st and Movernen

An Essay on Space and Time

in the representational Art
of the ancient Near East

by
H. A. Groenewegen-Frankfort

FABER AND FABER LIMITED

24, Russell Square
London

I 111ft' r',I' 'f. I ,Id I)

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 Contents

I'ln;FACE page xxvii

I N'I'RODUCTION. A CLARIFICATION OF' CONCEPTS
A. Two-dimensional Space. B. Space and Corporeality.
C. The Time Aspect of Organic Form. D. The Ambiguities
of Nonfunctional Rendering. E. The Problem of Co-
herence in Significant Scenes 1

Book One. Egyptian Art

I. THE PRE- AND PROTO-HISTORIC PERIOD
A. Representation and Design. B. Amorphous Space
and Space-Time Definition in Proto-historic Monuments.
C. The Space-Time Implications of Monumental Art.
D. Excursus: Sculpture in the Round. 15

II. THE OLD KINGDOM

A. The Significance of Scenes of Daily life in Private
Tombs. B. The Non-Actuality of their Representation.
C. The Significance of the Reliefs of the Royal Mortuary
Temples. D. The Transcendence of Actuality in the Royal
Reliefs. E. Confusion of Meaning and Disintegration of
Form in the Late Old Kingdom and the First Intermediate
Period. 28
III. THE MIDDLE KINGDOM
A. The Character of the Period as Reflected in its Art.
B. The New Trend towards Monumentality in Funerary
Art. 63

IV. THE NEW KINGDOM

A. The Intrusion of New Concepts in the Classical Scheme
of Decoration. B. The Space-Time Implications of Early
New Kingdom Art. C. The Amarnn Revolution as th,·
vii
 Co 1//l'1r/ s
Triumph of Actuality, D. Trace::; of Arnnrlltl. InJluCIlCcs in
the Period of Reaction. E. The Development of the Royal
Reliefs and the Triumph of Monumental Statement. page 78

Book Two. Mesopotamian Art

1. THE INTEGRATION OF FIGURE AND DESIGN IN Illustrations
THE PRE· AND PROTO-DYNASTIC PERIOD 145

II. SECULAR AND CONSECRATORY MOTIFS IN HALF-TONE PLATES

EARL Y DYNASTIC MONUMENTS 157
Beaker from Susa in the Louvre frontispiece
III. HISTORIC ACT AND FULFILMENT OF DIVINE (J. de Morgan, Memoires de laDelegation en Perse, XIII, PI. I, 4.)
COMMAND AS THEMES OF THE AKKADIAN II" Bowl from Susa in the Louvre facing page 4
AND EARLY BABYLONIAN PERIOD 163 (Ibidem, PI. II, 2,)

II Ithodian Vase in the British Museum 4

IV. DRAMATIC AND SCENIC COHERENCE IN THE
SECULAR ART OF THE ASSYRIANS 170 (A 1311.)

IIIII I"i~ure of Courtier from Khorsabad 5

(Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.)
Book Three. Cretan Art 5
I. I,ckythos in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
1. THE CRETAN ENIGMA: HOMO LUDENS 185 (l'hotograph, Museum of Fine Arts.)

I" 1I Praying figure from Catacombs 8

II. COMPLEXITIES OF THE CRETAN PROBLEM: (Dvorak, Kunstgesehiehte als Geistesgesehiehte, PI. 3.)
CRETE AND MYCENAE 188
II Ilcllenistic Relief in the Pinakothek, Munich 8
III. PIVOTAL MOTION IN EARLY DESIGN 191 (Photograph, Marburg.)

\' 1I Agricultural Scene from the Tomb of Khaemhat after page 8

IV. 'ABSOLUTE' MOBILITY IN ORGANIC FORMS 195
(Wreszinski, Atlas, I, PI. 195,)
V. MYSTIC COMMUNION AND THE GRACE OF LIFE 206 I, Impression of an Akkadian Seal Cylinder from Tell Asmar 8
(Photograph, Oriental Institute.)
•Decorated' Predynastic Vase in New York 8
INDEX 217 (Photograph, Metropolitan Museum of Art.)
, I Wooden Panel from the Tomb of Hesire in Cairo
(Quibell, The Tomb of Hesy, PI. 29, 2.)

