PATHOGENS

→ it is a disease causing microorganism. It has a uniquely shaped marker on the surface of the
membrane called antigens.

→ there are many types of pathogens and the

organisms which harboured these pathogens are known as hosts.

PATHOGEN GROUPS DISEASES THEY CAUSED

Bacterias Influenza, common cold, poliomyelitis, AIDS

Viruses Cholera, syphilis, whooping, cough,

tuberculosis, tetanus

Protoctists Malaria, amoebic dysentery

Fungi Athlete’s foot, ringworm

TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASE
→ It is when pathogens spread from one person to another through contact.
Some pathogens may damage our cells by living in them and using up their sources. Others
cause harm to cells by producing toxins which spread and cause high temperature, rash and ill
feeling.
Clostridium Botulinum → caused by bacterium & the most poisonous in the world.

DIRECT CONTACT
→ from blood, bodyfluids or contact from an infected person.

INDIRECT CONTACT
→ respiratory passages (someone coughs) & contaminated foods, drinks, air, animals etc.

HOW TO PREVENT THE SPREAD OF DISEASE

→ waste and sewage are treated
→ good personal hygiene and make sure the foods are prepared hygienically.
→ waste disposal
BODY DEFENSES
→ In order to protect ourselves from pathogens and disease, our body has several protective
mechanisms in place.

MECHANICAL BARRIERS
→ act as a physical obstruction in order to prevent pathogens from entering our body.
→ example : skin and nose hairs.

CHEMICAL BARRIERS
→ chemical substances in the body which help to trap or destroy pathogens.
→ for example : mucus (traps bacteria that enters from the respiratory system & beat up wards
by the cilia).
stomach acid : the acidity kills pathogens that enter our digestive system via the food we eat.

CELLULAR BARRIERS
→ the protection offered by the cells of our immune system, which take part in combating
pathogens and disease.
→ examples : white blood cells such as lymphocytes (produce antibodies) and phagocytes.

PHAGOCYTOSIS
→ mechanisms in which phagocytes digests pathogens.

STEPS

1. Phagocyte extends itself and engulfs the pathogen

2. Pathogen becomes trapped in a vesicle called phagosome
3. Other vesicles containing digestive enzymes fuse with the phagosome
4. Enzymes digest the pathogen
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
→ immune response which protects the body when pathogens enter.

ANTIBODIES
→ proteins produced by cells called lymphocytes, which bind to the antigens to produce
antibody-antigen-complex.
Once antibodies bind to the antigens, the pathogens will clump together making them harmless.
→ it can either destroy pathogens directly or alert phagocytes for destruction via phagocytosis.

1. A lymphocyte comes into

contact with antigens that fit the shape
of the antibodies it can make.

2. The lymphocyte divides to form

many identical cells.

3. The lymphocyte secretes

antibodies.

4. The antibodies bind to the

antigens to destroy them.

Immune response → the way

lymphocytes respond to pathogens by
producing antibodies.

Activated lymphocytes : memory cells.

MEMORY CELLS
→ long lived cells that remain in the blood even after the infection is over.
→ they have the ability to rapidly produce the original antibodies if it were to come across the
same pathogen/antigen again.

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
→ caused by immune response in the healthy body cells.
Example : type 1 diabetes where the body target is pancreas thus insulin can no longer be
produced.
ACTIVE IMMUNITY
→ It is created by our own immune system when we are exposed to a potential
disease-causing agent (i.e., pathogen).
→ Vaccines also contribute to active immunity by providing us with a controlled way to create an
immune response. When a vaccine is introduced, our immune system treats it like any other
exposure.
MEMORY CELLS ARE PRODUCED

PASSIVE IMMUNITY
→ is a short-term defense against a pathogen by antibodies transferred from one individual to
another (rather than making their own).

Maternal antibodies :
Placenta and circulation — When a woman is pregnant, her blood circulates through the
placenta to deliver nourishment and protection to the developing fetus.

Breast milk — Babies also get antibodies from breast milk, particularly from a protein-rich
version of breast milk supplied in the first few days after birth known as colostrum.
Colostrum → produced in the first three to five days after birth, contains higher levels of
antibodies that protect the intestinal surface.
MEMORY CELLS ARE NOT PRODUCED.

IMMUNOGLOBULIN TREATMENT
→ used to treat individuals at risk of infections.
For example, infants born to women infected with hepatitis B are treated with antibody
preparations in addition to being vaccinated in an effort to protect them from also becoming
infected with hepatitis B.

VACCINATION
→ It iis a treatment with a vaccine to evoke immunity to a certain antigen.
→ contains weakened or dead viruses or bacterias that normally cause disease

PROCESS OF VACCINATION
1. Vaccine is given containing dead or weakened pathogens.
2. A primary immune response is made.
3. Antibodies and memory cells remain in the body.
4. Living pathogens enter the body.
5. Memory lymphocytes quickly produce large amounts of antibodies.
6. Antibodies are released to the blood.
7. Live pathogens are killed before any symptoms are detected.

Vaccination can be used to control the spread of by providing herd immunity. This is where a
large number of people are being vaccinated to be immune to pathogens.