Immunology

Introduction
By
Prof. Dr. Batool Hassan Al-Ghurabi
 Immunity
1.Immunity: refers to all mechanisms used by the body
as protection against environmental agents that are
foreign to the body.
2.Agents:microorganism or \ and their products, foods,
chemicals, pollen, tumor cells, viruses…
3.Immune system: immune tissues, organs, immune
cells and immune molecules
4.Immune response: benefits; damaging effects.
5.Immunology：A science studying on organization
and function of immune system
 History of immunology
1500s, the ancient Chinese
custom existed of having
children inhale powders
made from the crusty skin
lesions of patients
recovering from smallpox

This practice of deliberately exposing

an individual to material from smallpox
lesions was known as variolation
Edward Jenner (1749-1823) Jenner vaccination
-After observing the fact that milkmaids who were exposed
to cowpox had apparent immunity to smallpox, he
deliberately injected individuals with material from a cowpox
lesion and then exposed them to smallpox.

-Thus, he proved that immunity to cowpox, a very mild

disease, provided protection against smallpox.

This procedure of injecting cellular material became known

as vaccination, from vacca, the Latin word for “cow.”
• Lious Pasteur (1822~1895).
-a key figure in the development of both
microbiology and immunology.
-Accidentally found that old cultures of
microorganisms would not cause
disease.
-Pasteur applied principle of attenuation to
the prevention of disease.
(Pasteur produced the first vaccine
for rabies by growing the virus in
rabbits, and then weakening it by
drying and injected to individuals…..
 Immune System

Immune system consist of:

1. Organs
2. Cells
3. Molecules
 Immune System:
(1) organs
• Tonsils and adenoids
• Thymus
• Lymph nodes
• Spleen
• Payer’s patches
• Appendix
• Lymphatic vessels
• Bone marrow
 Immune system:
(2) cells
• Lymphocytes
– T-lymphocytes
– B-Lymphocytes, plasma cells
– Natural killer lymphocytes
• Monocytes, Macrophage
• Granulocytes
– neutrophils
– eosinophils
– basophils
 Immune system:
(3) molecules
• Antibodies
• Complement
• Cytokines (Interleukines)
• Interferons
 Immune Response
 innate immune response
natural immune response
non-specific immune response
 adaptive immune response
acquired immune response
specific immune response
• Protection Against Invading Pathogens
1. First Line of Defense: Non-specific natural barriers which
restrict entry of pathogen.
Examples: Skin and mucous membranes.
2. Second Line of Defense: Innate non-specific immune defenses
provide rapid local response to pathogen after it has entered
host.
Examples: Fever, phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils),
inflammation, and interferon.
3. Third line of defense: Antigen-specific immune responses,
specifically target and attack invaders that get past first two
lines of defense.
Examples: Antibodies and lymphocytes.
Natural or innate or non-specific immunity
-It is present at birth.

- Has the ability to resist infection by means of

normally present body functions.

- Many of these mechanisms are subject to influence

by factors as nutrition, age, fatigue, stress, and
genetic determinants.
 Elements of Innate Immunity
Innate Immunity
It represents a nonspecific first line of defense
against pathogens
• Intact skin
• Acid pH of sweat
• Lysozymes
• Interferons
• Complement
• Ciliated cells of the respiratory tract
• Mucous membranes trap microorganisms
• Cough reflex
• Pulmonary or alveolar macrophages
• Hydrolytic enzymes in saliva
• Low pH of the stomach and vagina
• Proteolytic enzymes and bile in small
intestine
- Biological Factors (normal flora)

Normal flora protects the host by:

• Competing with pathogenic bacteria for

nutrients and attachment sites

• Production of antibacterial substances.

Cells of innate immunity •
The cells of the innate immune system consist of:
1. Phagocytes (Macrophage and Neutrophils )
2. Natural killer cells. •
• Phagocytes
Phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils) engulf and then
destroy pathogens by process of phagocytosis.
Macrophages are long lived cells at sites of infection; they
release cytokines that recruit the shorter-lived but more
actively phagocytic neutrophils.
• Neutrophils comprise 50–70% of circulating white cells.
Neutrophils arrive quickly at the site of inflammation and in
the act of killing pathogens they die.
 Phagocytic cells

monocyte
neutrophil
 Stages of Phagocytosis
1.Chemotaxis: Phagocytes are chemically attracted to site
of infection.
2.Adherence: Phagocyte plasma membrane attaches to
surface of pathogen or foreign material.
3. Ingestion: Plasma membrane of phagocytes extends
projections (pseudopods) which engulf the microbe.
Microbe is enclosed in a sac called phagosome.
4. Digestion: Inside the cell, phagosome fuses with
lysosome to form a phagolysosome. Lysosomal enzymes
kill most bacteria within 30 minutes.
 Antigen presenting cells (APC)
• Antigen presenting cells- are cells that mediate cellular immune
response by engulfment, processing and presenting antigens to
the T-cell receptor (TCR).