, 1111 Pl'cdynastic Slate Palette (Hunters' Palette) 111 British

Museum and Louvre facing page 9
I, I'r'('dynastic Slate Palette (Lion Palette) in the British
Mu::;cum 9
(1'roC('cdiTigs oj the f>'ociely oj lIi/Jl1:cal A f'ellacology, XXXI, PI. XLII.)
VIII /I ix I'.A.M.
 IIIIs/ro/io!ls 11111.\ / !'(/ /1 () II S
VIII MaccllClld of l<illg SCUl'pilJll, ill the Ashmolean M IISCllm, X V11llJ MtTCru ka /Lnll IllU"l'isl. tIll Cuud. facing patHJ it ~
Oxford faC'ing po!!e 20 (Wrc~:t.inski, A.tlas, nl, P1. 5.)
(Photograph of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.)
XIXa Sleeping Herdsman 45
IX Palette of King Narmer, Cairo 21
(Wreszinski, Atlas, I, PI. 397.)
(Photograph of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.)
Xa Palette showing Libyan Booty, in Cairo 28 b Stacking Grain, Tomb of Ti 45
(J. de Morgan, Recherches sur les origines de I' Egypte, PI. III.) (Wreszinski, Atlas, III, PI. 50.)

b Predynastic Figurine of Wailing Women in Metropolitan c Stacking Sheaves, Tomb of Ti 45

(Wreszinski, Atlas, III, PI. 50.)
Museum of Art, New York 28
(Photographs, Metropolitan Museum.) XXa Boatmen Fighting, Tomb of Ptahhotep 52
c Figure of a Baboon inscribed with the Name of King (Wreszinski, Atlas, III, PI. 15.)
Narmer, in Berlin 28 b Cattle Fording Stream, Tomb of Ti 52
(Scharff, Die Altertumer der Vor-und Friihzeit Aegyptens, II, (Wreszinski, Atlas, III, PI. 89.)
PI. 19,2.)
XXIa, b The Desert, from the Sun Temple of Ne-User-Re,
d Ivory Figurine of a King from Abydos, in the British
Abusir 53
Museum 28 (Wreszinski, Atlas, III, PI. 102.)
(JEA, XVII, PI. IX, 2.)
XI Statue of Amenemhet III in Cairo 29 c Men in Boat. Ibidem 53
(Wreszinski, Atlas, I, PI. 379.)
(Evers, Staat aus dem Stein, II, PI. 102.)
XII Painting from the Tomb of Rahotep at Medum 32 XXIIa Island with Shrine of Crocodile, Ibidem 60
(Wreszinski, Atlas, III, PI. 60.)
(Flinders Petrie, Medum, PI. XI.)
XIII Boats from the Tomb of Kanenesut at Gizeh after page 32 b Starving People, Causeway Pyramid of Unas, Saqqara 60
(Junker, Giza, II, PI. IX.) (Annales du Service des Antiquitt!s de l'Egypte XXV, p. 49,
Fig. B.)
XIVa Preparation ofTi's Funerary Statues 32
(Steindorff, Grab des Ti, PI. 134.) "XIlIa Mereruka and his Sons 61
(Photograph, Oriental Institute.)
b Boat Building, Tomb of Ti, 32
(Wreszinski, Atlas, III, PI. 36.) b Battle and Siege, Saqqara 61
(Quibell and Hayter, Teti Pyramid, North Side, frontispiece.)
XV Cattle Fording Stream; Tribute Bearers
Tomb ofTi facing page 33 '. XIV Head of a King of the Middle Kingdom at New York 64
(Steindorff, op. cit., PI. 112.) (Photograph, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.)

