LESSON 6

IMMUNE SYSTEMS

PREREQUISITE CONCEPTS:

INTRODUCTION (Explore):

This lesson will focus on understanding the animal immune systems. Specifically, it will discuss on: 1.
Immune responses;
2. how the organism is protected by the immune system; and
3. how the body fights infections.

ACTIVITY 6A. IRF Chart

Have you ever experienced getting sick? Share your experience by writing it down in the journal.
Just fill in the INITIAL Column for this activity. You will be prompted to fill-in the others as the lesson
progresses.

Activity 6A. IRF CHART

Prompt Initial Revised Final
Sickness/Illness
Symptoms felt
Treatment/s
How the body
response to treatment
Cause/s of illness
Did the body
developed immunity?

As you recall the experience, you are going to link this to the lesson. This aims for you to
understand that getting sick is a normal response of the body and it has advantages and disadvantages.
Proceed to the next activity to learn more.

INTERACTION (Firm-up & Deepen)

Activity 6B. Reading the Text

The immune system is the body’s line of defense against diseases or infections. There are two
types of immune system: innate and adaptive.

Innate Immune Response

- This is always the first response to infection. It acts fast but never changes from exposure to exposure.

This involves:
I. Barrier defenses like the skin, mucous membranes and secretions. In humans and in most vertebrates,
the skin with other ectodermal derivatives is the first line of defense against infection. Ask the class to
recall their previous lessons on healthcare in their lower year levels; that is why it is important to wash
hands with soap and water frequently. If there is an invading pathogen like a virus (or bacteria or any
foreign substance) the body reacts through mucous secretions. Even the saliva contains agents which
are antimicrobial.

II. Internal defenses of the innate immune response consist of phagocytic cells, natural killer cells,
antimicrobial proteins (interferons; the complement system) and the inflammatory response (that
involves histamines, mast cells and cytokines).

Adaptive Immune Response

-It involves the recognition of traits specific to particular pathogens using a vast array of receptors.

This is made possible because of:

I. The Humoral response- production and secretion of antibodies or immunoglobulins against specific
antigens (any foreign body/structure- pollen, bacteria, virus, dust).
Antibodies are produced by cells that secrete them in the bloodstream or display them in the surface of
some cells, ready to face and combat any antigen.

II. Cell mediated response- occurs when cytotoxic cells defend the body against infection.
The development of B and T cells, memory cells and plasma cells are important aspects of cell
mediated immune mechanism.

Lines of Defense
• The immune system can be divided into three basic lines of defense against pathogenic infection:
• The first line of defense against infection are the surface barriers that prevent the entry of pathogens into
the body
• The second line of defense are the non-specific phagocytes and other internal mechanisms that
comprise innate immunity
• The third line of defense are the specific lymphocytes that produce antibodies as part of the adaptive
immune response

First Line of Defense

• The primary defense against infectious disease are the surface barriers that prevent pathogens from
entering the body
• These surface barriers include intact skin (protect external boundaries) and mucous membranes
(protect internal boundaries)
• Both the skin and mucous membranes release chemical secretions which restrict the growth of
microbes on their surfaces
• If pathogens cannot enter the host body, they cannot disrupt normal physiological functions and cause
disease

Second Line of Defense

• The second line of defense against infection are the non-specific cellular and molecular responses
of the innate immune system
• These defenses do not differentiate between different types of pathogen and respond the same way
upon every infection
• Phagocytic leukocytes migrate to infection sites and engulf foreign bodies (dendritic cells then present
antigens to lymphocytes)
• Inflammatory responses increase capillary permeability at infected sites, recruiting leukocytes but
leading to localized swelling
• Antimicrobial proteins (such as cytokines and complement proteins) regulate immune activity within the
body
• Fever increases body temperatures to activate heat-shock proteins and suppress microbial growth and
propagation
Third Line of Defense
• The final line of defense against infection are the lymphocytes that produce antibodies to specific
antigenic fragments
• Each B cell produces a specific antibody, and the body has millions of different B cells capable of
detecting distinct antigens
• Helper T cells regulate B cell activation, ensuring that antibodies are only mass-produced at the
appropriate times
• Both B and T cells will differentiate to form memory cells after activation, conferring long-term immunity
to a particular pathogen

Pathogens
A pathogen is a disease- causing agent that disrupts the normal physiology of the infected organism

Pathogens can be cellular (e.g. parasites, protozoa, bacteria) or acellular (viruses and prions)

Types of Pathogens

1. Viruses
Viruses are metabolically inert and incapable of reproducing independently of a host cell (hence are
non-living)
They typically consist of an inner core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat (capsid)
Simpler viruses may lack a capsid (viroids), whilst more complex viruses may possess an external
lipid envelope
Viruses can be either DNA-based (adenoviruses) or RNA-based (retroviruses)

