with limited openings or manholes (see Figure 7.1)
• storage tanks, hoppers and storage bins
• silos and pits
• reaction and process vessels
• enclosed drains and larger diameter pipelines
• sewers, septic tanks and manure pits or tanks
• utility vaults, manholes and wells.
Others may be less obvious, bui can be equally dangerous. for example:
• open.topped chambers
• vats and fermentation vessels
• combustion chambers in furnaces or boilers
• inerted vessels and tanks (eg filled with nitrogen)
• ceiling and floor void areas
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• ventilation and exhaust units and ductwork

• unventilated or poorly ventilated rooms
• pits, shafts and tunnels leg in vehicle-servicing pits)
• caves and unshored excavated trenches or holes over one metre deep.
It is not possible to provide a comprehensive list of all confined spaces. Some
places may become confined spaces when work is carried out, or during their
construction. fabrication or subsequent modification.
7.3 What are the dangers in confined spaces?

Dangers can arise in confined spaces because of the following:
• Lack of oxygen
A lack of oxygen or oxygen deficiency can he caused by several processes:
• Consumption: Oxygen is used up by the person who is in the confined
space or by the activity in the confined space, and is turned into carbon
dioxide.
• Displacement: Denser materials, like carbon dioxide, push the oxygen
out of the occupied space.
• Reaction: Oxygen reacts with other materials to make other compounds. A
lack of oxygen can occur:
• where there is a reaction between some soils and the oxygen in the
atmosphere, following the action of groundwater on chalk, limestone or
dolomite, which can product carbon dioxide and displace normal air
• in ships' holds, freight containers, lorries, etc as a result of the cargo
reacting with oxygen inside the space
• inside steel tanks and vessels when rust forms
• where production processes require the inerting of tanks or vessels, with
nitrogen, for example to prevent flammable-material ignitions or oxidation
• in confined locations where a fire or similar occurrence has used the
available oxygen and has generated a carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide atmosphere.
• Poisonous gases, fumes or vapour
Poisonous gases, fumes or vapour can:
• build up in sewers and manholes and in pits connected to the system and
enter tanks or vessels from connecting pipes tin February 2017, six people
- workers and rescuers - died in a manhole at the Durban harbour)
• leak into trenches and pits on contaminated land, such as old refuse tips
and old gas works
• build up during work processes, like welding in a confined space, when
inadequate ventilation is provided.
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• Liquids and solids

Liquids and solids can suddenly the space, or release gases into it, when
disturbed. Free-flowing solids, such as grain, can also partially solidify or 'bridge'
in silos, causing blockages that can collapse unexpectedly, often resulting in
engulfment fatalities. Pit and excavation sidewall collapses also result in engulfment
fatalities.
• Fire and explosions

Fire and explosions, for example from flammable vapours or excess oxygen, cart
occur where the available oxygen reacts chemically to produce a high-
temperature reaction and produce a hazardous carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
atmosphere. For any fire or explosion to occur, the air—vapour mixture must be within
that mixture's flammable or explosive limit to ignite or detonate.
• Residue
Residues left in tanks or vessels, or remaining on internal surfaces, can give off gas,
fumes or vapour.
• Dust
Dust present in high concentrations, for example in grain, flour and fine-sugar silos,
may be ignited or explode, owing to work activity generating sparks or from
similar ignition sources.
• Hot conditions
Hot conditions can lead to a dangerous increase in body temperature. for
example heat exhaustion and heal stroke.
Some of the above conditions may already be present in the confined space. However,
some may arise from the work being carried out, or because of ineffective Isolation of
industrial plants nearby. for example leakage from a pipe connected to the confined space.
The enclosure and working space may increase other dangers arising from the work being
carried out, for example:
• Any inadequate confined-space isolation from electrical, steam, hydraulics,
pneumatics, liquids, gas and gravity energy sources can and have led to
fatalities in confined spaces.
• Machinery being used may require special precautions, such as the provision
of dust extraction for a portable grinder, or special precautions against
electric shock.
• Gases, fumes or vapours can arise from welding, or by use of volatile and
often flammable solvents and adhesives, necessitating adequate ventilation
measures.
• If access to the space is through a restricted entrance, an escape or rescue in
an emergency will he more difficult, for example from manholes in pressure and
tractor vessels, tanks and sewer inspection manholes.
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7.4 The legal requirements

The employer must take the necessary action to protect employees who work in
confined spaces.
7.4.7 What the regulations say

The OHS Act prescribes the following safety requirements under regulation 5 of the
General Safety Regulations ((IN R1031:1986}:
'5. Work in confined spaces
II) An employer or a user of machinery shall take steps to ensure that
a confined space is entered by an employee or other person only
after the air therein has been tested and evaluated by a petson
who is competent to pmnounce on the safety thereof, and who has
certified in writing that the confined space is safe and will remain
safe while any person is in the confined space, taking into account the
nature and duration of the work to be performed therein.
(2) Where the provisions of subregulation (1) cannot he complied with
the employer or user of machinery as the case may be, shall take
steps to ensure that any confined space in which there exists or is
likely to exist a hazardous gas. vapour, dust or fumes, or which has or
is likely to have, an oxygen content of less than 20 per cent by
volume, is entered by an employee or other person only when—
la) subject to the provisions of sublegulation (3). the confined
space is purged and ventilated to provide a safe atmosphere
therein and measures necessary to maintain a safe
atmosphere therein have been taken; and
lb) the confined space has been isolated From all pipes. ducts and
other communicating openings by means of effective blanking
other than the shutting or locking of a valve or a Imp) cock, or,
if this is not practicable, only when all valves and istop) cocks
which are a potential source of danger have been locked
and securely fastened by means of chains and padlocks.
(3) Where the provisions of suhregulation (2) (a) cannot he complied
with, the employer or user of machinery shall take steps to
ensure that the confined space in question is entered only when the
employee or person entering is using breathing apparatus of a type
approved by the chief inspector and, further, that—
la) the provisions of suhregulation (2)(b) are complied with;
(b) any employee or person entering the confined space is using
a safety harness or other similar equipment, to which a rope
is securely attached which reaches beyond the access to the
confined space, and the free end of which is attended to by a
person referred to in paragraph fei:
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/e) at least one other person trained in resuscitation is and

remains in attendance immediately outside the entrance of
the confined space in order to assist or remove any persons from
the confined space, if necessary; and
(d) effective apparatus for breathing and resuscitation of a type
approved by the chief inspector is available immediately
outside the confined space.
(4) An employer or user of machinery shall take steps to ensure that
all persons vacate a confined spare on completion of any work
therein.
(5) Where the hazardous gas. vapour, dust or fumes contemplated
in subregulation (2) are of an explosive or flammable nature, an
employer or user of machinery shall further take steps to ensure that
such a confined space is entered only if--
NI the concentration of the gas, vapour, dust or fumes does
not exceed 25 per cent of the lower explosive limit of the
gas, vapour, dust or fumes concerned where the work to be
performed is of such a nature that it does not create a source of
ignition; or
(b) such concentration does not exceed 10 per cent of the lower
explosive limit or the gas, vapour, dust or fumes where other
work is performed.
(6) The provisions of this regulation shall =lois maandis also
apply, in so far as they can be so applied, to any work which is
performed in any place or space on the outside of and bordering on or
in the immediate vicinity of, any confined space, and in which place
or space. owing to its proximity to the confined space, any
hazardous article, oxygen-deficient atmosphere or dangerous
concentration of gas, vapour, dust or fumes may occur or be
present:
The OHS Act prescribes the following safety requirements under regulation 7 of the General
Safety Regulations (GN R1031:1986):
7. Working in danger of engulfment
No employer shall require or permit any person to, and no person shall,
enter any place from or into which solid or particulate material is being
discharged where a danger exists of a person being engulfed by such solid
or particulate material, unless—
(a) such a person is provided with and properly uses a safety belt
and rope;
(b) at least one other person who has been properly instructed,
is and remains in attendance outside such place to keep the
135
persons therein under continuous observation in order to render

assistance in case of emergency; and
(c) the precautions prescribed by regulation 5 of these Regulations
are taken if dangerous gas, fumes, dust or vapour may be present
in such a place:
It needs to be remembered that often solid or particulate organic material in storage may
ferment, may require vermin fumigation or can spontaneously ignite and so it can
present a hazardous atmosphere in a confined-space environment. Examples are silos
where grain and silage are stored.
7.4.2 The employer's duties under the law

Employers must carry out a suitable and sufficient assessment of the risks for all work
activities to decide what measures are necessary for health and safety (according to the
OHS Act's sections on the duties of employers and regulation 5 of the OHS — General
Safety Regulations quoted above) (GN R1031:1986). For work in confined spaces. this means
identifying the hazards present, assessing the risks and determining what precautions to
take. In most cases the assessment will consider:
• the task
• the working environment
• the working materials and tools
• the suitability of those carrying out the task
• the arrangements for emergency rescue.
The OHS Act requires the employer to ensure that a safe and healthy workplace is
provided and maintained and that suitable systems of work, plants and machinery are
established and maintained, with all work and machinery being used under the
supervision of competent people. The OHS Act also requires that employees are
adequately trained and instructed to perform their work tasks.
When one's assessment identifies risks of serious injury from working in confined spaces,
such as the dangers highlighted above. special precautions must be applied to mitigate
these risks. The key risk-mitigation duties include the following:
• Try to work from the outside without entering the confined space.
• lf entry to a confined space is unavoidable, follow a safe system of work.
• Put in place adequate emergency arrangements before the work starts. These
duties, arid how to carry them out, are described in the sections below.
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Avoid entering confined spaces

One needs to check if the work can be done in another way so that entering or
working in confined spaces is avoided. Better work planning or a ditTerent
approach can reduce the need for working in a confined space.
Important information
Even the act of placing your face at or through the opening or entry of a confined
space, and inhaling the air from the confined space area when you take a breath, is
considered an 'entry', which, for a potentially life-threatening confined-space risk
situation, necessitates the issuing of a confined-space entry permit before any such
'entry' or activity incurs exposure.
The employer should assess if the intended work is really necessary, and decide if
working in a confined space could be avoided by carrying out the following
actions:
• Modify the confined space itself so that entry is not necessary.
• Have the work done front outside, for example:
• blockages can be cleared in silos by use of remotely operated rotating
flail devices, vibrators, air pulsing or air purgers
• inspection, sampling and cleaning operations can often he done from
outside the space using appropriate equipment and tools
• remote cameras can be used for the internal inspection of vessels.
If entry to a confined space is unavoidable. follow a safe system of work and put in
place adequate emergency arrangements before the work starts.
Safe systems of work

If entry into a confined space cannot be avoided, a safe system must be in place for
working inside the space. The confined-space entry permit in Annexure I lists
normal hazards and safety items that should be considered before any work in a
confined space is permitted or is allowed to commence.
The results of a risk assessment can help to identify the necessary precautions
to reduce the risk of injury. These will depend on the nature of the confined space,
the associated risk and the work involved.
Make sure that the sale system of work, including the precautions identified, is
developed and put into practice. Everyone involved will need to be properly trained
and instructed to make sure they know what to do and how to do it safely.
7.5 Permit system for a confined—space programme

Before entry is authorised. the employer must document that the entry permit has
been prepared and followed as outlined in the programme.
137
• Before entry begins, the manager or supervisor must inspect and perform the
required permit checks before signing the entry permit.
• The complete permit must be made available to the people performing the
work and it must be displayed (posted) at the time of entry,
• The duration of the permit may not exceed the time required to complete the
task (24-hour maximum validity for any permit).
• The entry manager or supervisor (who issued the permit) must terminate and
cancel the permit when the activities in the confined space have been completed.
• The permit must be filed and retained for one year by the manager! supervisor.
7.5.1 Safety checklist for permit—requited confined spaces

