HUMAN HEALTH AND

DISEASES
GOOD HUMOR HYPOTHESIS OF HEALTH-
Health for longtime was considered as a state of body and mind where there was a
balance between certain humor.
Humor- latin word meaning moisture- this refers to certain fluids in human body such as
blood phlegm, yellow bile and black bile.[ phlegm is the thick viscous substance secreted
by mucous membranes of the respiratory system]
It was thought that persons having black bile belongs to hot personality and would have
fevers.
This hypothesis was disproved by the discovery of blood circulation [ William Harvey]
and demonstration of normal body temperature in persons with black bile using
thermometer.
 PATHOGENS
BACTERIA
TYPHOID, PNEUMONIA, DYSENTRY, PLAQUE,
DIPHTHERIA
VIRUS
COMMON COLD
PROTOZOA
MALARIA, AMOEBIASIS
HELMINTHUS
ASCARIASIS, FILARIASIS/ ELEPHANTIASIS
FUNGUS
RINGWORM
 SYMPTOMS
1. Sustained high fever [39 to 40C]
2. Weakness
3. Stomach pain
4. Constipation
5. Headache and loss of appetite
6. Intestinal perforation and death may occur in severe cases.
Typhoid fever could be confirmed with WIDAL TEST
Mary Mallon
American cook
Mary Mallon, also known as Typhoid Mary, was an Irish-
American cook. She was the first person in the United States
identified as an asymptomatic carrier of the pathogen associated
with typhoid fever. She was presumed to have infected 51
people, three of whom died, over the course of her career as a
cook
Malaria- Primary Host /Vector- female Anopheles mosquito-
sexual phase of malarial parasite occurs in the mosquito
Human beings – the asexual phase of the malarial parasite
occurs in man – therefore considered as the intermediate or
secondary host
 Life Cycle of Malarial Parasite
Life cycle is completed in two hosts – human and female anopheles mosquito- such two host
life cycle is called Digenetic.
1. When an infected female Anopheles mosquito bites a person, the parasite in the form of
sporozoites.
2. Sporoziotes enters into the blood and reaches the liver.
3. Sporoziotes is the infective stage of plasmodium. It has a uninucleate, Spindle shaped
body covered with an elastic pellicle.
4. Parasite multiplies asexually in liver cells by a process called Schizogony. It produce large
number of merozoites. Some of the merozoites produce gametocytes
5. Attack the RBC –resulting in rupture associated with release of a toxic substance called
haemozoin.
6. Haemozoin is responsible for the chill and high fever recurring every three to four days.
8. When female Anopheles mosquito sucks the blood of a infected person,
gametocytes enter the stomach of mosquito.
9. Sexual reproduction is called Gamogony, completes in the stomach of the
mosquito.
10. Male and female gamete fuse to form the zygote.
11. Zygote changes into a cyst called oocyst.
12. The oocytes produce large number of sporozoites by the process called
sporogony.
13. Some of the sporozoites reach to the salivary gland of mosquito.
14. When these mosquito bite a healthy person , the sporozoites are released
into the blood and cycle repeats.
For diseases such as malaria and filariasis that are transmitted through insect vectors, the
most important measure is to control or eliminate the vectors and the breeding places.
This can be achieved by-
1. Avoiding stagnation of water in and around residential areas.
2. Regular cleaning of household coolers
3. Use of mosquito nets
4. Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae.
5. Spraying insecticides in ditches, drainage and swamps
 IMMUNITY
The overall ability of the host or organism to fight the disease causing organisms
conferred by the immune system is called immunity.
Or
it is the ability of an organisms to resist infection or to overcome the infection.
Two types – Innate immunity and Acquired immunity.
Innate Immunity
It is a non – specific type of defense, that is present at the time of birth. This is
accomplished by providing different types of barriers to the entry of the foreign
agents into our body.