XVI Reed Marsh 36 XXVa Beja Herdsmen, Meir after page 64

(Steindorff, op. cit., PI. 113.) (Blackman, Meir, II, PI. XXX, 1.)
XVIIa Ptahhotep, from his tomb at Saqqara 37 b Papyrus Harvest, Meir 64
(Wreszinski, Atlas, III, PI. 2.) (Blackman, op. cit., II, PI. XXV!.)
b Cow Calving, Tomb ofTi 37 '. X VI Models of Fishing Craft from the Tomb of Mekhetr e,
(Wreszinski, Atlas, III, PI. 89.) in Cairo 64
C Desert Scene, Tomb of Ptahhotep 37 (Photograph, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.)
(Wreszinski, Atlas, III, PI. 15.)
..>: VIla Asiatics, from Tomb of Khnumhotep at
XVIIIa Agricultural Scenes, Tomb of Ti 44 DeniHasan facing page 65
(Steindorff, op. cit., PI. 112.) (Lcpsiu~, Denkmaeler, II, PI. ISS.)
x Xl
 j If /lsI 1'(1 I iol/.~ 1/IllS I r(( I lOllS
XXVIIb Antelopes and their Keepers, from the 'l'ornb of XJ~ Men bearing Flowers, Tomb uf Ramose fac-ing page llZ
Khnumhotep at Beni Hasan facing page 65 (Photograph, Metropolitan MuseUl'n of Art.)
(Nina de Garis Davies, Ancient Egyptian Paintings,
PI. VIII.) XLIa :Funerary Procession from the Tomb of
Haremhab after page 112
XXVIII Pond and Garden of Sebekhotep's Tomb 68 (Photograph, Berlin Museum.)
(Wreszinski, Atlas, I, PI. 222.)
b Plowing and Sowing in the Hereafter, Tomb of Sen-
XXIXa Musicians, Tomb of Nakht 69
(Norman de Garis Davies, Tomb of Nakht, frontispiece.)
nodem 112
(Photograph, Metropolitan Museum of Art.)
b Musicians and Dancer, Tomb ofDjeserkaresonb 69
(Nina de Garis Davies, Ancient Egyptian Paintings, PI. 37.) XLIIa Egyptian Envoys receiving Gold and Other Articles
in Punt, Deir el Bahri 112
XXX Officers and Soldiers from the Tomb of Userhet 76 (Photograph, Underwood.)
(Wreszinski, Atlas, I, PI. 186.)
b Plants and Birds from Syria, at Karnak 112
XXXIa Agricultural Scenes from the Tomb of Nakht 77 (Wreszinski, Atlas, II., PI. 27.)
(Norman de Garis Davies, Tomb of Nakht, Pl. XXI.)
XLIII Userhet hunting in the Desert facing page 113
b Soldiers resting and Barber; Detail of PI. XXX 77 (Photograph, Gaddis and Seif.)
(Wreszinski, Atlas, I, PI. 44.)
XLIVa Tutankhamun fighting Syrians, from a Painted Casket
XXXII Scenes from the Tomb of Nebamun 84
(Wreszinski, Atlas, I, PI. 48.)
in Cairo 118
(Nina de Garis Davies, Ancient Egyptian Paintings, PI. 66.)
XXXIII Ladies being Entertained, Tomb of Rekhmire 85
(Wreszinski, Atlas, I, PI. 89a.) b Tutankhamun hunting Lions, from a Painted Casket
in Cairo 118
XXXIVa Musicians and Dancers 92 (Ibidem, PI. 67.)
(Nina de Garis Davies, Ancient Egyptian Paintings PI. XX.)