The following checklist is not intended to be exhaustive but includes many of the
essential health and safety elements to help prepare a safe system of work.
1, The employer or his or her representative (account manager or site manager)
must evaluate the site workplaces to determine if any spaces are permit-
required confined spaces.
2. lf the workplace contains permit spaces. the employer must inform exposed
employees by posting danger signs or other equally effective means, such
as a sign stating 'Danger — Confined space. entry permit required' on the
manhole cover.
3. lithe employer decides that employees may not enter permit spaces, the
employer must take effective measures to prevent employees from entering
the space.
4. lithe employer decides that employees need to enter permit spaces. the
employer must develop and implement a written permit entry programme.
• Confined-space access points or manholes can be locked to prevent
unauthorised entry.
• Any conditions making it unsafe to remove the entrance cover of a
space must be eliminated before the cover is removed (for example
discharging any stored pressure).
• When the entrance covers are removed, the opening must be promptly
guarded by a railing, temporary cover or other temporary barrier that
will prevent accidental entry into the opening.
• Before an employee enters the space, the internal atmosphere must be
tested with a calibrated direct-reading instrument for the following
conditions, in the order given:
• oxygen content
• lfammable gases and vapours
• potential toxic air contaminants.
Also measure the temperature in the confined spare to ensure that it is not
too hot or too cold for safe entry.
138
5. No person may be permitted to enter or remain within the confined space if

the atmosphere is hazardous or becomes hazardous.
6. Continuous forced-air ventilation must be used as follows:
• An employee may not enter the space until the forced-air ventilation has
eliminated any hazardous atmosphere.
• The air supply for the forced-air ventilation must be from a clean source
and may not increase the hazards in the space.
• The forced-air ventilation must be directed to ventilate the immediate
areas where an employee is or will be present within the space and must
continue until all employees have left the space.
7. The atmosphere within the space must be periodically tested as needed to
ensure that the continuous forced air is prevented from forming a hazardous
atmosphere, or actions must be taken and maintained to avoid the possibility
of any hazardous atmosphere forming.
8. If a hazardous atmosphere is detected during entry:
• all employees must leave the space immediately
• the space must be evaluated to determine how the hazardous atmosphere
developed
• measures must be implemented to protect employees from the hazardous
atmosphere before any subsequent entry takes place.
9. The employer or his or her representative must verify that the space is safe
for entry following the above requirements, and that a written certification
that contains the date, time, the location of the space and the signature of the
person providing the certification has been completed.
10_ When there are changes in the use or configuration of a non-permit confined
space that might increase the hazards to entrants, the employer must re-
evaluate and, if necessary, reclassify it as a permit-required space.
II. A space classified by the employer as a permit-required confined space may be
reclassified as a non-permit confined space under the following conditions:
• If the permit space poses no actual or potential atmospheric hazards
and if all hazards within the space are eliminated without entry into the
space, the permit space may be reclassified as a non-permit confined space
for as long as the non-atmospheric hazard remains eliminated.
• If it is necessary to enter the permit space to eliminate hazards, entry
must be performed following the entry rules for a permit-required area -
If testing and inspection during this time demonstrate that the hazards
within the permit space have been eliminated, the permit space may be
reclassified as a non-permit confined space for as long as the hazards
remain eliminated.
• The employer must document the basis for determining that all hazards
have been eliminated.
139
• If hazards arise within the permit space that changes the classification,
the space must be reclassified.
12. When an employer arranges for another contractor to perform work that
involves permit-space entry. the host employer must:
• Inform the contractor that the workplace contains permit spaces and that
entry is allowed only as a permit-required space.
• Inform the contractor or the elements of the confined space,
• Co-ordinate entry operations with the contractor when both the owner
and the contractor work in the same space.
• Debrief the contractor at the conclusion of the operations about any
hazards created by the activities that were performed.
• Inform the contractor of the permit-space programme that the contractor
will follow, which must include the following steps:
• Implement the measures necessary to prevent unauthorised entry.
• Identify and evaluate the hazards of permit spaces before employees
enter them.
• Develop and implement means, procedures and practices neees-sary
for safe permit-space entry operations, including, but not limited to
the following:
▪ specifying acceptable entry conditions
▪ isolating the permit space
▪ purging, inerting {for example nitrogen bianketsl, flushing or
ventilating the permit space as necessary to eliminate or control atmospheric
hazards
• providing pedestrian, vehicle or other barriers as necessary to
protect entrants from external hazards
• verifying that conditions in the permit space are acceptable for
entry into and throughout the duration of an entry.
• Ensure that the employee uses the equipment properly and provide and
maintain, at no cost to the employee, the following equipment:
• testing and monitoring equipment that is needed to test and monitor
the atmosphere while working in the confined space
• ventilating equipment that is needed to obtain acceptable entry
conditions
• communications equipment
• personal protective equipment (PPE)
• lighting equipment that is needed to enable employees to see well
enough to work safely and to exit the space quickly in case of an emergency
• barriers and shields that are needed to protect the opening
40
• equipment for safe ingress and egress, such as ladders, hoists or

boatswain's chairs
• rescue and emergency equipment that is needed to rescue the
entrant from the confined space
• any other equipment necessary for safe entry into and rescue from
the permit space.
• Evaluate permit-space conditions as follows when entry operations are
conducted:
• Test conditions in the permit space to determine if acceptable entry
conditions exist before entry.
• Test or monitor the permit space as necessary to determine if
acceptable entry conditions are being maintained for the course of the
entry operations.
• Test for atmospheric hazards: Test first for oxygen. then for
combustible gases and vapours, then for toxic gases and vapours.
and then for a safe and acceptable confined-space temperature.
• Provide at least one attendant (confined-space observer) outside the
permit space into which entry is authorised for the duration of entry
operations. Two or more observers may he necessary to allow an
observer relief breaks over art extended entry work period.
• If multiple spaces are to be monitored, then multiple confined-space
observers must be provided so that, if an attendant needs to respond to an
emergency affecting a monitored permit space, the observation duties are
not neglected.
• Designate and record the persons who are to have an active role in entry
operations (for example authorised entrants, observation attendants,
entry work supervisors, or prisons who test or monitor the atmosphere in
a permit space).
• Develop and implement procedures for summoning rescue and
emergency services, for rescuing entrants from permit spaces. for
providing necessary emergency services to rescued employees and for
preventing unauthorised personnel from attempting a rescue.
(Note: Many fatalities have occurred to observers entering a space trying to
save a confined-space entrant in distress, without the necessary rescue
equipment bring available,)
• Develop and implement a system for the preparation, issuing. use and
cancellation of entry permits, as required.
• Develop and implement procedures to co-ordinate entry operations when
employees of more than one employer are working simultaneously in a
permit space so that one group of employees does not endanger the
employees of the other employer.
141
• Develop and implement procedures necessary for concluding the entry

after operations have been completed.
▪ Review entry operations when the employer has reason to believe that
the measures taken under the permit-space programme may not protect
employees and revise the programme to correct any deficiencies before
subsequent entries are authorised.
13. Review the permit-required confined-space programme using the cancelled
permits (which must be retained for one year) and revise the programme as
required.
7.5.2 Entry permit for a confined-space programme

The confined-space entry permit (see Annexure 1) that documents compliance and
authorises entry to a permit space must identify the following:
• the permit space to be entered
• the purpose of the entry or a description of the work to be performed
• the date. start time and the authorised duration of the entry permit (normally
up to a maximum of 24 hours only)
• the authorised entrants by name or by another means that will enable the
attendant to determine quickly and accurately for the duration of the permit which
entrants are inside the permit space
• the person or persons serving as the attendant or attendants (confined-space
observer or observers)
• the person by name currently serving as entry work or task supervisor
with a space for the signature or initials of the manager or supervisor who
authorised the entry
• the hazards in the permit space to he entered
• the measures used to isolate the permit space and to eliminate or control
permit-space hazards before entry (for example lock-out or tag-out to isolate
hazardous energy)
• the acceptable entry conditions
• the results of initial and periodic tests performed for atmosphere monitoring
and accompanied by the name of the testers and an indication of when the
test was performed
• the rescue and emergency services that can be summoned and the means
(such as the equipment to use and the numbers to call) for summoning aid.
7.6 What should happen when work is tieing done in a confined

space?
When work is being done in a confined space, there should be warning signs to
prevent unauthorised entry to the confined space.
142
Anyone working in a confined space must be constantly alert for any changing
conditions within the confined space. Iran alarm from monitoring equipment is set
off or there is any other indication of danger, workers should immediately leave
the confined space.
The safety observer or standby is posted outside the confined space and
continuously monitors the other workers inside the confined space. The safety
observer must be abie to do the following:
• understand the nature of the hazards that may be found inside the particular
confined space and recognise signs, symptoms and behavioural effects that
workers in the confined space could experience
• monitor the confined space and surrounding area and be on the lookout for
dangerous conditions
• remain outside the confined space and do no other work that may interfere
with their primary duty of monitoring the workers inside the confined space
• maintain constant communication with the workers in the confined space
• order the immediate evacuation if a potential hazard is detected that is not
already controlled
• call for emergency assistance immediately if an emergency develops
• be immediately available to provide non-entry emergency assistance when
needed
• provide entry rescue but only after the most stringent precautions have been
taken and another safety watch is immediately available.
Figure 7.2: A life-threatening confined space, with safety precautions applied
143
If a worker leaves a confined space for a short time leg to take a coffee break or fetch additional
material for their work). the confined space should be retested before the worker re-enters. If the
confined space has been continuously monitored by equipment that can show the details of the
atmosphere during the time spent absent from the confined space and this information can be
seen from outside the confined space, the space can be re-entered without retesting. If the air is not
continuously monitored, then the hazard assessment needs to be repeated.
No confined space should be closed off until it has been verified that there is no one inside it.
After exiting the confined space, the time of exit should be noted on the entry permit.
7.7 Emergency rescue procedures

When things go wrong, people may be exposed to serious and immediate danger. Effective
arrangements for raising the alarm and carrying out rescue operations in an emergency are essential.
If a situation arises where there is a hazardous condition and the worker does not leave or is
unable to leave the confined space, rescue procedures should begin immediately.
Contingency plans will depend on the nature of the confined space, the risks Identified and the
likely nature of an emergency rescue. Emergency arrangements will depend on the risks,
One should consider the following;
• Communications
How can an emergency be communicated from inside the confined space to people outside so
that rescue procedures can start? Remember to think about night and shift work, weekends and
times when the premises are closed, for example during holidays. Also, consider what
might happen and how the alarm can be raised.
• Rescue facilities provision
Subsequent to fatal incidents, it has often been found that the provision of rescue facilities is
inadequate. Are there facilities that would make it easier to lift the unconscious person vertically
or horizontally from the confined space? If the person needs to be lifted horizontally, will it
cause a serious problem when extricating the person through a confined space such as a
manhole? What facilities are required? For example. what anchor points are available
above a tank-top manhole to secure some form of lifting aid to extract an unconscious
person from the confined space? Is a lifting aid tripod with a lifting pulley mechanism
necessary? Would more than one person be required to manually haul up an unconscious
person?
• Rescue and resuscitation equipment
Provision of suitable rescue and resuscitation equipment will depend on the likely
emergencies identified. Where this equipment is provided for use by
144
Chapter 7: Confined-spare work risks
rescuers, training in the correct operation is essential. Consider also how and
what you will need to remove an unconscious person through the confined-
space entrance. Is equipment properly assembled and to hand fa breathing
apparatus, PPE. etc)? Should extra people be available on rescue standby?
• Capabilities of rescuers
There needs to be properly trained people (at least in first-aid and CPR), and they
must be sufficiently fit to carry out their task, ready at hand, and capable of
using any equipment provided for rescue, for example heart defibrillator paddles,
breathing apparatus. harnesses and lifelines. rescue hoists and firefighting
equipment. Rescuers also need to be protected against the cause of the emergency.
• Shut down
It may be necessary to shut down the adjacent plant before attempting an
emergency rescue.
• First-aid procedures
Trained first-alders need to be available to make proper use of any necessary
first-aid equipment provided.
• Local emergency services
How will the local emergency services, for example fire brigade, ambulance
service and paramedics, be made aware of an incident? How long will it take
them to get to the site? Is this time too long for a successful rescue? What
information about the particular dangers in the confined space must be given to
Them on their arrival?
7.8 Incident issues

Should an incident occur, the Health and Safety Inspectorate Authority (the
Department of Labour or the Department of Minerals and Energy Inspeciorate) will
request all the prescribed documentation to prove that the confined-space entry
was compliant with the legal requirements.
This documentation is likely to include the following:
• the appointment, experience and competence of the person supervising this
job or task
• the proof of the confined-space training of all the people involved during
this confined-space entry work
• the risk assessment and confined-space entry permit used for this specific job
task
• the record of the confined-space atmosphere test results
• the completed incident investigation report form
• the workman's compensation accident report form.
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Safety Management in an Organisationa! Context
7.9 Conclusion
In this chapter. the risks of working in confined spaces, including life-threatening
and non-life-threatening confined spaces, were discussed. The legal requirements of
working in a confined space were described in detail. The 01-IS Act requires the
employer to provide a safe workplace for employees and appropriate systems of work
must be established and maintained under the supervision of competent people.
An assessment of the risks for all work activities in a confined space must
be carried out to identify potential hazards, assess the risks and determine what
precautions need to be taken. The results of the risk assessment will depend on the
type of confined space, the associated risk and the work involved. On some sires,
work may only be undertaken once a permit for working in confined spaces has
been issued. An example of a confined-space entry permit form is provided in
Annexure 1.
It is the responsibility of the employer to ensure that everyone has received
the proper training and equipment and understands how to work safely. Effective
procedures for carrying out an emergency rescue operation must also be established.
Lastly, it is important that a safe system for working in a confined space is adhered to
at all times to ensure a safe and healthy workplace for all employees.
1. What is a confined space?
2. What are the risks that differentiate between a life-threatening and a
non-life-threatening confined space?
3. Name five dangers associated vvith confined-space entries.
4. Explain at what point can a person be considered to be within a confined space_
5. What risks should be considered when performing a confined-space risk
assessment?
6. What is the purpose of a confined-space permit?
7. What safety aspects should be considered before entering a confined space?
8. Describe a typical confined-space safe working procedure.
9. What is the purpose and duties of a confined-space observer or standby?
10. What should be considered as necessary for a confined-space emergency
rescue?
11. Why should an engulfment incident be handled in the same way as a confined-
space entry incident?
146
References
Bennett L. 2016. Benrisk Consulting. Confined-space entry permit (Annexure
CCOHS. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safely. 2012. Confined space program.
Available: http://www.cc oh s.caloshanswersIbsprogramskonfin edspace_program.html.
(Accessed 11 April 2016).
HSE. Health and Safety Executive. 2013. Confined spaces: A brief guide to working safely.
Available: http://www.hse.gov.ukipubnsfindg2513.htm. [Accessed 11 April 2016).
St Olaf College. nil. Confined space entry: Policy and procedures manual. Available: httpli
wp.stolaLeditifacilitiesiconfirted-space-entry. (Accessed 11 April 2016).
St Olaf College. n.d. Section 1 — Introduction. Available: http://wp.stolaf.edui