Innate or non – specific immunity are of two types
1. Surface barriers- It is the first line body defense
two types
a) Physical barrier
b) Physiological barrier
2. Cellular and biochemical barrier- it is the second line body
defense- two types
c) Cellular barrier
d) Cytokine barriers
 innate immunity consist of four barriers-
1. Physical barriers-
The important physical barriers are skin, hair and cilia of nasal cavity and mucus coating of
the epithelium lining of respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts.
Skin
- Main barrier which prevents the entry of pathogens.
- Sweat produced by sweat gland and oil produced by sebaceous gland have bactericidal and
fungicidal properties.
2. Physiological barriers-
These include acid in stomach, saliva in mouth, tears from eyes and ear wax.
Lysozyme is an antibacterial enzyme present in tears, nasal secretions, saliva and most of the
body fluids. It lyses bacterial cell.
Ear wax
ear wax – secreted by external auditory canal- bactericidal in nature- repels insects and traps
dust
 Cellular barriers
Certain type of leukocytes[WBC] of our body like polymorpho- nuclear leukocytes
[ PMNL- neutrophils] and monocytes
natural killer cells in blood and macrophages in tissues can phagocytose and destroy microbes.
Cytokine barriers
The cells which are invaded by virus produce an anti-viral protein called interferons[IFN].
The latter protects non- infected cells from further viral infection
 Acquired Immunity[Adaptive or Specific Immunity]
It is pathogen specific. It is the resistance that an individual
acquire during his life time. It forms the third line of body defense.
It is characterized by memory. That is when our body encounters a
pathogen for the first time, it produce a immune response called
primary response. The immune system retains the memory as a
result of which subsequent encounter with the same pathogen
evokes highly intensified secondary or anamnestic response.
Acquired Immunity is mainly due to lymphocytes[WBC]
Two types- T- lymphocyte [T-cells] and B- Lymphocytes [B-cells]
Both lymphocytes and other cells of immune system are produced
in bone marrow.
The process of production of the cells of immune system in the
bone marrow is called Haematopoiesis.
B – Lymphocytes produce an army of proteins called antibodies into our blood in response
to the pathogens to fight with them.
T – Lymphocytes do not produce antibodies but help B cells to produce antibodies.
Example for antibodies – IgA,IgM,IgE,IgG [ Ig- Immunoglobulin]
IgG- most abundant antibody
IgM – first antibody made in the body for a new infection
Two types of Acquired Immunity
1. Humoral Immune Response- HIR
the immune system with the help of antibodies present in blood. Mediated by B-
Lymphocytes
2. Cell mediated Immunity[ CMI]
The ability of our body to differentiate self and nonself. It is mediated by T-
Lymphocytes
It does not involve antibodies
It is mainly responsible for the rejection of grafts received from other person during
organ transplantation.
Tissue matching and blood group matching are essential before undertaking any draft.
Active and Passive Immunity
The production of antibodies when host is exposed to antigen[ living or dead microbes or
other proteins], it is called active immunity.
It is slow and take time to give its full response
Passive Immunity- it is the process of giving antibodies which are ready – made or from
outside to protect the body against pathogens.
Colostrum – the yellowish fluid secreted by mother contain abundant antibodies like IgA
to protect the infant
The foetus also receive some antibodies from their mother through the placenta during
pregnancy- these are examples of natural passive immunity
Vaccination is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune system
develop protection from a disease. Vaccines contain a microorganism in
a weakened or killed state, or proteins or toxins from the organism.
Vaccines on injection into a healthy person provides temporary or
permanent active immunity by inducing antibodies formation.
Thus antibody provoking agent is called vaccines.
Immunisation is the process by which the body produces antibodies
against pathogens through administration of specific vaccines
Immunisation or vaccination is based on the property of memory of the
immune system.
But if a person is infected by some deadly microbes to which quick response is required like
tetanus, snakebites, we need to directly inject the performed antibodies or antitoxins. This
type of immunization is called passive immunization.
The principle of vaccination or immunization is based on memory of immune system. That is
these vaccines also generate the memory of B and T cells and on subsequent exposure large
amount of antibodies are produced.