XLV Seti I defeats Qadesh and Amod (above) and the
b Harpist and Guests, from the Tomb of Nakht 92
(Norman de Garis Davies, Tomb of Nakht, PI. XVII.) Libyans (below) 119
(Photograph of Dr Charles Nims, Luxor Expedition, Oriental
XXXVa Men filling Granary, from the Tomb of Nebamun 93 Institute, University of Chicago.)
(Wreszinski, Atlas, I, PI. 63.)
XLVI Seti I defeats the Canaanites 122
b Last Rites before the Tomb, Tomb of two Sculptors 93 (Wreszinski, Atlas, II, PI. 34.)
(Nina de Garis Davies, Ancient Egyptian Paintings,
PI. LXIV). X.I,vIIa Detail of PI. XLVI 122
XXXVI Wailing Women on Funerary Barge, from the Tomb b Herdsman fleeing from the Egyptians; Detail of PI.
of Neferhotep 98 XLV top 122
(Photograph of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.) (Photograph of Dr Charles Nims.)
XXXVII Ibex at Bay 99 \.1, VIII Ramses III hunting Wild Cattle, Medinet Habu 128
(Norman de Garis Davies, Tomb of Kenamun, PI. L.) (Photograph, Oriental Institute.)
XXXVIII Colossal Statue of Akhenaten from Karnak llO XLIX Ramses III Entertained 129
(Photograph, Antiquities Service, Cairo.) (Photograph, Oriental Institute.)
XXXIXa Mahu reporting to the Vizier 111 L Bowl from Susa, Louvre 144
(Norman de Garis Davies, Rock Tombs of EI Amarna, (.T. de Morgan, Memoires de la Delegation en Perse, XIII,
IV, PI. XLI.) PI. II, 1.)
b Akhenaten and his Family 111 J~I Alabaster Vase from Warka in Baghdad 145
(Photograph, Berlin Museum.) (l'hotogroph, Berlin MIl~el\ln.)
xi'j X111
 fllls/ra/iOlls IfluSI ,.,,1 iOlls
LIIa Trough in thc British Muscum facing page 148 LXIIII> fmprcssion of uo Akkadian Cylinder Seal from Tell
(British Museum Quarterly, III, PI. XXII.) Asmar facing page 165
b Basalt Stele from Warka in Baghdad (Photograph, Oriental Institute.)
148
(Photograph, Berlin Museum.) c Impression of an Akkadian Seal Dedicated to Ishtar,
LlIIa Impression of Cylinder Seal from Tell Billa in Baghdad 149 in Chicago 165
(Frankfort, Cylinder Seals, PI. Illd.) (Photograph, Oriental Institute.)
d Tablet with Seal Impression showing Priest before King
b Impression ofa Cylinder Seal from Warka in Berlin 149
Ibisin of Ur, in Philadelphia 165
(Photograph, Berlin Museum.)
(Photograph, University Museum, Philadelphia.)
LIVa Sculptured Vase in London 156 I,XIV Stele ofUrnammu ofUr, in Philadelphia 168
(Photograph, British Museum.) (Photograph, University Museum, Philadelphia.)
b Sculptured Vase in Berlin 156 LXV Upper Part of Stele of Hammurabi in Paris after page 168
(Photograph, Berlin Museum.) (Photograph, Louvre.)