• Traditional APC include: macrophages, dendritic

cells, langerhans cells, and B- lymphocytes.
• Occurance: in the epithelium of the skin,
gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract (the
common portal of entry of microbes).

• Functions: a- Capture and transport antigens

to the peripheral lymphoid tissues

B- process antigens: Present the peptides derived

from these antigens to T lymphocytes.
 Natural killer (NK) cells
Large granular lymphocytes (not B-cell or T-cell)
Kills tumor cells & viral inf. cells (intracellular pathogens) NK cells
do not require prior immunization or activation
They attach to ‘target’ cells, then cytotoxic granules are released onto
surface of cell and effectors proteins penetrate
cell membrane and induce death.
• Inflammation: Triggered by tissue damage due to
infection, heat, wound, etc.
• Major Symptoms of Inflammation
1. Redness 2. Pain
3. Heat 4. Swelling
May also observe: 5. Loss of function
• Functions of Inflammation
1. Destroy and remove pathogens
2. If destruction is not possible, to limit effects by
confining the pathogen and its products.
3. Repair and replace tissue damaged by pathogen and
its products.
Adaptive or acquired or specific immunity

is a type of resistance that is characterized by

specificity for each individual pathogen, or

microbial agent, and the ability to remember a

prior exposure, which results in an increased

response upon repeated exposure.

Adaptive immunity is often sub-divided into two major types
depending on how the immunity was introduced:
a. Naturally acquired immunity: is occurs through contact
with a disease.
b. Artificially acquired immunity: is develops only through
deliberate actions such as vaccination.
**Both naturally and artificially acquired immunity can be
further subdivided depending on whether immunity is induced
in the host or passively transferred from an immune host.
 Adaptive Immunity
active and passive

Active Immunity Passive Immunity

Natural clinical, sub-clinical via breast milk,
infection placenta
Artificial Vaccination: immune serum,
immune cells
Live, killed, purified
antigen vaccine
Adaptive immunity is mediated by B or T
lymphocytes and stimulated by exposure to
infectious agents.
I- Humoral Immunity (Antibody Immunity):
Type of immunity that is mediated by secreted
antibodies produced by the B-lymphocyte cells.
Secreted antibodies bind to antigens on the surfaces of
invading microbes (such as viruses or bacteria),
which exposure them for destruction.
Humoral immunity is called as such, because it involves
substances found in the body fluids.
II- Cell-mediated immunity (Cellular Immunity):
Since antibodies are useless against intracellular antigens, cell-mediated
immunity is needed. Two major populations of T cells mediate cellular
immunity:

• Helper T- lymphocytes (CD4+)

– CD4+ T cells activate phagocytes to kill microbes

• Cytolytic T-lymphocyte (CD8+)

– CD8+ T cells destroy infected cells containing microbes or microbial

proteins

Regulatory T cells (T-reg) that release cytokines, which suppress the activity of
both T cells and B.
 Cellular Immunity .vs. Antibody Immunity
Cellular Immunity Humoral Immunity
• Carried out by T-Cells • Carried out by B-cells
• Infected cells are killed by • Antibodies are produced and
Cytotoxic T –Cells. dumped into blood stream.
• Antibodies bind to antigens
and deactivate them.
 The innate and adaptive immune response
Characteristics Cells Molecules
Innate immunity
Responds rapidly Physical barriers Humoral factors
No memory Phagocytes (PMNs Complement
No specificity and macrophages) Acute phase
No prior exposure is Natural killer cells Proteins
required Cytokines
Adaptive immunity
Responds Slowly T cells Antibodies
Memory B cells Cytokines
Highly specific Dendritic cells Granzymes
Present after exposure
to an Ag
Immunogens: a stimulus that produces a humoral or cell-mediated
immune response.
Antigen: any substance that binds specifically to an antibody or a
T- cell receptor (TCR).

All immunogens are antigens but not all antigens are

immunogens
Hapten: a non-immunogenic, small molecules and can never
induces immune response by themselves unless coupled to a carrier
molecules, but can react with the specific immune products therefore
haptens have the property of antigenicity but not immunogenicity.
Antibody: specific protein which is produce in response
to immunogen and reacts with an antigen

Epitope or antigenic determinant: the portion of

antigen (Ag) that combines with antibody (Ab).
Paratope: the portion of antibody (Ab) that combines
with antigen (Ag).

Adjuvant: A substance that non-specifically enhances

the immune response to an antigen.