 ALLERGIES
Allergy is the hypersensitiveness[ an inappropriate and excessive immune response] of a person to some foreign
substance coming in contact or entering the body. In other words it is the exaggerated response of the immune
system to certain antigens present in the environment.
The substances that cause allergic reactions are called allergens. They are weak antigens. The common allergens
are dust, pollens, animal dander [All warm-blooded animals shed tiny flakes from their skin called dander (it's like
dandruff in humans, but much harder to see), mould spores, food, feathers, bacteria etc.
Symptoms
The symptoms of allergic reaction depends upon the nature of allergen.
Inflammation of mucus membranes, sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty to breath, irritation of upper
respiratory tract [ trachea, throat] itching, skin rash etc.
Allergy involves the production of IgE antibodies from B cells and the release of chemicals like histamine and
serotonin from mast cells.
For determining the cause of allergy, the patient is exposed or injected with very small doses of possible allergens
and the reactions are studied.
The use of drugs like antihistamine, adrenaline and steroid quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy
AUTO- IMMUNE DISEASES
Sometimes due to genetic and other unknown reasons the immune system rejects
certain tissues of a person’s own body as nonself or attacks self cells. This breakdown
of the body’s self recognition system is called autoimmune disease.
Example – Rheumatoid arthritis [a chronic progressive disease causing inflammation
in the joints and resulting in painful deformity and immobility, especially in the
fingers, wrists, feet, and ankles.]
 Immune System in the Body
The immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble molecules like
antibodies. This system is unique as it recognizes foreign bodies [ antigens], respond to these
antigens and remembers them. It also plays a role in allergic reactions, autoimmune diseases and
organ transplantation.
Lymphoid organs- these are organs where the origin/maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes
take place. Lymphoid organs are classified into-
1. Primary lymphoid organs- bone marrow and thymus- where T and B lymphocytes mature and
acquire their antigen specific receptors[ mature into antigen sensitive lymphocytes]
2. Secondary Lymphoid organs- Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of
small intestine and appendix [Peyer's patches are small masses of lymphatic
tissue found throughout the ileum region of the small intestine.]
After maturation the lymphocytes migrates to the secondary lymphoid organs and
these organs provide the sites for interaction of lymphocytes with the antigens, then
proliferate to become the effector cells.
Bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including lymphocytes are
produced.
Thymus is a lobed structure and keep reducing its size with age and by the time of puberty-
reduces to very small size
Both bone marrow and thymus provide environment for the development and maturation of T
lymphocytes.
Spleen
Bean shaped organ- consists of lymphocytes and phagocytes
It has large reservoir of erythrocytes
It act as a filter of the blood by trapping blood – borne microbes
Lymph nodes – helps to trap the micro – organisms or other antigens which happen to get into the
lymph and tissue fluid. Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of
lymphocytes and immune response.
 AIDS
Acquired Immune Deficiency Sydrome- Syndrome means a group of symptoms
This means deficiency of the immune system acquired during the life time of an
individual. It is not a congenital disease.
[ disease or physical abnormality present from birth].
Aids is caused by HIV – [Human immune deficiency Virus]
It is a member of a group of virus called retrovirus.
It is a spherical which has an envelop enclosing the RNA genome.
Genetic material is single stranded RNA, segmented into two identical filaments
associated with reverse transcriptase enzyme hence considered as diploid and
retrovirus.
Method of transmission.
1. Sexual contact with infected person
2. Transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products.
3. By sharing infected needles.
4. From infected mother to new born child.
5. From organ transplant
6. Artificial insemination
It spreads only through body fluids. Not spread by mere touch or physical contact.
So it is imperative[ vital importance, crucial] for physical and psychological well
being, that the AIDS infected persons are not isolated from family and society.
There is always a time lag between the infection and appearance of AIDS
symptoms[ few months to many years- 5-10
Mode of Action of HIV
1. After entering into the body of the person , the virus enters
into macrophages.
2. In macrophages the RNA genome of the virus replicates to
from viral RNA with the help of the enzyme reverse
transcriptase.