facilitieslconfined-space-entryisection1. (Accessed 11 April 2016).
University of Kentucky. n.d. University of Kentucky confined space programme. Available;
httpliehs.uky.eduidoeslpdflobs confined_space_program_0001.pdf. (Accessed 11 April
20161.
Legislation
Acts
Regulations
ON R1031. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1986: General Safety Regulations. 1986.
Government Gazette 10252 of 30 May 19$6.
147
Chapter 8
Ergonomics
Elsjcbc Mostot
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you thou Id be able to:
• define ergonomics and the scientific subject matter it includes
• explain the impact ergonomics has on safety and the ergonomic risk factors
• discuss the diseases and disorders related to ergonomic risk factors
• perform an ergonomic risk assessment in a workplace and identify ergonomic
risk factors
• discuss and list some of the South African legislation related to ergonomics and
ergonomic factors at work
• understand the need for ergonomists and know what their areas of speciality
include.
Key terms
Cognitive ergonomics NIOSI-1 lifting equation
Ergonomic aid Organisational ergonomics
Ergonomic risk assessment Physical ergonomics
Ergonomic risk factor Rapid entire body assessment (REBA)
Ergonomic tool Rapid upper limb assessment (RULA)
Ergonomics Safety risk assessment
Ergonomist Work-related upper limb disorder
Lower limb disorder (LLD) (WRULD)
Musculoskeletal disorder (MSD)
8.1 Introduction
In many instances, the person who is performing the work has the largest influence on the
safety outcome of tasks performed - with or without well-designed and implemented
safety systems. This chapter focuses an the ergonomic risks associated with the
performance of a person's work. It provides a background on ergonomics and explains the
basic steps to follow in ergonomic assessments. This chapter also aims to give the reader a
general understanding of ergonomics, extend knowledge on how employees are kept safe
through the introduction of ergonomics in the workplace and related areas of interest,
and explain the legal aspects associated with ergonomics in South African legislation.
The safety of employees is a major concern in any company. Many work-related

Factors have led to an ailment called work-related upper limb disorder (WRULD),
and it is the aim of ergonomics To ensure that the health risks associated with This
ailment are reduced. Ergonomics is unique in its focus, in that it sees the person as
part of a system with his or her own attributes and limitations. Ergonomics also
ensures that the surrounding interacting elements are arranged and designed to
suit those attributes and limitations and not make it necessary For the person to
adapt to the system. Rather, the system should be adapted for the person. This will
ensure the success of the system, the safe interactions between a person and the
system, and the reduction of the WRULD risk.
8.2 Ergonomics as a science

The sciences from which the principles of ergonomics are drawn are many and
greatly varied. These principles include elements of anthropology, physiology,
psychology, sociology and engineering, among others. The knowledge base of
ergonomics as a science is constantly growing, especially with new technological
developments and the increased complexity of systems. Ergonomics, combined
with the classic theoretical sciences mentioned above, leads to the establishment of
new applied sciences (Kroemer et al 2001:7). These applied sciences include
anthmpometry, biomechanics, industrial and organisational psychology, usability
and industrial hygiene (see Table 8.1). Ergonomics is also referred to as human
Factors or human factors engineering, and these terms can be used interchangeably.
Definition
Ergonomic-s (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the
understanding of interactions of humans and other elements of a system. It is the
profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to
optimise well-being and overall system performance DEA n.d.).
The definitions of the applied sciences that form the basis of ergonomics are listed in
Table 8.1. The table also includes the areas of interest where these sciences were
initially developed. These applied sciences initially focused on one main area and
developed in that area. However, with technological advancements. the focus has
shifted and new knowledge is constantly being generated. This list only includes
some of the major applied science arras and does not cover all the possible new
developmental areas originating from ergonomics research.
It is clear from the table that ergonomics has become a scientific discipline in
its own right. In order to properly incorporate ergonomics in the workplace, it
cannot be an 'added-on' responsibility. It is a speciality area that needs to be
studied and developed in the workplace.
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Chapter 8: ErgOrionliCS
Table 8.1: Definition of ergonomic applied sciences

- - - -
Applied science Definition and areas of interest
Anthrnpometry Definition; This is the study of the measurement of the human body
in terms of the dimensions of bone, muscle, and fat tissue
tCDC 1988:1-1).
Areas of interest: The understanding and use of body dimensions and
physical variations in population groups or variation within a single
group has many areas of application. Some of these areas of use
include the following:
• Architecture uses human dimensions to design buildings and
structures where people live, work and visit
• Industrial design relies heavily on anthropornetric data to ensure
the correct sizing, comfort and ease of use for the end user leg the
design of ear interiors, equipment, tools and furniture).
• The effects that certain foods have on the population is tracked
over time in many different studies leg, on nutrition and diet) by
measuring changes in body dimensions.
• Clothing design, both for occupational use and everyday wear, uses
body cliniensions for better lit and comfort.
Biomcchanics Definition: This is the study of movement that the human is capable
of and the resulting forces acting upon body parts during
normal activities (SA DoD 2001).
Areas of interest: There are two main focus areas of biomechanics:
• It includes the improvement of human performance by
understanding human movement and strengi h.
• It focuses on the prevention and treatment of injuries. Orthopaedic
science has used this to develop and design prostheses and other aids
for those with injuries and disabilities.
Industrial and Definition: This is the scientific study of human behaviour in

organisational organisations and the workplace IAPA n.d.j.
psychology Areas of interest: Industrial psychology focuses on individual, group
and organisational behaviour. It USCS these behavioural principles to
find solutions for problems at work. Individual differences are used to
determine an employee's interest and predict work performance in certain
occupations, and to understand training and development needs.
151
- reoF
Applied science Definition and areas of interest
Usability Definition: This is a quality attribute that assesses how easy user
interfaces are to use. Usability also refers to the methods for improving
the ease of use during the design process (Nielsen 2012).
Areas of interest: Usability focuses on the design of products that
have a 'user-centred approach. considering how and why people use a product.
According to Nielsen (2012), the main principles are based on five quality attributes,
namely:
• Immobility to understand how easy it is for users to accomplish
basic tasks the first time they encounter a product
• efficiency, related to the understanding of how quickly users can
perform a task once it has been learnt
• memorability related to the proficiency of users after they have
spent time using a product
• errors, referring to the severity and number of errors, and how easy it
is for the user to recover from these eff6r$
• satisfaction, referring to how satisfied the user is with the product Initially these
principles were used in the development of software for personal computing as the
general population started to gain access to peisonal computers.
A change was drastically needed to make the use of computers mare user-friendly and
easier for the general population. Some examples of software development include:
• The design of interactive software interfaces, with a greater focus on
web dul,ign, was improved and made user-friendly.
• Sm rt p hones are small devices that are inherently complex, yet they
were designed in such a way that many people can use most of the
basic features.
Industrial Definition: This is the science of anticipating, recognising, evaluating

hygiene and controlling workplace conditions that may cause
employee injury or illness (OSHA 1998).
Areas of interest: Industrial hygiene focuses on the diseases
associated with occupations. This field has concerned itself with
the recognition and evaluation of certain diseases associated with work from the earliest
of times. Clayton indicates that from the
fourth century BC a connection was made between disease and work (Clayton n.d.). The
first book on industrial hygiene was published in 1700 by Bernardo Ramazzini.
L5
Chapter 8: Ergonomics
8.3 Main focus areas in ergonomic assessments

Ergonomics has three main areas or domains of focus and specialisation (MA n.d.).
Each domain focuses on a specific set of attributes of the person in a work setting,
and has specialised guidance for each of these attributes.
• Physical ergonomics
Physical ergonomics is the domain most people are familiar with when thinking of
the term ergonomics. This area focuses on the anatomy of the human with
anthropometry, physiology and biomechanics characteristics used in the design of
work areas and equipment. Physical ergonomics is also the focus of this chapter
and especially that of the ergonomic risk factors. See Section 83 in this chapter for
information on ergonomic risk factors.
• Cognitive ergonomics
Cognitive ergonomics is the specific way in which humans interact, internalise,
process. memorise. retrieve and react to information and stimuli in their
environment. This domain is very important to high-risk, complex technological
industries where mental processing and behavioural interactions of employees
with system interfaces are of vital importance for the correct operations of these
facilities. An example of this could be an operator in a control room, where most of
the functions performed by the operators are mental processing tasks.
• Organisational ergonomics
Sociotechnical systems are a domain within ergonomics and are mostly referred to
as organisational ergonomics. This domain considers organisational structures,
policies and processes and the influences these have on the individuals and groups
working within them. The focus is no longer only on how an individual interacts with
equipment and influences this interaction for the better, but on how people interact
with each other and with a system as well as the influences on all these components.
The principles of organisational ergonomics are based on communication, work
design, team structures, shift-work design and planning of resources.
8.4 Work—related upper limb disorder (WRULD)

Employees who work in suboptimal environments have the potential to develop an
occupational disease called work-related upper limb disorder (WRULD). This
disease is associated with the way in which work is performed, how workplaces are
designed and set up as well as the environment in which the work is performed. It is
these areas where ergonomics can greatly improve working conditions and reduce the
health risk associated with WRULD.
153
Definition
Work-related upper limb disorder (WRULD) is defined as 'a collective term for a group
of occupational diseases that comprise musculo-skeletal disorders caused by
exposure in the workplace affecting the muscles. tendons, nerves, blood vessels. joints
and bursae of the hand, wrist, arm and shoulder' (Compensation Office 2004:2).
The definition of WRULD only mentions upper limb disorders (ULDsl. However,
lower limb disorders (LLDs) - from the hips to the toes - are also included in
ergonomic risk assessments. Lower limb disorders are also caused by overuse of the
limbs and have similar symptoms as those of' ULDs. The most common term used for
the diseases covering the entire body (from upper to lower limb) is that of workrelated
musculoskeletal disorder (MSD). However, other terms are also used within this
collective group, such as repetitive strain injury (RSI). occupational overuse
disorder (00D), repetitive stress injury (RSI), repetitive motion injury (RM11, and
cumulative trauma disorder (CTD).
These work-related MSDs are caused by the overuse of muscles, tendons and
nerves in work-related tasks. Areas of the body that are mostly affected are the neck, the
hack, shoulders, wrists and knees. However, it is possible that any area of the body
can be affected. Symptoms of MSDs include stiff, painful joints, swelling and the
inability to straighten or bend the affected joints. These symptoms drastically
reduce the quality of life for employees who have contracted this disease, as they will
have difficulty in performing general everyday tasks. The potential to develop this
disease is influenced by individual safety risk factors such as age, previous injuries to
the back and neck, a history of back pain, and being overweight (Cheniey 2013).
Traumatic injuries to parts of the body, such as fractures, contusions, abrasions,
and lacerations, do not fall under the group of occupational diseases nictilioned in
this chapter. Neither are they not associated with ergonomic risk factors. However,
when work and workstations are designed using ergonomic principles, many of
these traumatic injury risks will also be reduced.
8.5 Ergonomic risk factors

Employees who are exposed to certain work conditions have a higher likeliness to
develop a work-related USD, The Compensation Commissioner of South Africa lists
some of the main ergonomic risk factors associated with the contraction of
WRULDs (Compensation Office 2004:4).These factors include:
• Rapid or repetitive motion
According to Kraemer eta) (2001:391), 'Repetitiveness is a matter of definition, and
what is low or high depends on the specific activities or body pan involved: It is
generally understood that rapid or repetitive motion occurs with tasks where the
action of the body is the same or similar over an extended number of iterations.
1.54
• Movements requiring force exertion

Physical effort when performing certain tasks places a lot of hiomechanical stress
on the employee's body (eg lifting objects or carrying heavy objects). Iowa State
University (n.d.) indicates that the performance of forceful exertions requires an
application of contraction forces by the muscles, which results in muscle fatigue.
The more force required for the task, the quicker the muscles will become fatigued
and strained. Strained and fatigued muscles cannot support the body in its natural
posture and movement and thus injury to tissue and ligaments is caused.
• Contact stress and mechanical stress
The contact and interaction of human body parts with hard or sharp surfaces or
objects will result In tenderness of body tissue in the area of contact. Prolonged
contact will inhibit blood flow, tendon and muscle movement, and will influence
nerve function. Mechanical stress is a result of tasks that require a forceful exertion in
application, which contributes to contact stress on the body part that makes
contact with the object.
• Awkward or non-neutral postures
Awkward or non-neutral postures include extreme movements of reach, static muscle
loading, awkwardly sustained postures, and contact stress. It is difficult to quantify
what the exact neutral posture is. especially for a group of individuals. Also, any
posture - even one that is considered neutral - that is kept static for a prolonged
period will result in strain on the body. The body is made to move and not to be kept in
a static state for prolonged periods. The ergonomic risk is determined by prolonged
postures that require squatting. kneeling, standing with the hands above the shoulders or
head, working with a bent neck, working with the back bent forward and working with
a twisted spine. The extensions and flexion of the wrists and arms are also
considered an awkward posture and increase the risk of wrist and shoulder injuries.
• Cold environments or handling chilled or frozen products