2. Prions
A prion is an infectious protein that has folded abnormally into a structure capable of causing
disease
Prions can cause normally folded proteins to refold into the abnormal form and hence propagate
within a host body
Prion proteins aggregate together to form amyloid fibers that cause holes to form in the brain
(spongiform encephalopathy)
Infectious prion proteins have a higher beta-sheet content, making them more resistant to
denaturation and difficult to treat

3. Bacteria
Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic cells that can reproduce quickly and compete with host cells for
space and nutrition
Most bacteria are relatively harmless and some may even form mutualistic relationships with hosts
(e.g. normal gut flora)
Bacteria may cause disease by producing toxic compounds (exotoxins) or releasing the substances
when destroyed (endotoxins)
 As the toxins retain their destructive capacity beyond bacterial death, they are often the cause of
food poisoning

4. Fungi
Disease-causing fungi usually attack the body surfaces, including the skin and mucous membranes
They can be categorized according to whether they are unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (molds) –
most fungi are molds
Molds consist of branching filaments called hyphae, which may form a mass of invading threads
called mycelium
Examples of fungal infections include thrush (yeast infection) and athlete’s foot (mold infection)

5. Parasites
A parasite is an organism that grows and feeds on an organism to the detriment of the host’s
survival
Parasites can be classed as either ectoparasites (living on the surface of the host) or endoparasites
(living within the host)
Endoparasites can include microparasites (e.g. single-cell protozoa) or macroparasites (multicellular
helmithes)

Pathogens are generally species-specific in that their capacity to cause disease (pathogenesis) is limited to
a particular species
Polio, syphilis, measles and gonorrhea are examples of diseases caused by pathogens that specifically
affect human hosts

Certain pathogens may cross the species barrier and be able to infect and cause disease in a range of
hosts
Diseases from animals that can be transmitted to humans are called zoonotic diseases (or zoonoses)
Examples of zoonotic diseases include rabies (dogs), certain strains of influenza (e.g. bird flu) and the
bubonic plague (rats)

Disease Transmission
Transmission of infectious diseases can occur via a number of distinct mechanisms:
1. Direct contact – the transfer of pathogens via physical association or the exchange of body fluids
2. Contamination – ingestion of pathogens growing on, or in, edible food sources
3. Airborne – certain pathogens can be transferred in the air via coughing and sneezing
4. Vectors – intermediary organisms that transfer pathogens without developing disease symptoms
themselves
Inflammation
• The inflammatory response is the non-specific way in which the body responds when a pathogen
damages body tissue
• When tissue damage occurs, mast cells (localized) and basophils (circulating) release a chemical called
histamine
• Histamine causes local vasodilation and increases capillary permeability to improve the recruitment of
leukocytes to the region
• Damaged cells also release chemotactic factors which attract leukocytes to the site of infection
• While inflammation is necessary to allow immune cells access to damaged tissue, there are unavoidable
side effects
• Increased blood flow causes redness and heat, while increased permeability releases fluids and causes
swelling and tenderness
• Inflammation can be either short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic)

Fever
• A fever is an abnormally high temperature associated with infection and is triggered by the release of
prostaglandins
• Fever may help to combat infection by reducing the growth rate of microbes (via the inactivation of
microbial enzymes)
 o It may also increase metabolic activity in body cells and activate heat shock proteins to
strengthen the immune response
• A fever occurs when activated leukocytes release pro-inflammatory chemicals called cytokines
o Cytokines stimulate the anterior hypothalamus to produce prostaglandins, which lead to an
increase in body temperature
o Up to a certain point a fever may be beneficial, but beyond a tolerable limit it can cause damage
to the body’s own enzymes

Surface Barriers
The first line of defense against infectious disease is the surface barriers that prevent the entry of
pathogens into the body

These surface barriers include both the intact skin and mucous membranes
1. Skin
Protects external structures when intact (outer body areas)
Consists of a dry, thick and tough region composed predominantly of dead surface cells
Contains biochemical defense agents (sebaceous glands secrete chemicals and enzymes which inhibit
microbial growth on skin)
The skin also secretes lactic acid and fatty acids to lower the pH (skin pH is roughly ~ 5.6 – 6.4 depending
on body region)

2. Mucous Membranes
Protects internal structures (i.e. externally accessible cavities and tubes – such as the trachea, esophagus
and urethra)
Consists of a thin region of living surface cells that release fluids to wash away pathogens (mucus, saliva,
tears, etc.)
Contains biochemical defense agents (secretions contain lysozyme which can destroy cell walls and cause
cell lysis)
Mucous membranes may be ciliated to aid in the removal of pathogens (along with physical actions such as
coughing / sneezing)
Non-specific Cellular and Molecular Response
• The second line of defense against infectious disease is the innate immune system, which is non-
specific in its response
• A principle component of this line of defense are phagocytic white blood cells that engulf and digest
foreign bodies
• Other components of the innate immune system include inflammation, fever and antimicrobial chemicals
(complement proteins)
• The innate immune system has two key properties:
1. It does not differentiate between different types of pathogens (non-specific)
2. It responds to an infection the same way every time (non-adaptive)