3. The viral RNA gets incorporated with host DNA and directs
to produce virus particles.
4. the macrophages continue to produce virus particle – hence
known as HIV factory.
5. HIV also enters into helper T- cells and produce progeny
virus.
6. The progeny virus released in the blood attack other helper T-
cells
The repeated attack leads to progressive decrease in the number of Helper T –
lymphocytes in the body of the infected persons. Due to decrease in the number
of helper T – lymphocytes the person becomes immune deficient and are unable
to protect from infections.
During this period the person suffers from fever, diarrhea and weight loss.
The infected persons will have no resistance against bacteria especially
Mycobacterium[TB], viruses fungi and even parasites like
Taxoplasma[Toxoplasmosis (tok-so-plaz-MOE-sis) is a disease that results from
infection with the Toxoplasma gondii parasite, one of the world's most common
parasites. Infection usually occurs by eating undercooked contaminated meat,
exposure from infected cat feces, or mother-to-child transmission during
pregnancy.]
 Window period
The window period is time between potential exposure
to HIV infection and the point when the test will give an
accurate result. During the window period a person can be
infected with HIV and be very infectious but still
test HIV negative.
AIDS is the last stage of HIV infection
A widely used diagnostic test for AIDS is Enzyme Linked Immuno- Sorbent Assay-
ELISA
Treatment of AIDS with antiviral drugs is only partially effective. They can only
prolong the life of the patient but cannot prevent death.
Zidovudine or AZT was the first drug used for the treatment of AIDS.
Didanosine is another drug
Prevention of AIDS
NACO- National AIDS Control Organization- 1991- educate the people about AIDS.
WHO has started a number of programmes to prevent the spreading of HIV infection
1. making blood from blood banks safe from HIV
2. ensuring the use of only disposable needles and syringes.
3. free distribution of condoms.
4. controlling drug abuse.
5. advocating safe sex and promoting regular check up.
 CANCER
The process of development of cancer is called oncogenic transformation.
Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled division of cells, that invade and destroy the
surrounding tissues.
Normal cells differ from cancer cells in some approach-
normal cells have limited life span. They are usually replaced by new cells by cell division
and cell differentiation.
Normal cells show a property called Contact Inhibition. When cells multiply they become
crowded and starts touching each other. This surface contact results in inhibition of cell
division and uncontrolled growth.
Cancer cells seem to have lost this property and continue to divide giving rise to
mass of cells called tumor or neoplasm. Tumor are of two types-
Benign Tumor[ non – malignant tumor]
These are tumors which are confined to their original location and do not spread to
other parts of the body. They cause little damage to the body.
Malignant Tumor
They are masses of proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumor cells which grow
very rapidly invading and damaging the surrounding normal tissues. As these cells
actively divide and grow they starve normal cells by competing for vital nutrients.
Malignant tumor tissues break of and are carried by the blood / lymph to other parts of
the body where they invade new tissues and start new tumors called secondary
tumors. This property is called Metastasis. This is the most feared property of
malignant tumors.
Carcinogens
The agents that transform the normal cells into cancerous neoplastic cells are called
carcinogens. They can be physical, chemical or biological.
physical -include fibers, particulate matter, hard and soft synthetic materials and gels.
Ionizing radiations like X- rays and gamma rays and non – ionizing radiations life UV
rays cause DNA damage and leading to neoplastic transformation.
Chemical – tobacco smoke- nicotine, caffeine, products of combustion of coal and
oil, pesticides, asbestos etc
Biological – cancer causing viruses- oncogenic viruses have genes called viral
oncogenes.
Cellular oncogenes or proto oncogenes are present in normal cells which when
activated under certain conditions can cause cancer
 Cancer detection
Biopsy and histological studies of tissues.
In this a piece of suspected tissue is cut into thin sections , stained and
examined under microscope.
Radiography
CT [ computed Tomography] and MRI [ magnetic resonance imaging]
In CT – uses X- ray to generate a three dimensional images to analyse the
tissue
In MRI – strong magnetic fields and non- ionizing radiations are used to detect
cancer
 Treatment of cancer
Radiotherapy – tumors cells are irradiated with help of radiations to
death by taking proper care for protecting surrounding normal tissues.