LV Fragments of a Steatite Vase from Khafaje, in Baghdad I,XVIa-c Impressions of Three Middle Assyrian Cylinder Seals
and Chicago 157 in New York 168
(Photograph, Oriental Institute.) (E. Porada, Corpus, I, Nos. 601; 600; 606.)
LXVIIa *Assurnasirpal attacking Enemy Archers facing page 169
LVI Plaque of Urnanshe from Telloh, in the Louvre 160
(E. A. Wallis Budge, Assyrian Sculptures in the British
(De Sarzec, Decouvertes en Chaldee, PI. 2 bis 1.) Museum, I, PI. XIV2.)
LVIIa, b Stelae of Eannatum after page 160 b Assurnasirpal and his Army crossing a River 169
(De Sarzec, Decouvertes en Chaldee, PIs. 48, 48 bis.) (Photograph, W. F. Mansell.)

LVIII The 'Standard' from Ur, London, British Museum 160 I, '\ VIlla Assurnasirpal's Army in Bivouac 176
(Photograph, University Museum, Philadelphia.) (Photograph Mansell.)
b Enemies fleeing across Moat on Inflated Skins 176
LIX Group of Early Dynastic Statues Found at Tell
(Photograph, Mansell.)
Asmar facing page 161
(Photograph, Oriental Institute.) LXIX Assurnasirpal's Chariots passing a Fortified
City after page 176
LX Priest, from Tell Asmar 164 (Photograph, Mansell.)
(Photograph, Oriental Institute.)
LXXa The Sources of the Tigris, on the Bronze Gates of
LXla Impression of Early Dynastic Seal Cylinder Balawat 176
from Khafaje after page 164 (L. W. King, Bronze Reliefs from the Gates of Shalmaneser,
(Photograph, Oriental Institute.) PI. LIX.)
b Scribes of Tiglathpilesar III noting Booty 176
b Impression of Akkadian Cylinder Seal in Chicago 164 (E. A. Wallis Budge, Assyrian Sculptures in the British
(Photograph, Oriental Institute.) Museum, II, PI. XI, 2.)
LXII Stele of Naramsin, in the Louvre 164 LXXIa Troops of Tiglathpilesar III attacking a City 176
(Photograph, Louvre.) (Budge, cit., PI. XIII.)
b Hunting in the Woods, from Sargon's Palace in
I,XIIla Impression of Akkadian Cylinder Seal showing the
Khorsabad 176
Weather God in his Chariot facing page 165
(Budge, cit., PI. XXXI.)
(E. Porada, Corpus of Ancient Near Eastern Seals 'in North
American Collection I, The Collection of the ]';erpo l1t • The Assyrian relicfs rcproduced in Plates LXVII-LXXXI are in the
Morgall Library, No. 22().) )Jritj~h Musculll.
xiv xv
 Lllllsl I'al ;OIlS III IJ S 1ral ; OilS
Lxxn Assyriulls attack Mursh Dwellers a/ter page 176 Muml Painte d Relief of 'Pricst king', from Knossos
(Budge, Assyria n Sculptures in the
LXXX VIl
Briti~h Museum , II,
PI. LI.) facing page 193
(Snijder , op. cit., Pl. 6.)
LXXI II Transp ort of a Colossus 176 LXXX VIIIa Harve ster Vase, from Hagia Triada 196
(Paterso n, Palace of Sinacherib, PIs. 33-32.)
(Photog raph, Orienta l Institut e.)
LXXI V Attack on Mount ain Fortre ss 176
(Paterso n, Palace of Sinacherib, PI. 77.) b Ring Bezel with Bull Jumpe r 196
(Evans, op.cit., III, 220, Fig. 154.)
LXXV Detail of PI. LXXI V facing page 177 LXXX IXa Impres sion of Engrav ed Gem, from Knossos; Bull
(Hall, Babylonian and Assyria n Sculpture in the British
Museum , PI. XXXIV .) and Man 197
(Evans, op.cit., IV, 2, Supplem entary Plate LIV, e.)
LXXV I Elamit es fleeing past Templ e and Aquad uct 178