Body temperature drops in colder environments and this results in reduced dexterity
(agility of the person). reduces tactile sensitivity, and causes nervous block that
reduces the ability to perform tasks. In extremely cold environments, exposure can
lead to frostbite that usually starts at the extremities. A lowered core temperature
can also lead to hypothermia.
• Vibration
Vibration affects the body in three main areas. The first is the effect of vibrating
hand tools on the person's hand-arm system, and is the most noticeable in
jackhammer operators or rock drill operators in the mining sector, These vibrating
hand tools affect the nerves, muscles and joints of the operator's hand and shoulder.
The second effect vibration has on the body is an impact on the spinal column
from whole-body vibration. This has been most prevalent in drivers, especially
those driving trucks, buses and earth-moving equipment. The third area of effect is
that or vision, resulting from head vibration. This vibration affects the ability of
employees to see and could cause motion sickness.
155
• Gender
Gender and the development of MSDs is a highly debated subject, with some claiming
that women are more prone to develop these diseases than men and others believing that
there is no difference. What is clear and well researched is that there are differences in
physical body strength between males and females and when females are asked to
perform tasks above their weight limits, the prevalence of contracting an occupational
disease is obviously increased. Employers and designers must ensure that tasks and
equipment take the female body strength and dimensions into consideration to avoid an
increased safety risk for them.
• Age
Elderly employees have reduced mobility. Their bones are more fragile and their
ligaments lose their elasticity. They also experience a loss of cartilage resilience and
muscular strength. These are all factors that put this sector of the population at a higher
risk of developing M5Ds.
• Abdominal body mass index
Employees with a higher abdominal body mass index (BM1) have an increased risk of
postural-related pain and injuries. Body mass index is an indication of the body fat
percentage of a person. Instability is created in the posture of an employee who has extra
fat surrounding the abdominal area. An already increased risk potential will be further
increased if these employees are given tasks that require awkward postures or repetitive
bending or twisting of the spine.
• Prolonged duration of exposure
It is by no means surprising that the risk of injury increases with an increase in the
exposure to certain stressors in the workplace. Exposure history also has an effect on the
prevalence of MSDs in employees. Exposure to any of the ergonomic risks mentioned in
this section can make employees more susceptible to injury and MSDs if they work with a
risk for some time.
• Poor working organisation (lack of rest periods)
Employees who are expected to perform tasks without sufficient rest periods to ensure
the body has enough recovery time will see an increased risk of muscle fatigue and
ultimately increased risk of Injury and MSDs. Employees who perform physical activity
as part of their work tasks should be given sufficient rest periods for the proper recovery
from fatigue.
• Psychological stress at work and fatigue

Psychological stress at work is caused by many aspects, such as the design of tasks,
employee participation, management styles, work relationships, dangerous working
environments and job expectations. Psychological stress is not always as clearly visible as
physical stress. However, psychological stress can lead to chronic health problems.
Anxiety, depression and fatigue have all been linked to work stress. Ergonomic
consideration in the design of tasks that ensures frequent breaks, workload management,
shift-work design, and improves the work environment will greatly reduce employee work
stress.
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8.6 Importance and benefits of ergonomics

The ultimate outcome of ergonomic design, interventions and improvements is
the safety of the person in a system. Prevention is better than cure and ergonomic
principles aim to ensure that this statement is always held high in value and
will always remain the main aim of ergonomics. However, ergonomics holds
other benefits. The use of ergonomic principles in the design of workstations and
equipment as well as the planning and organisation of work does not only reduce
the risk of disease or injury but also:
• improves work quality
• increases employee productivity and efficiency and reduces waste products
• enhances employee performance, comfort and acceptance.
These other benefits arc, in many cases, the highest selling point for an ergonomic
intervention in the workplace, as the improvement benefits are quickly apparent in
contrast to a work-related disease that takes time to become known and show itselE
One benefit is the increased monetary savings because of fewer compensation claims.
and another benefit is the decrease in the absenteeism rates of employees. Again,
these benefits are not that apparent at first, especially because the indirect costs of
injuries are not always known in advance.
8.6.1 Improved work quality

In a study by Wick Et Bloswick (1998), an investigation into the relationship between
ergonomic improvements and the effects on quality found that there was a strong
direct relationship between these two factors. It is clear that through ergonomic
Interventions to reduce the exposure to ergonomic risk factors, improvements in
quality is also seen. This makes sense when one thinks of tasks that are difficult to
perform or when the tools needed are not sufficient for a task. However, when a
task is designed so that all the tools are within easy reach, the task steps are easy to
follow and enough time is given to complete the task. it is obvious that quality will
improve.
8.6.2 Increased employee productivity and efficiency

Designing workstations and equipment in such a way that they stay within the
abilities of the person performing the task can only lead Co a successful outcome.
Neutral body postures during the performance of tasks allows for optimal body
strength, better accuracy and reduced fatigue, resulting in improved efficiency.
Work procedures that have taken out any unnecessary steps and ensure all tools,
parts and equipment needed for the task are within reach reduce the time needed for
completing the task.
8.6.3 Enhanced employee performance and acceptance

Companies often state that their human capital is their most valued asset, and in
that light, it makes sense to try to retain their experienced employees. It usually
157
costs a company many hours in training and other resources to retrain employees
and get new employees settled into their new responsibilities and the culture of
the new company. It is for these reasons that retaining employees is a major focus
area, and ergonomic improvements in tasks and work will help to achieve this goal.
Tasks that are designed to ensure that employees can easily perform at their best
and keep them engaged in their work, as well as work that has reduced ergonomic
risk, will result in employees who are happy and accepting of their work, with
ultimately a low staff turnover rate.
Employees who are made part of the team during the identification and
implementation of ergonomic improvements in their work areas tend to have a
better morale. Including employees in the learn also helps to strengthen relations
between management and employees.
8.7 An approach to ergonomic risk assessment

It is clear from the above sections that ergonomics has a large scientific base and
many areas of interest. h can be daunting to an employer and safety professional
(who is required to identify and mitigate the effects of safety hazard interaction
and energy exchange on their employees) to know where to start. Luckily, the
process of identifying and managing an ergonomic risk can be done on the same
basic principles as a standard safety risk assessment, which should be part of all
companies. These include the following:
• identify the safety risk
• identify the person at risk
• evaluate the severity and frequency of the safety risk
• identify the solutions
• implement the solutions and track the impact of the safety risk
• review the entire process and reiterate.
The only differences between an ergonomic risk assessment and a standard safety
risk assessment is the area of focus and the finer details of an ergonomic risk assess-
ment. This section aims to give broad guidelines for these differences. The aim of an
ergonomic risk assessment and improvement plan should focus not merely on
completing the assessment but also on reducing the risk of injury and disease, and
making this process a continuous improvement process. Companies will benefit
greatly from a continual process with improved employee morale and see a change in
the company's bottom line through improved productivity and effectiveness.
8.7.1 Steps of an en9onomie risk assessment

An ergonomic risk assessment is used to gain knowledge and understanding of
the tasks performed in a company. Ergonomic risk factors art related to the tasks
undertaken by employees. The basic steps in an ergonomic risk assessment should
Include the following (Ergonomics Plus n.d.: n.d:7-13):
1.58
Step 1: Identify the tasks to be assessed

Make a list of all the tasks that have been identified by employees themselves and by
others as having a potential for causing injury and disease. It is vital to include the
employees who perform the tasks in the assessment These employees have first-
hand knowledge of strain, pains and fatigue when completing the tasks.
Step 2: Identify safety risk factors, collect task data and perform task observations
Use the ergonomic risk factors previously listed in this chapter and observe tasks to
identify which safety risk factors are present in the listed tasks. The task observations
are used to gain a detailed understanding of how a task is performed, how equipment
is used, the environment, information requirements, all manipulated weights
and loads, and measurements of the work area. Previous medical history data (if
available) on MSDs should be collected and employees should be asked about their
own experiences with the task.
Step 3: Prioritise tasks for ergonomic intervention and create a schedule

The team responsible for the evaluation should create a list of tasks with the highest
likelihood of injuries and diseases and focus on these tasks, along with tasks that are
most likely to improve quality, efficiency and productivity.
Step 4: Identify potential solutions and create a plan of action through teamwork A
multidisciplinary team from all the different areas in the organisation should work
together to brainstorm solutions and control measures for the prioritised task list.
It is also vital to ensure that responsibilities and dates for completion are
assigned to ensure that implementation takes place, and is done in a timely
manner. In most instances, ergonomic interventions can only be successful if the
employees who are to work with the new designs. equipment or methods have
accepted these changes. Ensure that employees are well informed, have been part of
the process of change and have received the required training.
Step 5: Review the ergonomic improvement and effectiveness of the intervention

Evaluate the risk reduction and measure the effectiveness of the interventions
implemented. You cannot implement an intervention and think that the safety
risk has been reduced; you have to follow up and measure the effectiveness of the
intervention. This follow-up can use the same criteria and process used to identify
the safety risk and safety risk severity, but should focus on the change in the safety
risk. Again, the employees should be involved, and surveyed on their experience
and the change they have seen in the task.
1159
It is clear from the steps of the ergonomic risk assessment that the involvement of the
employee in reducing the safety risks cannot be overemphasised. Ensuring that the
employee is a part of the team, the employee's input is valued and incorporated, and
any change in the work area that is discussed and accepted by the employee will ensure
a successful intervention and will have benefit for both the employee and the employer.
8.7.2 Ergonomic risk assessment tools and aids

There are many ergonomic tools and aids available to help in identifying and
evaluating ergonomic risks in the workplace. This section lists some of these tools
and methods. However, one section is not enough to describe the tools and methods in
comprehensive detail and to discuss all the application areas, advantages and
disadvantages. Ergonomists who have been trained in these methods are valuable
specialists in this field and, if possible, they should be used in these analyses. See
Section $.7.4 for more detail on ergonomists.
Ergonomic job analysis

This method can be either a questionnaire or an observation of the tasks performed by
an employee. The analysis provides a structured approach to collecting
information on the forces required during task performance, posture. repetitive
motions, and stressors on the body of the employee, and environmental aspects
such as ventilation, temperature, lighting and vibrations. Collecting information
about a task ensures that all aspects that relate to the employee and the potential
safety risk associated wiih i hat task are considered. Information on the following
areas should be gathered and recorded (Scott et al 20091:
• Employee characteristics
Ergonomic risk is associated with the health, age, experience, skills arid education of
the employee performing the tasks. List these characteristics for the specific tasks and
jobs that have been identified,
• Work organisation
The training, skills and responsibilities associated with the task to be performed
should be evaluated to ensure that the employee assigned to the task has thr
necessary skill set to perform the task adequately. Employees who do not have
sufficient experience or training could use work methods that are not appropriate.
thus increasing their risk of injury.
• Task design
Determine the job demands and workload, time available for completion and
duration of the task, as these will have an impact on the safety risks and will
Influence the behaviour of the employee performing the tasks. All aspects associated
with the design of the task should be recorded and evaluated.
160
• Workstation design
The tools and machines required and the availability and suitability of these for
the task should be noted. Consider the posture of the employee while he or she is
performing tasks at the workstation and be specifically attentive to awkward
postures and repetitive motions. Consider access to equipment and space for
adequate movement around the work area, or areas where there might be contact
stress. The environment that surrounds the workstation, as well as any forceful
exertions by the employee, should he evaluated.
Rapid upper limb assessment (RULA) and rapid entire body assessment (REM) The rapid
upper limb assessment (RULA} method is a tool that cart be used to assess the
ergonomic risk factors associated with MSDs of the neck, trunk and upper
extremities only. Task factors such as posture, force and repetitions are
considered. A single worksheet is used in the evaluation. The four general steps in
the assessment include:
Step 1:
Scores are entered for posture on two body segments, namely the arms and wrists;
and the neck and trunk. These scores are then used to determine the risk factors for
each body segment, using tables that are supplied on the form.
Step 2:
The repetitiveness of a task is considered where a task requiring a motion omits
more than four times per minute. A scum of I should be added to the posture score
taken from the table mentioned in the first step.
Step 3:
The forces required to perform the task are considered and a score is given, and
this is added to the score from the second step to come to a final score for the body
segment under investigation.
Step 4:
The final score for the body segment is then evaluated according to the MS[} risk
level (as shown in Table 8.2) and actions are taken according to the safety risk
factor.
This tool provides a quick assessment of ergonomic risks; however, it does not
replace a more in-depth analysis of tasks. lt merely serves as a first evaluation to
identify potential areas of concern. This method has a strong focus on posture and
repetition, and force does not carry as much weight in the method. Thus, caution
should he used when using this tool in tasks that require employees to perform
forceful actions or tasks with many repetitions.
Rapid entire body assessment (REBA) uses the same method, principles and
format as RULA but the focus is on the whole body and not only on the upper body.
161
The segments considered include the trunk, neck and legs; and the upper arms, lower
arms and wrists. As with RULA. the end score is used to determine the level of MSD risk
(as shown in Table 8.2). This safety risk level is determined by using the end score and the
column in Table 8.2 labelled •REBA score'.
Table 8.2: KRA and REBA ergonomic risk evaluation table
HULA scone REBA score

Level of MSD risk
1-2 1
Negligible safety risk: no action required
3-4 2-3
Low safety risk: change may be needed
5-6 4-7
Medium safety risk: further investigation; change soon High safety risk:
8-10
investigate and implement change Wry high safety risk: implement
6+
change now
Sourer Adapted from Middlesviorth n.d.
NIOSH lifting equation