Chemotherapy – drugs specific for particular tumors are used to kill
cancer cells
They have side effects such as hair loss, anemia etc.
Immunotherapy – biological response modifiers such alpha- interferons
are used. They activate the immune system of the patient and helps in
destroying the tumor
Surgical – cancerous cells are surgically removed
 DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE
Drug is the single active chemical that is used for diagnosis, prevention, treatment or
cure of a disease.
Drug may be defined as a chemical which when taken in some way alters the body
functions for the benefit of the person
Taking a drug for a medical purpose to treat body’s disorder or injury is known as use.
Intake of a drug for a non medical purpose and in amount, strength, manner or
frequency that impairs physical and mental function is called abuse.
The drugs which are commonly abused are –
Opioids Cannabinoids Coca alkaloids
A drug that modifies the biological, physiological or social behavior of a person by
stimulating, depressing or distorting the functions of the body and mind is called
addictive drug and a person who is habituated to a drug is called drug addict
 OPIOIDS
The drugs which are derived from opium and their synthetic derivatives are called
Opioids or Opiates. These drugs binds to specific opioid receptors present in our
central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract.
Example – Morphine, Heroin
Morphine is the principal alkaloid of Opium- natural opiate. It is very effective
sedative and pain killer and is very useful in patients who have undergone surgery.
Heroin – commonly known as smack is chemically diacetylmorphine[ semi synthetic
opiates] which is a white ,colorless bitter crystalline compound. This is obtained by
acetylation of morphine which is extracted from the latex of Poppy plant [ Papaver
somniferum].
Generally taken by snorting[ inhale through nose] and injection.
It is a depressant and slows down body functions
 Cannabinoids
These are the drugs which interact with cannabinoid receptors present in brain.
Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the leaves and inflorescence of hemp
plant[ Cannabis sativa]- BHANG
The flower tops, leaves and resin of Cannabis plants are used in various
combinations to produce hashish, ganja, charas and marijuana.
They are generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion.
They effect the cardiovascular system of the body.
Hashish – fresh or dried leaves and flowering shoots- taken orally as drinks or in the
form of sweets
Ganja – dried unfertilized female inflorescence- generally smoked
Charas- dried resinous extract from the flowering tops and leaves. Usually smoked
with tobacco
Marijuana- dried upper leaves and flowers of female plant- smoked with tobacco
 Coca Alkaloids- Cocaine
It is obtained from coca plant [ Erythroxylum coca].
It interferes with the transport of the neuro- transmitter dopamine.
Cocaine is commonly known as coke or crack.
Usually snorted.
It stimulates the central nervous system producing a sense of euphoria[a
feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness.] and increased energy.
Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucination.
Other plants with hallucinogenic properties are Atropa belladona[commonly
known asbelladonna or deadly nightshade, is a perennial herbaceous plant
in the nightshade family Solanaceae, which includes tomatoes, potatoes] and
Datura
Drugs like barbiturates[A barbiturate is a drug that acts
as a central nervous system depressant, and can
therefore produce a wide range of effects, from mild
sedation to death.] amphetamines[a powerful
stimulator of the central nervous system]
benzodiazepines, lysergic acid diethyl amides[ LSD] etc
that are normally used as medicines to help patients
cope with mental illness like depression and insomnia
are often abused.
Smoking
Tobacco – smoked, chewed or used as snuff.
Nicotine – an alkaloid that stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and
nor adrenaline into blood- with increase blood pressure and heart rate.
Smoking is also associated with cancer of lung, urinary bladder and throat,
bronchitis, emphysema[Emphysema is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath.
In people with emphysema, the air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. Over time, the
inner walls of the air sacs weaken and rupture ]
Smoking leads to oxygen deficiency in persons due to increase in the
concentration of carbon monoxide. CO has more affinity for haemoglobin and
form a stable compound –carboxy haemoglobin