(Photog raph, British Museum .) b Impres sion of Engrav ed Gems, from Knossos; Dog
LXXV II ~dTh~~B~ 1M
Elamit es fleeing past Fortifi ed City after page 178 (Evans, op. cit., g.)
(Hall, op. cit., PI. XLII.)
XC Steatit e Vase, from Hagia Triada 204
LXXV III Destru ction of a City, Soldiers in Camp 178 (photog raph, Orienta l Institut e.)
(Photog raph, Mansell.)
XCI Develo pment of Rhyto n with Boxing and Bull
LXXI Xa Hunte d Gazelles, Assurb anipal facing page 179 Jumpi ng Scenes, from Hagia Triada 205
(Photog raph, Mansell.)
(Snijder , op. cit., PI. 13.)
b Hunte d Wild Horses 179 XCII Miniat ure Fresco, from Knossos, showing Spec-
(Photog raph, Mansell.)
tators at a Perfor mance 208
LXXX Dying Lions 180 (Evans, op. cit., III, PI. XVI.)
(Photog raph, Mansell.)
XCIIa Miniat ure Fresco , from Knossos, showing Wome n
LXXX I Lion facing Horsem an Dancin g in Olive Grove and Specta tors
181 208
(Photog raph, Mansell.) (Evans, op. cit., III, PI. XVIII. )
LXXX II Mural Paintin g with Cat stalkin g Bird, from Hagia XCIII Detail from Figure 186: Wome n Specta tors Con-
Triada 188 versing 209
(Snijder , Kretische Kunst, PI. 8, 1.) (Evans, op. cit., III, PI. XVII.)
LXXX III Mural Paintin g with Flying Fishes, from Phylak opi· XCIV Gold Cups, Vaphio 214
189
(Excavations at Phylakopi, PI. III.) (Photog raphs, Orienta l Institut e, Chicago.)
LXXX IV Mural Paintin g with Deer, from Hagia Triada
192
(Snijder , op. cit., PI. 9, 1.)
FIGU RES IN TEXT
LXXX Va Mural Paintin g with Bluebi rd, from
I. 'White Crosslined' Predyn astic Bowl page 2
Knossos after page 192 (Flinde rs Petrie, Predynastic Egypt, PI. XVIII, Fig. 72.)
(Evans, Palace of Minos, II, 2, PI. XI.)
'). Predyn astic Wall Paintin g from Hierak onpoli s 17
b Mural Paintin g with Founta in, from Knossos 192 (Quibel l, Hierakonpolis, II, PI. LXXV. )
(Evans, op. cit., III, PI. XXII.)
II. Libyan Captiv es of Sahure 42
LXXX VI Mural Paintin g with Dancin g Woma n, from Hagia (Borcha rdt, Sahure, II, PI. I.)
Triada 192 Suhure HWltin g between pages 416 and 47
'orulnumti Antichi , XIII, PI. 10.)
(BorchlLrdt. Sahurc. n, PI. 17.)
xvi
VII
 II,lSlra It()IIS fili,sl rat il)/'s
5. Gods with Captive Foreigners page 48 I,. 'I'!lollnncs I V illllattle, from side of his Chariot page 117
(Borchardt, Sahure, II, PI. 5.) (Wrc:,;zinski, Atlas, II, PI. 2.)
6. Battle and Siege, Tomb of Inti 61 124
"'•. St·ti I conquers Yenoam
(Flinders Petrie, Deshasheh, PI. IV.)
(Wreszinski, Atlas, II, PI. 35.)
7. Transport of a Colossus and Other Scenes from the Tomb of 126
'II. S('ti I defeats the Hittites
Djehutihotep 66 (Wreszinski, Atlas, II, PI. 46.)
(Griffith and Newberry, El Bersheh, I, PI. XII.)
Ilnmses II attacking the City of Mutir 129
8. Cow Calving, Meir 68
(Wreszinski, Atlas, II, PI. 71.)
(Blackman, Meir, I, PI. X.)
'H Ilnmses II attacking a Syrian City 130
9. Bulls Fighting; Slaughter Scenes, Meir 69
(Wreszinski, Atlas, II, PI. 163.)
(Blackman, Meir, I, PI. XI.)
"I Syrians retreating to City 131
10. Cattle; Orchestra; Men Pulling Rope; Papyrus Harvest, Meir 71
(Blackman, Meir, II, PI. III.) (Wreszinski, Atlas, II, PI. 54.)