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) developed the NlOSH
lifting equation, which is a tool that is used to assess tasks that involve manual lifting
and lowering to determine the safety risk associated with them. The main outcome of
this method is a recommended weight limit (RWL), which is the maximum weight an
employee can lift or lower during an 8-hour shift (without increasing their risk of
MSD) taking the factors of the specific task into consideration. The RWL is calculated
using a load constant (LC) of 23 kg - a weight that has been found to be sufficient for
lifting and lowering under ideal conditions without any increased safety risk. This load
constant is multiplied with coefficients, which are determined for the specific task and its
characteristics. These characteristics include:
• the horizontal distance from the object's centre to the body of the employee
• the height of the object relative to the floor
• the distance the object is vertically moved
• any twisting required in the lifting or lowering of the object
• the frequency of the task
• the grip type between the hands of the employee and the object.
Ensure that the task is well understood and that all task factors are taken into
consideration when using this method.
More specific details and guidance for the use of this equation is given by the US
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (CDC 1994).
162
8.7.3 Ergonomic compliance and resources

Many works on safety and culture will state that merely complying with legislation is not
the best way to ensure safety excellence in an organisation. The management of the safety
culture within an organisation includes methods that aid in the improvement of
commitment levels, leadership involvement in safety and the communication between
all levels of employees in the organisation. However, legislation is still an important
aspect and one that cannot be ignored in preference to safety cultural management
methods. Legislation on ergonomics in South Africa is slowly gaining more focus and
certain excerpts are found in Acts related to occupational health and safety (OHS).
Many of the legislative Acts, regulations and guidance documents do not specifically
mention the word 'ergonomics'; however. ergonomic principles are incorporated into the
technical areas of these papers. These ergonomic principles are the minimum requirements
and, trt many instances, are very general requirements and statements. An ergonomic
assessment of a work area could indicate further improvements and should not be ignored
for just meeting and complying with the minimum requirements. There will he
improvements in the productivity and morale of employees if ergonomic assessments are
done and incorporated adequately.
The exact interpretation of these excerpts are not always clear and the
meanings are left to the discretion of the reader, and so this chapter will guide safety
professionals to understand the basic principles required for ergonomic interventions.
South African legislation on ergonomics is constantly changing, and the excerpts given below
were accurate at the time of writing this chapter. Ensure that you stay up to date with
South African legislation when performing any ergonomic interventions in an
organisation.
Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 of 1997

The Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 of 1197 (BCE Act). section 87(1)(b) -
which particularly focuses an the protection of the health and safety of pregnant
employees - lists ergonomic hazards to employees as guidance for employers. The
following is an excerpt from the Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 of 1997, s
87(1)N, Code of Good Practice on the Protection of Employees during Pregnancy and after
the Birth of a Child, Schedule One. 6.2 Ergonomic hazards:
The application of ergonomics involves ensuring that work systems are designed
to meet the employees needs for health, safety and comfort. A
range of risk factors may pose hazards to the health and safety
of pregnant and breast-feeding employees and should be identified and assessed
as pan of the risk assessment programme'.
163
The hazards identified by this section of the code include:

• heavy physical work
• static work posture
• frequent bending and twisting
• lifting heavy objects and movements requiring force
• repetitive work
• awkward postures
• forest
• standing for long periods
• sitting for long periods.
These hazards are not only limited to pregnant employees hut are ergonomic risk
factors for any employee and should be considered when doing a workplace ergonomic
risk assessment. It is a valuable list and can be easily incorporated into an
observation checklist or other assessment tool.
The code further guides employers on ergonomic hazards. Table 83 is a list
in the BCE Act showing identified hazards and methods to avoid ergonomic risks. Again,
this section is particularly written for pregnant employees and compliance will most likely
he focused on these employees, yet the information in the section is valuable and can be
used for any employee. Clear guidance is given in order to limit the exposure to
ergonomics hazards.
Table 8.3! Ergonomic hazards listed in the BCE Act
Hazards What is the safety risk How to avoid the safety risk
Physical Excessive physical or Employers should ensure that hours of work

and mental pressure may and the volume and pacing of work are not
mental cause stress and give rise excessive and that, where practical, employees
strain to anxiety and raised have some measure of control over how their
blood pressure during work is organised. Seating should be available
pregnancy. where appropriate. Longer or more frequent
rest breaks will help to avoid or reduce fatigue.
Physically Employees whose work Heavy physical exertion, including the lifting
sirenuous is physically strenuous or handling of heavy loads.r should he avoided
work should be considered to from early pregnancy onwards.
be at increased risk of
injury when pregnant or
after the birth of a child.
164
Hazards What is the safety risk How to avoid the safety risk
Prolonged Sitting or standing Workstations should be adjustable to allow for necessary

sitting or for long periods changes in posture.
standing during pregnancy can Pregnant employees who sit for long periods
have serious health should be provided with a proper ehair with
consequences. Standing lumbar support rest to prevent lower back
for long unbroken pain. A footrest could alleviate pain and
periods can result in discomfort in the case of both sitting and standing
complications during workers.
pregnancy. such as deep
Pregnant employees who work in a stationary
vein thrombosis, varicose
position should be given frequent rest breaks.
veins, premature labour
Mobility during breaks should be encouraged
and even miscarriage.
to help prevent swelling of the ankles and
improve blood circulation.
Where work organisation permits task rotation,
this should be done to allow the worker to do
tasks that involve standing, sitting and moving.
Sourer: Basle Conditions of Employment Art 75 of 1997, Schedule Two. Ergonomic hazards.
Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 and Mine Health and Safety Act 29
of 1996
Ergonomics is specifically mentioned in the Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993
(OHS Act) and the Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996 (MHS Art). When ergonomics is
mentioned in the MHS Act, it covers a broad area, whereas in the OHS Act it is more
focused on designers and construction safety risk assessments.
The Construction Regulations ((IN R84:2014) of the OHS Act states that the duties of
the designer are to (reg 6(110)1:
'during the design stage, take cognizance of ergonomic design principles in
order to minimize ergonomic related hazards in all phases of the life cycle of a
structure'.
The Construction Regulations (20141 in the OHS Act states the following about the safety
risk assessment of construction work (reg 9(2)):
'A contractor must ensure that as far as reasonably practicable, ergonomic related
hazards air analyzed, evaluated and addressed in a risk assessment'.
The MHS Act (Chapter 2. $ 21(1)(0) states under the manufacturer's and supplier's duty
for health and safety that any person who:
'designs. manufactures, erects or installs any anicle for use al a mine must
ensure, as far as reasonably practicable, that ergonomic principles are
considered and implemented during design. manufacture, erection or
installation
165
Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act 130 of 1993

Injuries and diseases resulting from ergonomic risk factors are compensable
occupational injuries and diseases. The Compensation for Occupational injuries
and Diseases Act 130 of 1993 (COED Act), Circular instruction IRO, mentions, in
particular, the compensation for WRULDs. it is the duty of the employer to limit
employee exposure to and the risks of occupational diseases. This rode further
gives guidelines for medical practitioners and employers on how to manage
WRULDs in the publication in the 'The Compensation Commissioner's guidelines for
health practitioners Et employers to manage work-related upper limb disorders'. This
guideline is a valuable resource for any employer, with its practical approach to identifying
and assessing the ergonomic risks that may cause WRULDs.
Other ergonomic resources

There are many internationally published works and ergonomic resources available on
general ergonomic principles and concepts as well as anthropometric measures and
functional body strength indexes. In the South African context, these resources are not
always well known or readily available, but this is changing with many initiatives for
the collection of specifically South African anthropometric and other relevant data, The
data used previously was that of the South African military;
however, this data is for a specific population of trained personnel and the general
public might not share the same body dimensions and strength as a group that has
received extensive training.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has a large set of
standards that arc available for various applications. The ergonomic standards are
divided into four main subcommittees, with each committee tasked with the
publishing of their own standards related to the ergonomic subject that has been
awarded to them. The four subcommittees include general ergonomic principles,
anthropometry and biomechanics, ergonomics of human-system interaction, and
ergonomics of the physical environment. Although there are many ergonomic
standards and guidelines and many written for specific applications, the list below
focuses on introductory infonriation of the ISO standards on ergonomics and
makes readers aware of the detail of information that is available. When a specific
application of ergonomic principles or guidance is required. it is advisable to research
the relevant standards. The list of subcommittees with particular standards published under
each are:
• ISOiTC 159/SC I - General ergonomics principles
• ISO 269oo2oi
Ergonomics - General approach. principles and concepts
This standard is used in the design and evaluation of tasks, jobs,
products. tools, equipment. systems. organisations. services, facilities and
environments. It is intended that the use of this standard will help to improve
safety, performance and effectiveness of the design.
166
• ISO/IC 159/SC 3 - Anthrapometry and biomechanics

• ISO 11226:2000
Ergonomics - Evaluation of static work postures
This standard gives guidance on the assessment of task variables during the
design or redesign of tasks. It specifies limits for static work postures, with body
angles and time factors taken into account.
• ISO 11226;2003/2007, Parts 1 to 3
Ergonomics - Manual handling
This set of standards includes the lifting and canrying, pushing and pulling,
arid handling of law loads at a high frequency. It gives guidelines on limits for
the handling of loads, taking the intensity, frequency and duration of tasks
into consideration.
• ISOfrC 159/SC 4 - Ergonomics of human-system interaction
• ISO 1503:200B
Spatial orientation and direction of movement - Ergonomic requirements
Guidance, recommendations and principles are given for the spatial
orientation and direction of movement of controls and displays for various tools
and machinery.
• ISO/IC 159/SC 5 - Ergonomics of the physical environment
• ISO 10551:1495
Ergonomics of the thermal environment - Assessment of the influence of the
thermal environment using subjective judgement scales
The standards help to establish methods for measuring and estimating
characteristics of the environment along with the assessment of thermal stress
in both hot and cold environments.
The South African National Standards ISANS} has adopted many of the ISO standards as
relevant for South African industries, making the use of the above standards acceptable
in instances where a specific South African equivalent is not available. However, some
SANS standards do include ergonomics into their content:
• SANS 10400 - The Application of the National Building Regulations,
Parts A to W
This group of standards does not specifically mention ergonomics. However, the
guidelines and data in these standards for constructing facilities and spaces that
people occupy include many ergonomic principles. These are general standards
and are used in various applications.
• SANS 3000-2-3:20138 - Railway safety management
This standard has a particular application (that of the rail industry). However, it is listed
here because of its specific mention of ergonomics. Ergonomics is men-
tioned in the considerations of coach interiors and driver cabs, with a specific focus
on the noise, thermal insulation, vibration and comfort of dime areas.
167
8.7.4 The ergonomist versus the designer

With legislation having a large focus on safety risk assessment as well as on the
design and installation of items, the responsibility of incorporating ergonomic
principles is not always dear. Designers are given the responsibility of incorporating
ergonomics into their designs but tend to have limited knowledge of ergonomic
principles. This is supported by a statement by Mac Duff and Smith (2014) that
generally South African engineers are primarily responsible for product design and
tend to have a limited relationship with ergonomists and the use of anthropometric
data. Ergonomic knowledge is not well established within the general design
and manufacturing industry, even with growing basic ergonomic guidelines, and
requiring designers to include these aspects into products and services is asking a
lot. The inclusion of a registered ergonomist in the assessment and designs has
been urged by the South African Compensation Commissioner in the guidelines to
manage WRULDs.
Ergonomics is a growing field in South Africa, with certification as an ergonomist
now possible through the Ergonomics Society of South Africa. The society lists the
typical competencies that a registered ergonomist should demonstrate as follows (E
SSA 2014):
• investigate and analyse the demands from ergonomics design to ensure
appropriate interaction between work, product or environment and human
capabilities and limitations
• analyse and interpret findings or ergonomics investigations
• document ergonomics findings appropriately
• determine the compatibility of human capacity with planned or existing
demands
• develop a plan of ergonomics design or intervention
• make appropriate recommendations for ergonomics change
• implement recommendations to improve human performance
• evaluate the outcome of implementing ergonomics recommendations
• demonstrate professional behaviour.
8.8 Conclusion
The use of ergonomics in design and in the improvement of work holds so many
benefits for employees as well as employers that there should he no question that it is
an area every company should include it in their work design and organisation,
Ergonomics is a fast-growing science, with many areas of interest and newly
published data, and it can be daunting to know where to start incorporating
ergonomic principles in work areas. The use of a specialist, such as an ergonomist,
will greatly help in knowing where to start and which areas to focus on for best
results and cost-effective solutions.
1.68
1. Explain how ergonomics can be used to improve the risk factors associated with
work-related upper limb disorders {WR LADS).
2. List the main elements that have an influence on the prevalence of WRULDs.
3. What are the three main domains of ergonomics and how do they ensure the
safety, health and productivity of employees?
4. Discuss what the focus of an ergonomic risk assessment is and how it differs
from a traditional safety risk assessment.
5. Explain when the use of a registered ergonomist is justified and when designers
should be held responsible for incorporating ergonomics data into new designs.
6. Discuss any two strategies that can be implemented to reduce ergonomic risk
factors.
References
APA. American Psychological Association. n.d. Industrial and organizational psychology. Avai-
lable: http://www.apa.orgtedigtaduatelspecialize/industrial.aspx. (Accessed 27 July 20161.
CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 19E18. National health and nutrition exami-
nation survey III. Available: http://1,vww.ctle.govinchsdatafnhanes/nhanes3/edrom/
NCHS/MANUALS/ANTHRO.PDF. (Accessed 27 July 2016).
CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1994. Applications manual for the revised
NIOSH lifting equation. Available: http://www.cdc.govinioshidocs/94-110/pdfs194-110.
pdf (Accessed 27 July 20161.
Cherney K. 2013. MosculoskYletal disorders. Healibline. Available: http:11www.healthline.
corn/health f USC loske I et a I-d iso rd f Dr finit iDn1. (Accessed 25 July 2016).
Clayton GD. TO. The Industrial &Argument. Availably: htip://www.cdr.gov/nioshipdfs/74-
177-h.pdf. (Accessed 27 July 2016).
Compensation Office. 2004. The Compensation Commissioner's guidelines for health

