Core Ch 25 Body defence mechanisms

25,1 Non-specific defence mechanism

-act against all types of pathogens

25.1.1 Physical and chemical barriers (first line of defence—prevent

pathogens from entering our blood and other tissues)
Physical barrier(pathogen not killed):
-closely packed epithelial cells
-mucus
-cilia
-skin (epidermis)

Chemical barrier (pathogen killed):

-gastric juice (hydrochloric acid)
-tears, saliva, nasal secretion (enzyme—lysozyme)
-sebum (natural antiseptic)
-vaginal secretion (acidic)

25.1.2 Blood clotting (when blood vessel is damaged)

-blood platelets are attracted to the woundconvert the soluble protein fibrinogen in
plasma into a net of insoluble fibrinblood platelets, RBC, WBC are trapped in the net
and a blood clot is formedthe blood clot seals the woundprevent the entry of
pathogens & stops bleeding

25.1.3 Phagocytosis
-a phagocyte engulfs a pathogenthe pathogen is digested by enzymesthe digested
pathogen is released

25.1.4 Inflammatory responses (when tissue is damaged)

-damaged cells release chemicals(i) cause dilation of nearby arterioles, thus increase
the blood flow to the capillaries around the wound; (ii) increase the permeability of
capillariesmore phagocytes can come out of the capillaries to engulf and digest the
pathogens
-Symptoms of inflammation:
-wound is red and hot (due to the increased blood flow)
-wound is swollen (accumulation of tissue fluid)
-pain in the wound (pressure built up in the swollen tissue stimulates pain receptors)
25.2 Specific defence mechanisms
-act against specific pathogens
-involve immune responses

25.2.1 Immune response of lymphocytes

1. The response of B cells & antibodies
-antigen binds to the receptors of B cell (the receptors can bind only to a specific
antigen)B cell is activatedthe B cell divides to produce a large number of identical
cellsthese cells differentiate into plasma cells (secrete antibodies into the blood to
act against extracellular pathogens) and memory B cells (remember the type of
antigenrespond quickly in any subsequent invasion by the same type of antigen)

-action of antibodies:
-bind to antigens on the pathogenslysis of the pathogens
-clump the pathogens together (agglutination)facilitates phagocytosis of the
pathogens
-neutralize the toxins by binding to themtoxins become harmlessfacilitates
phagocytosis of toxins

**The presence of a certain antibody indicates that the body has been exposed to an
antigen (carried on a pathogen) that triggers its production

2. The response of T cells

-antigen binds to receptors of T cell (the receptors can bind only to a specific
antigen)T cell is activatedthe T cell multiplies and differentiate into killer T cell
(bind to infected cells and kill them directly by making holes in their cell membrane)
and memory T cells (remember the type of antigenrespond quickly in any
subsequent invasion by the same type of antigen)
25.2.2 Primary and secondary responses
Primary response (immune response
occurring on the first exposure to an
antigen)
Effected by activation of B cells and T cells
Longer latent period (slower response)
Smaller amount of antibodies and killer T
cells produced
Lasts a shorter period of time
Secondary response (memory cells
respond quickly by multiplying and
differentiating into a larger no of
plasma cells, killer T cells)
Effected by activation of memory B cells
and memory T cells
Shorter latent period (faster response)
Larger amount of antibodies and killer T
cells produced
Lasts longer

25.2.3 Principle of vaccination

-vaccination: introduction of a weakened/killed pathogens into the body to induce
immunity to a disease
-vaccine is introducedthe antigen of the pathogen binds to the receptors of B cells & T
cellsproduction of antibodies, killer T cells, memory cellsmemory cells remember
the type of antigenmemory cells will respond quickly by multiplying and
differentiating into a larger number of plasma cells, killer T cells in a shorter period of
time if the same type of antigen invades again

25.2.4 Active and passive immunity

1. Active immunity
-antibodies are produced by our own plasma cells
-natural active immunity: acquired when a person recovers from an infection
-artificial active immunity: acquired by vaccination
-start of active immunity is slow, but the immunity is long-lasting

2. Passive immunity
-antibodies are transferred from immune individuals
-natural passive immunity: acquired when (i) antibodies in maternal blood pass
through the placenta and enter the foetal blood (ii) antibodies pass to the baby via
breast-feeding
-artificial passive immunity: acquired by injection of antibodies made by other
individuals
-passive immunity starts immediately, but lasts only a short period of time
 Question bank 

1. Certain cells in the lymphatic system are important in body defence. Briefly describe
how these cells carry out this function.