Phagocytes
Phagocytosis is the process by which solid materials (such as pathogens) are ingested by a cell (i.e. cell
‘eating’ via endocytosis)
Phagocytic leukocytes circulate in the blood and move into the body tissue (extravasation) in response to
infection
Damaged tissues release chemicals (e.g. histamine) which draw white blood cells to the site of infection
(via chemotaxis)
Pathogens are engulfed when cellular extensions (pseudopodia) surround the pathogen and then fuse to
form an internal vesicle
The vesicle is then fused to a lysosome (forming a phagolysosome) and the pathogen is digested
Pathogen fragments (antigens) may be presented on the surface of the phagocyte in order to stimulate the
third line of defense
Lymphocytes
• The third line of defense against infectious disease is the adaptive immune system, which is specific in
its response
• It can differentiate between particular pathogens and target a response that is specific to a given
pathogen
• It can respond rapidly upon re-exposure to a specific pathogen, preventing symptoms from developing
(immunological memory)
• The adaptive immune system is coordinated by lymphocytes (a class of leukocyte) and results in the
production of antibodies
o B lymphocytes (B cells) are antibody-producing cells that recognize and target a particular pathogen
fragment (antigen)
o Helper T lymphocytes (TH cells) are regulator cells that release chemicals (cytokines) to activate
specific B lymphocytes
• When phagocytic leukocytes engulf a pathogen, some will present the digested fragments (antigens) on
their surface
o These antigen-presenting cells (dendritic cells) migrate to the lymph nodes and activate specific
helper T lymphocytes
o The helper T cells then release cytokines to activate the particular B cell capable of producing
antibodies specific to the antigen
o The activated B cell will divide and differentiate to form short-lived plasma cells that produce high
amounts of specific antibody
o Antibodies will target their specific antigen, enhancing the capacity of the immune system to
recognize and destroy the pathogen
o A small proportion of activated B cell (and activated TH cell) will develop into memory cells to
provide long-lasting immunity
Antibodies
Antigen: An antigen is a substance that the body recognizes as foreign and that will elicit an immune
response

Antibody: An antibody is a protein produced by B lymphocytes (and plasma cells) that is specific to a given
antigen

• Antibodies are made of 4 polypeptide chains that are joined together by disulphide bonds to form Y-
shaped molecules
• The ends of the arms are where the antigen binds – these areas are called the variable regions and
differ between antibodies
• The rest of the molecule is constant across all antibodies and serves as a recognition site for the
immune system (opsonization)
• Each type of antibody recognizes a unique antigen, making antigen-antibody interactions specific (like
enzymes and substrates)
Self versus Non-self
• The immune system has the capacity to distinguish between body cells (‘self’) and foreign materials
(‘non-self’)
o It will react to the presence of foreign materials with an immune response that eliminates the
intruding material from the body

• All nucleated cells of the body possess unique and distinctive surface molecules that identify it as self
o These self-markers are called major histocompatibility complex molecules (MHC class I) and
function as identification tags
o The immune system will not normally react to cells bearing these genetically determined markers
(self-tolerance)

• Any substance that is recognized as foreign and is capable of triggering an immune response is called
an antigen (non self)
o Antigens are recognized by lymphocytes which bind to and detect the characteristic shape of an
exposed portion (epitope)
o Lymphocytes trigger antibody production (adaptive immunity) which specifically bind to epitopes via
complementary paratopes

• Antigenic determinants include:

o Surface markers present on foreign bodies in the blood and tissue – including bacterial, fungal, viral
and parasitic markers
o The self-markers of cells from a different organism (this is why transplantation often results in graft
rejection)
o Even proteins from food may be rejected unless they are first broken down into component parts by
the digestive system

INTEGRATION (Transfer)

Activity 6C. SIM Pandemic (Simulation Activity)

Preventing Outbreak with Herd Community

 SCORE 0-4 5 6-7 8
LEVEL OF MASTERY Not Mastered Least Mastered Nearly Mastered Mastered
The topic is The topic is The topic is The topic
new and not familiar but need learned with learned is
INTERPRETATION yet learned. to be learned misconceptions mastered.
more.

How did fare? If your score is 5 and below, you are advised to review the concept/s that you missed.

You have completed this week’s lesson.

The summative assessment will be available via your Google Classroom.

Congratulations! You finished week 1 lesson, let us move on to the next module.