practitioners *1 employers to manage work-related upper limb disorders. Available: htlp://
w wiklahour.gov.za/DOL/downloads/documentsluscful-documcnts/compensat ion-for-
occupational-injuries-and-diseasesIGuidelinesok2Oforok2OHealthcib2OPractit in ners%20
-%20Empl oyersgti2Otooki2Onianage%20Work%20RelatedWo204.1pperqb20Limb4o20 Disotder.pdf.
(Accessed 5 November 2015).
Ergonomics Plus. n.d. Workplace ergonomics. Available: hnp://ergo-plus.comlworkplace-
ergonomics. (Accessed 27 July 2016).
ESSA. Ergonomics Society of South Africa. 2014. Professional ergonomist certification by
the Ergonomics Society of South Africa. Available: http://ww-w.ergonomicssa.coini
uploadsifilesitessa-pab-ergonomicst-formation-model.pdf. (Accessed 27 July 2016).
169
HSA. Health arid Safety Authority. n.d. Ergonomics in the workpl ace. Available: htrp://www.hsa.
ie/eng/Publications_and_Forms/Publications/Manual_Handiing._and_Musculoskeletal_
DisordersiErgonamics_in_the_Workplace.html. (Accessed 27 July 2016).
!EA, international Ergonomics Association. n,d, Definition and domains of ergonomics.
Available: http://www.iea.ce/wharsifindex.hnnl. (Accessed 27 July 20161.
Iowa State University. n.d. Risk factors. Available: http://www.elts.iastate.eduiroccupationalj
ergonomics/risk-factors. (Accessed 27 July 20161.
Kraemer K. ICroemer H ft Kroemer-Elbert K. 2001. Ergonomics: How to Design for Ease and
Efficiency. 2nd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Mac Duff L Et Smith JR. 2014. African body dimensions - A South African andunpometrie
initiative. Available: http://iniputri.blog.uns,ac_idifiles/2010/05/african-body-dimensions,
pdf. (Accessed 27 July 2016).
Middiesworth M. n..d. A step-by-step guide to the RULA assessment tool. Available: http:n
ergo-pius.cominila-assessment-tool-guide. (Accessed 27 July 20161,
Nielsen .I. 2012. Usability 101: Introduction to usability. Nielson Norman Group. Available:
hup://www.nngroup.romianicicsfusability-101-introduction-to-usability. (Accessed 27 July
2016).
OSHA. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 1998. Information booklet on indus-
trial hygiene. OSHA 3143. Available: hrtps://www.osba.gov/Rublications/OSHA3143/
05HA3143.htni. (Accessed 27 July 2016).
SA DoD. South African Department of Defence. RSA MIL SID 127. Republic of South Africa
Military Standard 127, 2001. Ergonomic design: Biomechanics Standard for specific
functional body strength data, 1(5). South Africa: SA Don.
Scott P. Kogi K ft McPhee 8. 2009. Ergonomics guidelines for the occupational health prac-
tice in industrially developing countries. Available: littp://www.ergonomics.org.aul
downloads/HFESA_Literature/ERGONOMICS_GUIDELINES_Low_res Final April_2010. pdE (Accessed
27 July 2016).
Wick HS ft Bloswick DS. 1998. Use of ergonomics as a quality improvement tool in a manual
assembly task. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics. 4( 0:19-42.
Available: http://www.ciop.pl/CIOPPortalWAR/file/72440/2013121134042fiR1998-V4-
N1-str19-42.pdf, (Accessed 27 July 2016).
Legislation
Acts
Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 of 1997.
Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act 130 of 1993. Mine Health and
Safety Act 29 of 1996.
Occupational Health and Safely Act 85 of 1993,
Regulations
ON R84. Occupational Health and Safety Act. 1993: Construction Regulations. 2014.
Government Gazette 37305 of? February 2014.
70
Chapter 9
Fire safety
Briza Btcrhuyicn and Leonic LOWN
Learning outcomes
• define fire hazards
• explain how heat transfer takes place
• discuss the components of fire and fire prevention strategies
• explain the spreading of fire in buildings
• discuss the principles of fire extinction
• distinguish between the classes of fire
• explain the types of hand-held fire appliances
• describe the detection of fire hazards
• explain the reduction of fire hazards
• discuss fire dangers to people
• explain risk management and administration with regard to fire
• list the principles of fire safety
• discuss who is responsble for fire safety
• explain disaster preparations
• discuss life safety
• list the basic requirements for structures or buildings in terms of the Life Safety
Code of the National Fire Protection Agency trsIFPA)
• explain means of egress
• discuss the South African legal considerations on fire safety in the workplace_
Key terms
Carbon dioxide appliances Foam appliances
Class A/13/c/D/F fire Ionisation or radiation sensors
Combustion point Life safety
Conduction Means of egress
Convection Photoelectric fire sensors
Dry powder appliances Risk avoidance
Fire hazards Risk evaluation
Fire strategy Risk management
Risk transfer Thermal expansion detectors

Smothering Ultraviolet or infrared detectors
Special categories of fire Vaporising liquid appliances
Starvation
9.1 Introduction
Generally, 'fire' means a state of burning or combustion, and causes substantial
losses to industry every year. In order to prevent death, human injury and damage to
property. It is important that all employees at all levels in the organisation are
familiar with the causes of fire, fire protection procedures, fire emergency procedures,
and the dangers associated with flammable substances (Stranks 2010:239).
9.2 Defining fire hazards
Definitions
Fire (combustion) is a chemical reaction between oxygen and a combustible fuel.

The process converts fuel and oxygen into energy, usually in the form of heat. Light
and smoke are by-products of combustion.
Fire hazards are substances that ignite (start to burn) as a result of the thermal
energy that is set free when two or more safety hazards interact and exchange energy.
In order to start a reaction, a source of ignition (such as a spark or an open flame) or

a sufficiently high temperature is required. The combustion point (or ignition
temperature) is the temperature at which a given combustible object or substance
will burst into flame (Goetsch 2010:316).
Heat transfer is accomplished by three means, usually at the same time
(Goetsch 2010:3113):
I. Conduction
Conduction is direct thermal iheai) energy transfer. Materials that are close to a
source of heat absorb the heat, which increases ii kinetic energy (energy resulting
from a moving object), by transferring heat from one molecule to the next.
Materials conduct heat at varying rates. Metals, for example, conduct heat very
quickly, making metals good heat conductors. Materials such as concrete conduct
heat slowly, making concrete a good insulator.
2. Radiation
Radiation is electromagnetic wave transfer of heat to a solid. For example, when a
fire erupts in an oil tank, the rising temperature may cause a nearby oil tank to
Ignite as well.
172
Chapter 9: Fire safety
3. Convection
Convection is heat transfer through the movement of hat liquids and gases. These
liquids and gases may be a result of the fire, a result of chemical reactions, or
additional gases brought to the fire owing to the movement of air, The general
direction of the spread of the fire is determined by convection, with fire causing hot air
to rise and the fire moving upwards in the direction of the air current.
9.3 Components of fire and fire prevention strategies

Four basic elements are necessary for fire or combustion to start and continue.
These elements are (Stranks 2010i239; Goetsch 2010:317):
1. combustible fuel (solid, liquid or gas)
2. an ignition source (heat)
3. oxygen (air)
4. a chemical process reaction (combustion of fuel ignition of a combustible
substance).
If any of these elements are absent, combustion cannot take place. Fire prevention
strategies are based on this fact, and strategies therefore focus on {Stranks 2010:239):
• limiting and controlling flammable substances that are stored on site
• eliminating the potential sources of ignition
• restricting the air available for combustion to take place
• preventing a chemical reaction / ignition I the combustion of flammable
substances.
Fire results from a chemical chain reaction between a combustible substance, an

ignition source and oxygen. Eliminating any of these components will lead to the fur
dying (Goetsch 2010:316).
9.4 Spreading of fire in buildings

Fires spread easily in production and storage areas. Production areas often contain,
among other things, electrical equipment that can cause frictional heat and sparks
that can set fire to packaging material and waste materials. In storage areas, which
are normally sparsely occupied, fire can be caused by people smoking where they
are not supposed to, intruders committing acts of arson (deliberately setting fire to
property), and defective electrical equipment setting fire to stored goods, packaging
material or other combustible elements such as the wooden floors of buildings
(Stranks 2010:240).
The spread of fire in buildings is caused primarily by (Stranks 2010:240):

• a lack of fire-separating walls in certain areas
• poor housekeeping (which results in combustible waste being stored in
production areas or storage areas)
173
• oils and fats that flow when burning

• flammable liquid flowing from a container, which falls into a fire or is
exposed to direct heat
• vertical and horizontal features that assist in the spread of fire from one part
of a facility to another (such as lift shafts, staircases and eonveyots)
• high levels of dust (which can explode under certain conditions or burn
rapiefly once on fire)
• fire spreading from production areas to stored items that are kept in the same
area.
A firewall, made of non-combustible material, must have certain characteristics in
order to be an effective fire barrier and must (Biando t Beohm 2012:192):
• extend from a non-flammable floor all the way to a non-flammable ceiling or
roof
• have no unprotected openings where flames or heat can pass through
• be able to resist the transfer of heat to the rear of the wall for an acceptable
period.
9.5 Principles of fire extinction

The four principles of fire extinction comprise (Stranks 2010:241):
1. Cooling
Cooling by using water is the most commonly used method for putting out fires.
Applying water to a fire results in a lot of water turning into steam, which reduces
the heat. Decreasing the heat results in combustible materials not consistently
igniting. The best way to apply water is in spray form.
2. Smothering
Smothering means preventing more oxygen {air) from flowing to the fire. An inert
gas can be applied to the fire. This reduces the air available for combustion to
prevent further combustion from taking place.
3. Starvation
Starvation means reducing the amount or Fuel that is available for combustion.
Fuel can be removed from the fire, the fire can be isolated from the fuel source, or
the quantity of fuel present can be reduced.
4. Preventing combustion
Preventing combustion implies ensuring that the combustible substance do-es not
reach a point of heat that will cause it to ignite. Combustion can thus bt prevented by
eliminating any or all three a the other elements and by ensuting that the source of
ignition will not ignite the combustible substance through slow, limited heating.
174
9.6 Classes of fire

There are basically five classes of fire, with each having appropriate extinguishers.
The extinguishers to use for the different classes of fire are shown in Table 9.1
(Stranks 2010:241; Goma 2010:320, 325). It is important to ensure that employees at
all levels are familiar with the appropriate fire appliances to use for the different
classes of fire.
Table 9.!: Classes of fire
Class Substances Exting uishers IMP' NI

Class A Solid materials (usually organic) such Watcr. foam, dry powder, vaporising
as wood, plastics and textifes liquid and carbon dioxide
Class B(i) Gases, liquids and liquefiable solids Water. foam, carbon dioxide and
that are soluble iri water (solids that dry powder can be used for those
can be turned into liquid) such as miscible with water (such as
acetone methanol and acetone)
Foam, dry powder, carbon dioxide
and vaporising liquid can be used
for those immiscible with water
Cfm kV Liquids and liquefiable solids that are not Isolate supply, dry powder
soluble in water, such as petrol and wax
i
Class C Electrical fires (live electrical situations. Carbon dioxide, dry chemicals and
not including fires consisting of bromotrifluoromethane (commonly
materials that started fires owing to known as BIM)
electricity)
1
Class D Combustible metals that easily oxidise Specialised powders such as
such as aluminium, magnesium, graphite, sand, soda ash, limestone
and zirconium and sodium chloride
ANLtitanium
Special fxtremely active oxidisers or mixtures, Wet chemicals such as an
categories nitric acid. hydrogen peroxide, alkaline solution of potassium
solid missile propellants as well as acetate which reacts to form a
ifammables that contain oxygen smothering skin across cooking
oils and grease fires to prevent
fire reignition IF class)
9.7 Hand-held fire-extinguishing appliances

There are five types of hand-held fire-extinguishing appliances, and their use depends
on the type of fire that needs to be extinguished. The five types of hand-held
fireextinguishing appliances are (Stranks 2010:2421:
175
I. Water appliances
There are two types of water appliances: stored pressure (which contains carbon
dioxide under pressure with water which is expelled when the trigger is pulled) arid
the gas cartridge (where carbon dioxide is stored under pressure in a small
cylinder, and when the seal is broken with the plunger, the gas that is released expels
the water through the nozzle).
2. Foam appliances
Chemical foam type and stored pressure type of foam appliances both form a
blanket of incombustible foam, prohibiting more air for combustion, when applied to
burning material. Foam appliances are best used for small liquid spillage fires. where the
blanket of incombustible foam can cover the surface of the burning liquid completely. It is
important to completely discharge foam appliances when used.
3. Carbon dioxide appliances