-Lymphocytes produce antibodies to act (1)

-against antigens/pathogens (1)
-phagocytes engulf germs (1)

2. Explain why vaccination can protect our body against certain diseases.

-Vaccination involves the introduction of a weakened or killed pathogen into the

body (1)
-it stimulates certain white blood cells which will develop a memory for the antigen
(1)
-when the body is attacked by the same type of pathogen (1)
-it will produce a larger amount of antibodies in a shorter period of time, so as to
destroy the pathogen (1)

3. Would Hepatitis B vaccination allow people to become immune to other types of

hepatitis? Why?

-No (1)
-because the memory developed in the white blood cells is specific to the hepatitis B
virus only (1)

4. Explain the rise in the antibody level after injection of cholera vaccine.

-the antigen in the cholera vaccine (1)

-stimulates specific white blood cells to produce antibody (1)
resulting in the rise in antibody level
5. State two differences between the patterns of antibody production in the primary
response and secondary response. Suggest an explanation for such differences.

Differences:
-For the second injection, the rise in antibody level occurs earlier (1)
-The rise in antibody level is faster (1)
-the peak of the antibody level is higher (1)
ANY TWO
-this is because as a result of the first injection, certain white blood cells will develop
a memory for this antigen (1)
-when the same antigen enters the body in the second injection (1)
-the white blood cells will produce a larger amount of antibodies within a shorter
period of time (1)

6. Explain why antibodies against SARS virus will be produced by a SARS patient.

-the antigen of the SARS virus (1)

-stimulates the white blood cells of the patient to produce the specific antibodies (1)

7. Explain why the tissue exhibiting the inflammatory response usually shows
symptoms such as redness, swelling and pain.

-arterioles of the tissue with inflammatory response dilate, increasing blood flow to
the tissue and makes it red (1)
-permeability of capillary wall increases, increasing the formation of tissue fluid and
its accumulation, and leads to swelling (1)
-more tissue fluid presses against nerve endings, stimulating the pain receptors and
gives the pain sensation (1)

8. Phagocytes will present the antigens of the invading pathogens to the lymphocytes.
Describe what will happen subsequently.

-activity of B-lymphocytes will lead to the production of antibodies against the

specific pathogens (1)
-activity of T-lymphocytes will lead to the destruction of infected cells (1)
-memory cells will be formed for future immunity/quicker response in the second
attack (1)
9. Describe how the inner wall of the trachea can protect our body against bacterial
invasion.

-mucus-secreting cells secrete mucus to trap germs/pathogens/bacteria from the

incoming air (1)
-cilia sweep the trapped germs away to the throat for swallowing or coughing (1)
-closely packed epithelial cells prevent the entry of bacteria/form a physical barrier
(1)

10. Suggest two possible ways that newborns can acquire antibodies from their mother.

-some antibodies in the maternal blood pass through the placenta and enter into the
foetal blood (1)
-some maternal antibodies in the mother’s milk pass to the newborn via breast
feeding (1)

11. Explain why children who have been vaccinated against diseases are better
protected than those who have not.

-vaccine contains antigens (1)

-which stimulate the immune system to produce memory cells for that particular
antigens (1)
-on the second exposure to the same antigen (1)
-these memory cells are capable of producing a large amount of antibodies in a
shorter period of time (1)
therefore, child with vaccination has a better protection

Body Defense (★★★)

1. Human Defense Mechanism {DSE 16 P1-7, DSE 14 P1-2}

2. Vaccination {DSE 17 P1-9, DSE 13 P1-9, CE 98-2(b), CE 03-4(c), CE 04-1(c)}
3. Control of the spread of infectious diseases{AL 04 PIIC-7, AL 00 PIIC-9}