These appliances are suitable for Class A and B fires and for fires that involve
electrical equipment. Liquid carbon dioxide is stored in a cylinder and quickly converts
to carbon dioxide snow when discharged through a horn under its own pressure. The
fire converts the carbon dioxide snow to carbon dioxide gas. These appliances arc not
recommended for fires involving flammable liquids (unless the fire is very small).
4. Dry powder appliances

Dry powder appliances are extremely effective in dealing with flammable liquid fires
and are of the stored pressure or gas cartridge type.
5. Vaporising liquid appliances

These appliances make use of a cylinder containing a liquid under pressure with dry
carbon dioxide or nitrogen. The seal is pierced when striking the knob, which allows the
pressure to expel the liquid. These appliances are effective against fires involving
electrical equipment and can be used for Class A and B fires, and for small fires
that involve burning liquids.
9.8 Fire protection systems and the detection of fire hazards

Fire protection systems detect the presence of fire at a very early stage and operate on
three principal systems (Stranks 2010243):
1. heat sensing (where the actual rise in temperature is detected)
2, smoke detection
3. flame detection.
Fire protection systems are normally linked with a form of fixed installation, such as a
water sprinkler system. Sprinkler systems are normally the first line of defence against
fire and have proven to be effective in approximately 95% of fires. however, the operation
of the sprinkler systems must be dependable.
Chapter 9: fire safety
Monthly and annual inspections should be conducted to ensure that all fire
detection systems used are in proper working order.
The dependable operation of sprinkler systems requires the following (Biando

It Beohm 2012:202):
• an adequate supply of water with sufficient pressure to ensure a continuous
flow of water
• a piping system that operates separately from other water distribution
systems in the plant or building
• sprinklers that operate effectively and are maintained continuously.
Many organisations make use of automatic fire detection systems that can warn of the
presence of smoke, radiation, an elevated temperature or an increase in light intensity.
Different fire detection systems that are used include (Goetsch 2010:323):
• Thermal expansion detectors
These detectors use a heat-sensitive metal link that melts when it reaches a pre-
determined temperature. in order to make contact and sound an alarm.
• Photoelectric fire sensors

These sensors detect changes in infrared energy that is caused by smoke, often by the
smoke particles that obscure the photoelectric beam. A relay is open during acceptable
conditions and closes when smoke interferes, in order to complete the alarm circuit and
sound the alarm.
• Ionisation or radiation sensors
A radioactive substance that tends to ionise when exposed to smoke is used in these
sensors. This substance conducts electricity when exposed to smoke, and then completes
the alarm circuit and sounds a fire alarm.
• Ultraviolet or infrared detectors
These detectors sound an alarm when detecting radiation from a fire. A fire causes rapid
changes in radiation intensities.
9.9 Reducing the risk of fire

The best way to reduce fires is obviously to prevent fires from happening. As
Indicated above, one way to reduce the risk of fire is to remove one of' the following
components of fur: fuel; heat from an ignition source and oxygen: and to prevent the
process of ignition from taking place.
9.9.1 Flammabk liquids

Fires may also be prevented by the proper storage of flammable liquids by storing them
(Goetsch 2010:324):
• in flame-resistant buildings isolated from the places where people work
• in tanks below ground level
• on the first floor of multistorey buildings.
177
The substitution of flammable materials with less flammable materials is another

effective technique to reduce fire hazards.
Eliminating or isolating ignition sources from fuels can also help to reduce fire
hazards. This is done by (Goetsch 2010:324):
• prohibiting people front smoking near any possible fuels
• storing fuels away from equipment, wiring or lightning that may cause
electrical sparks
• keeping fuels away from areas where open flames are present (such as
welding torches, furnaces and heating elements)
• isolating fuels from took or equipment that may produce static or
mechanical sparks
• controlling heat levels to prevent the process of ignition.
9.9.2 Strategies to reduce the risk of fire

Other strategies that can be used to reduce the risk of fire include (Gottsch 2010:324):
• Clean up spills of flammable liquids immediately and property dispose of
materials that were used to clean up the spills.
• Keep work areas free from extra materials that are flammable (such as paper.
boxes and rags) and store the remaining inventory until needed.
• Run electrical cords along wails rather than on the floor or across aisles, as
electrical cords can become frayed and dangerous when walked on.
• Turn the power off and completely de-energise equipment before doing
maintenance.
• Do not use spark-prone or friction-prone tools near materials that are
combustible.
• Ensure that fire extinguishers are tested routinely.
9.9.3 Strategies to prevent office fires

Fires also happen in offices, and not only on the shop floor. Office fires can cause injuries and
deaths, as well as millions of rand in damages. For this reason, the following fire prevention
strategies should be taken into account to prevent office fires (Goetsch 2010:328):
• Smoking should only be allowed in specific areas that have ashtrays (that
cannot tip over) and furnishings that are fire-resistant.
• Electrical circuits and connections should be checked periodically.
• Worn or frayed cords should be replaced immediately.
• Extension cords and other accessories should be approved by the South
African Bureau of Standards (SABS) and used as recommended.
l78
• There should be air space around copying machines and other office
machines that can overheat.
• Heat-producing appliances should be located away from walls or anything
else that can catch fire.
• Personal appliances, such as coffee pots and cup warmers, should be
inspected regularly.
• An employee or employees should be assigned the responsibility to check
that personal appliances are switched off daily.
• Aisles, stairwells and exits should be kept clear of paper, boxes and other
combustible materials.
9.10 Fire dangers or threats to humans

Direct contact with fire (flames) is obviously dangerous to humans as flesh burns.
Burns to muscles and internal organs can also occur. The human body is made up of
approximately 80% water, meaning that the other 20% of the human body can
burn, However, burns are not the major cause of death in fire as most people die in
fires owing to suffocation or the breathing in of smoke and toxic fumes (Goetsch
2010:322: Biando Ft Beohm 2012:2013).
Fires can lead to suffocation because fires produce large volumes of carbon
dioxide, which decreases the oxygen levels. Furthermore, many fire extinguishers
use carbon dioxide because it starves the fire of oxygen (which is necessary for a
fire to continue burning) and cools the fire (Goetsch 2010;322).
Carbon monoxide is produced by almost all fires that involve organic
compounds, and it is the number one killer in fires. Fires produce carbon monoxide
in large volumes that can quickly reach lethal concentrations (Goetsch 2010:3221. The
venting (release) of heat and smoke may help to reduce smoke, heat and toxic gases
during a fire.
The following are some of the advantages of venting heat, smoke and gases
(Biando ft Beohm 2012:208):
• The release of heat reduces the spread of the fire.
• The release of heat prevents the sprinklers outside the area of the fire from
being activated, which reduces the water damage.
• The release of heat may reduce the exposure of structural members (primary
load-bearing components of a building) to high temperatures.
• The release of smoke and gases makes it easier to see, which may assist in
the evacuation of people or extinguishing the fire.
• The release of heat and gases reduces the chance of flammable gases
exploding.
179
However, the release of heat and gases also has some disadvantages (Bland° a
Beohm 2012:159):
• Hot gases. such as carbon monoxide which is combustible. may become
concentrated at structural members close to the roof.
• It may create a draft that can fan the fire.
• It may endanger property outside the building.
• It may reduce the effectiveness of sprinkler systems.
9.11 Safety risk management and administration

Safety risk management can be divided into four components. These components ate
identification, evaluation. control, and safety risk management and monitoring (Bruni
2012:49). Each of these components is briefly discussed below.
9.71.1 Risk identification

Risk identification involves the recognition of potential problems. The health and
safely manager should identify the fire risk based on fire hazard assessment and
identification (Bruni 2012:49).
9.71.2 Risk evaluation

Risk evaluation and assessment should be done once safety risks have been
identified. The identified safety risks must be evaluated for their potential severity as
well as their likelihood of occurrence. The two safety risk management evaluation areas
are frequency and severity.
Definitions
Frequency refers to how often a safety risk occurs or can be expected to occur, thus
the likelihood of occurrence.
Severity refers to how bad the safety risk will be if it does occur, or the degree of
the seriousness of the incident (Bruni 2012:55-56).
9.71.3 Risk control

Risk control is a risk management process designed to control the frequency and
severity of losses to the organisation. Risk control is divided into four categories
(Bruni 2012:57):
I. Risk avoidance: This is the best choice in any situation as it avoids or
prevents a safety risk.
2. Risk reduction: The next possible option is to reduce or minimise the safety risk.
180
3. Risk transfer: After attempting risk avoidance and risk reduction, the
remaining safety risk is transferred to another party. For example, buying
insurance to transfer the cost of an accident, such as a fire, to an insurance
company.
4. Risk tolerance: Risk is at an acceptable level or can be managed or reduced
to an acceptable level.
From the above, it can be seen that one should first try to avoid safety risk, then reduce it if
the safety risk cannot be avoided, and finally transfer the safety risk as a last resort.
9.71.4 Safety risk management and monitoring

Safety risk management is a structured approach to managing uncertainty related to a
threat, such as fire, with the view to protecting the safety, health and welfare of people
in the workplace. Safety risk management strategies involve avoidance of risk. reducing
the negative effect of risk, transferring the safety risk to another party and to accept the
consequences (some or all the consequences) of a specific safety risk. Safety risk
management is the 'responsibility of everyone and is an ongoing process directed toward
the assessment, mitigation and monitoring of risks. Safety risk can be defined as anything
negative that poses a threat to an individual or an organisation (Bru ni 2012:49). If safety
risk management is not done properly. it can lead to unnecessary injuries, loss of life, and
damage to property
9.12 Principles of fire safety

Limiting the incidence and spread of fire aims to (CSIR 2015:2):
• ensure the safety of people. and minimise the loss of life and injury
• minimise the loss of property and the damage to property
• minimise the negative impact of rim on the environment.
9.13 Responsibility far fire safety

Even with a lot of effort put Into designing and maintaining a building that is safe
from fire, this effort will not prevent a fire if employees fail to work in a firesafe manner.
It is important to continuously supervise and train employees about best safety practice.
Best safety practice, including fire safety recognises the four priorities of safety (Biando
Et Beohm 2012:194-195):
1. Eliminate the hazard.
2. Isolate the hazard.
3. Train, educate and supervise employees.
4. Use personal protective equipment (PPE).
Fire safety is therefore the responsibility of employers and employees.
181
9.14 Disaster preparations

It is important that all employees at all levels in the organisation receive training in
fire safety. Preparing for a disaster requires commitment and planning from
management as well as fire drills for all employees. Furthermore, the integration of
organisational plans with community plans should he done, and the police and fire
department, among others, should be consulted about fire safety and be informed of
the organisation's disaster preparation plans (Goetsch 2010:3281.
9.15 Life safety, basic requirements and means of egress

mgrsommi=
Wil.111111111111M
Egress refers to leaving a building or structure under conditions of emergency, such as a fire.
Life safety used in connection with egress refers to the movement of people from a hazard, such as
fire, in a building in such a way that people are not physically harmed (Biando Et Beohin 2012:159).
The Life Safety Code of the National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA). even though
developed for the USA, should be taken into account in the South African context.
9.15.1 Basic requirements for structures or buildings

The basic requirements for structures or buildings of the Life Safety Code comprise the
following, among other things (Goetsch 2010:331):
• Every structure that is to be occupied by people must have a means of
egress (way to get out of the structure or building) and other fire protection
safeguards that will:
• ensure that people can quickly evacuate or be protected without evacuating
• provide sufficient backup safeguards if one system fails.
• Every structure that is to be occupied by people must be constructed,
renovated, maintained and operated in order to ensure that occupants are
protected:
• from fire, smoke and fumes
• from fire-related panic
• long enough to safely evacuate
• long enough to protect themselves without evacuating.
• In providing means of egress and other fire protection safeguards. certain
factors must be considered, namely:
• capability of occupants
• number of occupants
• fire protection that is available
182
• height of the building or structure

• type of building or structure
• any other applicable concerns.
• No lock or any other device may obstruct egress, except in correctional
facilities and mental health detention facilities. In these facilities. responsible
personnel must be available to assist in case of a fire (or a similar emergency)
and procedures must be in place to ensure that people can be evacuated in case
of a fire (or a similar emergency).
• Exits in buildings and structures must:
• be clearly visible or marked clearly to allow people to find the route of
escape
• allow for all routes to places of safety to be specified or clearly marked.
Clearly mark doors and passages that may look like exits, but are not, to avoid
confusion and take steps to keep people from entering a dead-end passage.
• Egress routes and facilities must be included when doing lighting design
for a building or stnicture to allow For artificial illumination if and where
necessary.
• Fire alarm systems must be installed and maintained in any building or
structure that is too large for people to be alerted that there is a fire. These
fire alarm systems must alert people to start the appropriate emergency
procedures.
• lithe means of egress can be blocked in some way, a second means of
egress (or more) must be provided for. It is important to minimise the chance of
both means of egress becoming blocked during the same emergency
situation, such as a fire.
• Stairs or ramps, for example. which allow people to move from one floor of
a building to the next, must protect people from fire when they use it as a
means of egress.
9.15.2 Means of egress
Dt Iiii Ion
The means of egress in this context is the route taken from inside a building to any
other point outside or away from the building (Biando I Beohm 2012:15911.
Should a fire occur, people must be able to get out of the building or structure as
quickly and safely as possible, via a means of egress. The Life Safety Code of the
NEPA contains the following on the means of egress lOoetsch 2010:3323:
• Doors: Exit doors must be designed, constructed and maintained in such a
way that the means of egress is direct and obvious.
163
• Capacity or means of egress: The means of egress must be capable of

handling the maximum amount of occupants of the building or structure.
• Number of means of egress: Any building or structure must have at least
two means of egress.
• Arrangement of means of egress: Exits must be easily accessible at all times.
• Measurement of travel distance to exits: The distance from the furthest
point to the exit must be measured and must be within prescribed limits.
• Discharge from exits; All exits from a building or structure must lead to a
courtyard or public place, for example, or an open space that leads to the
exterior of the structure.
• Illumination of means of egress: All means of egress should be illuminated
when the building or structure is occupied. No area should be left in darkness
by a lighting failure.
• Emergency lighting: This must be provided for all means of egress.
• Marking of means of egress: Exits must be clearly marked by visible signs.
• Special provisions for high risk areas: Areas that contain contents that are
highly hazardous should have more exit points that are close to occupants of the
building, and should have at least two means of egress and no dead-end corridors.
9.15.3 Planning for egress

When planning for egress, the following factors must be taken into account in order
to get people out of the building as quickly as possible (Biando ft Beohm
2012:167):
• the capabilities of individual people
• the capabilities of people who move as a group
• where people are normally located in relation to potential hazards
• the longest distance that a person will have to travel to get to an exit
• the restrictions or potential hazards that are present along each path of egress
• the iltcrnate route of egress available to every person.
9.15.4 Useful signs during an emergency

Even though it is very difficult to predict how people will react during an emergency, such as
a fire, several things can be done to minimise irrational behaviour. Weildesigned signs
that are placed in appropriate places can assist in directing traffic during an
emergency. The following signs may be useful during an emergency (Man& ft &whin
2012:163):
184
• 'Exit' signs with clearly visible arrows:

• where aisles intersect or cross
• at corners of aisles
• at any other place where the route is unclear or not obvious
• signs indicating 'Not an exit' on all doors that could be mistaken for an exit
door
• signs at the entrances of dead-end aisles that indicate 'No exit'.
9.16 South African legal considerations

Employers have a legal obligation to provide employees with a healthy and safe working
environment. and non-compliance can result in stiff penalties (OHS Act 85 of 1993).
Furthermore, employers also have a moral obligation to ensure the sarety of their
employees (5ME Toolkit 2015:11. The employer also has a legal and moral obligation to
ensure the safety of anyone visiting the business's premises.
Businesses should have a fire strategy in place in order to ensure compliance with
legislation. A fire strategy should include (WE Toolkit 2015:1-2):
• Prevention of fires
The first and most important aspect of fire safety is to prevent a fire from breaking out. A
government-accredited service provider should assess the risk for fire and assist in
putting steps into place in order to reduce the risk of a fire as much as possible. Steps to
reduce fire risk include:
• Prohibit people rmm smoking in certain areas. especially near flammable
materials and in enclosed areas.
• Test electrical equipment regularly, use plugs with trip switches, and
ensure that electrical cables are not lying on the floor, among other things.
• Assign employees to check that electrical equipment is switched off
every day.
• Train employees in fire safety, fire risk assessment and emergency
procedures.
• Assessment of fire risks
Ensure that a fire risk assessment has been done and that all necessary documents are in
place (in compliance with the OHS Act) as inspectors can visit the premises at any time.
Ensure that the relevant certification is received and that the process Is repeated as often
as required by law in order to minimise fire risk and ensure corn pith nee.
• Detection and containment of fire

A fire can still break out despite measures being in place. Detecting a fire early on will
help to limit the damage caused. In order to assist in detecting and containing fire. i he
following measures can be taken:
185
• install a fire detection system

• ensure that SAf3S-approved fire extinguishers are in place and that
employees know how to use them
• install a sprinkler or similar system, especially if the business is at high
risk of fire
• ensure that fire equipment is serviced regularly and complies with SASS
standards.
• Knowledge of evacuation plan
If there is a serious fire, effective evacuation measures can save lives. Time is
important if there is a fire, so employees should be familiar with the evacuation
plan. Ensure that employees:
• know what to do in a fire
• know the number of the nearest fire brigade or emergency service
• know to evacuate the building before phoning for help
• keep all fire escapes and exits clear of furniture or anything that may
prevent people from getting out quickly
• know where to assemble for a roll call to be taken.
Appropriate fire safety measures can save lives and minimise damage to businesses.
9.17 Conclusion
Fire safety includes preventing unwanted fires, extinguishing or suppressing
unwanted fires, having a safety emergency plan in place in case of fire and
ensuring that an organisation can stay operational. Iii order to achieve fire safety,
employers and employees must work together and should have the necessary
knowledge and skills to prevent fires from occurring, and to appropriately deal
with fire emergencies if they occur.
186
Self—assessment questions
1_ Define fire hazards.
2. Distinguish between the three means of heat transfer.
1 List the components of fire.
4. Name the strategies for fire prevention based on the components of fire.
5. What causes fire spreading in buildings?
6. What are the characteristics of effective firewalls?
7. Explain cooling, smothering and starvation as principles of fire extinction.
8. Distinguish between the classes of fire.
9. Explain the types of hand-held fire appliances,
10. Name the three principal systems on which fire protection systems operate.
11. What are the requirements for the dependable operation of sprinkler systems?
12. Explain what is meant by automatic fire detection systems.
13. Discuss the reduction of fire hazards of flammable liquids.
14. List strategies that could be used to reduce the risk of fire.
15. How can office fires be prevented?
lb. Discuss fire dangers to humans.
17. Discuss safety risk management and the administration of fire.
18. What are the principles of fire safety?
19. Who is responsible for fire safety?
20. Discuss life safety.
21. What are the basic requirements of the Life Safety Code of the NFPA for
buildings or structures?
22. Discuss 'means of egress'.
23. What is meant by 'planning for egress'?
24. Explain useful signs during an emergency.
25. Discuss the South African legal considerations regarding fire.
26. What should be included in a fire strategy?
187
References
Dian& KL Et Beohm RT. 2012. Fire prevention and suppression. In JW Mroszezyk. (ed).
Safety Engineering. 4111 ed. Illinois: American Society of Safety Engineers.
Bruni N. 2012. Occupational Heithig and Safety for the Fire Service. New Jersey: Pearson.
CSIR. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. 2015. Fire safety. Available: http://
www.csir.co.x a /Buil t_enviro nmentiRed800kfVol_I/Chapter_05/Chapter_05_08/
Chapter 05 06 03 Vol Lpdf. (Accessed 8 December 2015).
Ooctsch DL 2010. The Basics of Occupational Safely, New Jersey: Pearson. Ridley
J. 2008. Health and Safety in Brief tIth ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
SME Toolkit, South Africa. 2015. Workplace fire safety. Available: http://southafriea.
stne too Mit.° rgisaienicontentfen/4915/ Wo rkplace- fire-safety?view-pri nt. (Accessed
December 2015).
Stranks J. 2010. Health et Safety or Work: An Essential Guide for Managers. 9th ed. London:
Kogan Page.
Legislation
Acts
188
Annexure 1
Confined-space entry permit
CONFINED-SPACE ENTRY PERMIT
Note: This permit is only valid for a 24-hour period from the date and start time shown
below.
Permit space No/Location: Permit start:

Date:
Description of work to be performed:
Entry task supervisor: Permit start:

Time:
Name(s) of entry observer(s): Expected entry duration:
Time: hours
Name(s) of entrant(s):
Manager/supervisor issuing authorising permit:
Signature:
Nature of expected hazards Before Required equipment
ond during the entry work (tick all that
Be fore rind during the entry work
apply) (tick all that apply)
_
Oxygen deficient or enriched
Respiratory protection
Flammable gases. vapours or dust Type:
Hazardous air contaminants Protective clothing
Corrosive materials Continuous air monitoring
Toxic substances or vapours exposure Hot Continuous forced-air ventilation
surfaces or heat exposure Breathing apparatus or air line
Mechanical exposure Rescue harness (not belt) and safety
Electrical exposure line
Engulfment I Entrapment Lock-out / Tag-out
Working surface has adequate load- Guards/ Fences
bearing capacity -
Fire extinguisher(s)
Rescue lifting point above entry Entry ladder, hoist or platform
aperture available
_ Other (specify)
_ Other (specify)
VP.
Preparation prior to entry (tick all that apply)

Person responsible for preparation
Affected employees notified of the safe procedures
Tank or vessel drained Or contents of the space removed

_
Space isolated and blanked off
Energy sources locked-out and tagged-off
Stored energy relieved (zero energy state)
Hot work permit obtained from the supervisor (attach a

copy)
Area around confined space secured (made safe) Continuous
forced air ventilation
Positive pressure breathing apparatus or air line
Air-monitoring equipment available and calibrated
Confined-space observer available arid duties

briefed
Employees briefed on hazards and rescue measures
Rescue equipment and/or service available
Surface to be loaded is capable of carrying the

load
Air monitoring prior to entry — circle YIN or fill in all that apply
Hazardous breathing
confined space Non-hazardous breathing
fl N Y/N
confined space
Test Acceptable Result Test Acceptable Result
Oxygen 19,5% to Sulphur <2 ppm (parts per

22,5% Dioxide, SO, million)
Combustibles less than ID% Other: toxic, Less than OEL

LEL (lowest asphyxiant, etc (occupational
explosive exposure limit) or TW
limit) (threshold limit value)
190
Annexure 1
Test Aceeptabk Result Test Acceptable Result
Carbon ‹50 ppm Other: toxic, Less than Oft or TLV

monoxide, CO asphyxiant, etc
Hydrogen ‹10 pprn No air testing No life risk in confined

sulphide, F125 spare
The confined space has been tested and is declared safe for entry (using the declared equipment necessary as
stated overleaf).
Air-monitoring cheek performed by:
Date: Time:
Periodic air-monitoring results
Air-monitoring Acceptable lime Result Time Result

test (specify) level
Air-mpnitoring check performed by:

Date: Time:
Communication procedures
Time of first entry into the confined space: Time all entrants exited the confined space-.
List any problems encountered with the confined-space entry process and recommendations for future avoidance:
—
Permit closure: The confined space has been vacated and the area and surrounds have been reinstated, with the
entry-related equipment and materials cleared away, enabling this
Confined Spare Entry Permit to be closed:
By:
Permit Issuing Manager/Supervisor Time Date
Source: Bennett, L 2016. Bennsk Consulting. Confined-space entry permit
191

Safety Management in An Organisational Context: Editor: Leonie Louw

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E 'WA

EDITOR: LEONIE LOUW

xill About the editor and contributors

xv Acronyms and abbreviations

Chapter 1: An introduction to safety

A25 Chapter 2: Safety in industry >

Chapter 3: General workplace safety

Al 11 Chapter 6: Functional safety >

A129 Chapter 7: Confined-space work risks >

149 Chapter 8: Ergonomics >

171 Chapter 9: Fire safety >

Annexure 1: Confined-space entry

First published 2017

Juta and Company (Pty) Ltd

2017 luta and Company (Ply) Ltd

ISBN 978 1 4851 2507 5 (Print)

Project manager: Marlene Rose

Typeset in 10.5 pt on 13 pt Rotis Serif

Chapter 1: An introduction to safety management - Sarel Srnit 1

6.5 Computer security 117

6.7 Electrical safety 119

6.8.3 Electrical equipment policies 122

6.10 Formal methods for recognising and mitigating hazards 123

6.12.1 International Electrotechnical Commission (I(C) 125

6.12.3 IEC 61511 series 126

6.13 Conclusion 127

Self-assessment questions 127

Chapter 7: Confined-space work risks - Leighton Bennett 129

7.2 What is a confined space? 130

7.4.1 What the regulations say 114

9.10 Rre dangers or threats to humans_ 179

9.12 Principles of fire safety 181

Leonie Louw is a lecturer in Safety and Environmental Management at Unisa and is

Elriza Esterhuyzen is currently employed as a senior lecturer in Safety Management in the

Cheryl Rie!ander is employed at Unisa as a senior lecturer in safety management in the

Cheryl Rie!ander is employed at Unisa as a senior lecturer in safety management in the

BCE Act Basic Conditions of Employment Act

• contributory negligence, which nullified employer liability if the injury

1.2.4 Employer liability

1.2.5 Making equipment and the workplace safe

1.2.6 Employee compensation legislation and insurance

1.2.7 Extensive safety regulations and inspections

in the workplace. Owing to the adverse effects of modem business operations on

1.2.8 Need for training in safety management

1.2.9 Professionalisation of safety management

1.2.10 International focus

1.3 Nature of safety hazards

Man-machine interface Safety risk management

1.2 Historical development

1.2.1 Initia1 safety laws

1.2.2 Punishment for injuries

1.2.3 Inadequate work injury indemnification

1.4.3 People as safety hazards

1.4.4 Types of safety hazards

1.5 The study object of safety management as a science

The study object of a science refers to the focus of study.

1.6 Basics of safety risk management

7.6.7 Origins of safety risks

1.6.2 Assessment of safety risks

1.6.3 Evaluation of safety risks

7.6.4 Management of safety risks

1.7 Hierarchy of controls

1.7.1 Elimination of safety hazards