11. Senbi Hunting, Meir 72 II) 'rhe Battle of Qadesh, Luxor 134
(Blackman, Meir, 11, PI. VIII.) (Wreszinski, Atlas, II, PI. 84.)

12. Ukhhotep Hunting, Meir 73 II The Battle of Qadesh, Ramesseum 136

(Blackman, Meir, II, PI. VIII.) (Wreszinski, Atlas, II, PI. 96a.)

13. Djehutihotep Hunting, EI Bersheh 74 I~II. h. The Battle of Qadesh, Abu Simbel facing page 137
(Griffith and Newberry, El Bersheh, I, PI. VII.) (Wreszinski, Atlas, II, PI. 170.)

14. Hunting in the Desert, Tomb of Rekhmire 85 III Hnmses III defeating the Sea-Peoples, Medinet Habu page 140
(Norman de Garis Davies, Tomb of Rekhmire, XLIII.) (Photograph, Oriental Institute.)
15. Kenamun Hunting 86 II ,'\t, 135. Impressions of a Cylinder Seal from Warka in Berlin 150
(Norman de Garis Davies, Tomb of Kenamun, PI. XLVIII.) (Frankfort, Cylinder Seals, PI. IV, m, e.)
16. Men entering Magazine 92 \II, IllIpression of Cylinder Seal from Susa 150
(Wreszinski, Atlas, I, PI. 246.) (Frankfort, Cylinder Seals, PI. IV, L.)
17. Funerary Procession, from the Tomb of Nebamun and Ipuky 94 IIn ttle in the Mountains 176
(Norman de Garis Davies, Tomb of Two Sculptors, PI. XXII.) (Paterson, Palace of Sinacherib, PI. 9.)
18. Mahu and the Vizier running before the Royal Chariot 102 I,()oting Soldiers leaving a City 179
(Norman de Garis Davies, Rock Tombs of El Amarna, IV, PI. XX.) (Paterson, Palace of Sinacherib, PIs. 38-84.)
19. Mahu receiving and giving Orders; Market Scene; Police Post 104 1\1 Kumares Vase from Phaestos 192
(Ibidem, PI. XXIV.) (Snijder, Kretische Kunst, PI. 22,2.)
20. Palace and Temple Gate 106 III 1\ Hrnares Vase from Knossos 192
(Ibidem, I, PI. XXVI.) (Snijder, op. cit., PI. 3.)
21. The Quay at EI Amarna 107 II Vns(' with Octopus from Gournia 193
(Ibidem, V, PI. V.) (I';vans, Palace of Minos, 11,509, Fig. 312, c.)
22. Trumpeter and Soldiers 108 " VIIS(' with Nautilus, in Marseilles 194
(Ibidem, III, PI. XXXI.) (I';vnns, op. cit., Fig. 312, a,)
23. Temple, Garden and Ships, Tomb of Neferhotep 113 1/1 Iling Bez.cl with Dancing Women, from Isopata 201
(Norman de Garis Davies, Toml) of Nljerhotl,'P, PI. XLI.) (Snijdcr, op. cit.. PI. a2, G,)
xviii "IX
 1//1/ S t rat f I> II S
44 Bing llc:t.cl with Dancing MUll and Womull, Myecl1ac page 202
45. Ring Bezel with Goddess upon Mountain 202
(Evans, op. cit., IV, 2, p. 608, Fig. 597 A, e.)
46. Ring Bezel with Dancing Man and Woman, from Vaphio 202
(Snijder, op. cit., PI. 32,3.)
47. Ring Bezel with Religious Scene, from Mycenae 213
(Snijder, op. cit., PI. 32, 1.) Abbreviations

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT N. de Garis Davies, The Rock Tombs oj El Amarna,

~ 111111'110.
The author gratefully acknowledges the courtesy of the Institutions London, 1903-08.
and Authors who allowed original photographs or reproductions from II. IIi lIasan Percy E. Newberry, Beni Hasan, London, 1903-04.
their publications to be used for the illustrations. The Source of each of illkrsheh F. Ll. Griffith and P. E. Newberry, El Bersheh,
these is indicated in the Lists of Plates and Figures. London, 1893-94.
I;I'{.II Herman Junker, Giza, Vienna, 1929-'1,7.
II'~I\ Journal ojEgyptian Archaeology, London 1914-.
I ,ttlll1lUn N. de Garis Davies, The Tomb oj Kenamun at Thebes,
New York, 1930
II. Richard Lepsius, Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und
Aethiopien, Berlin 1849-58.
1,111' A. M. Blackman, The Rock Tombs oj 1l1eir, London,
1914-24
l\1i 1'l'rtIka Prentice Duell and others, The Mastaba oj Mereruka,
Chicago, 1938.
" ~1. B. Bulletin oj the Metropolitan Museum oj Art, New
York.
1'11111('(' of Minos Sir Arthur Evans, The Palace oj Minos at Knossos,
London,1921-35
1'111 hhotep N. de Garis Davies, The Mastaba oj Ptahhetep and
Akhethetep, London, 1900.
1I.·l.llInire N. de Garis Davies, The Tomb oj Rekhmire at Thebes,
New York, 1943.
IIhllr(' L. Borchardt, Das Grabdenkmal des Konigs Sahure,
Band II, 'Die Wandbilder,' Leipzig, 1913.
'1'1 G. Steindorff, Das Grab des Ti, Leipzig, 1913
\ \' l'I'szi 11 ski Walter Wreszinski, Atlas zur altaegyptischen Kultur-
geschichte, Leipzig 1923-.
,,\S ZeitschriJt Jur altaegyptische Sprache und Altertums-
kunde, Leipzig.

xx XX)
 Preface

his book developed out of a desire to account for the eccentrici-

ties of spatial rendering in Near Eastern works of art. The most
common explanations, such as the lack of knowledge of per-
I'c'l'l.ive and-more subtle and more hypothetical-the respect of
~ II II Yurtists for the two-dimensional character of the surface, appeared
1l1l'l'Llit.;factory. For if one analyses and compares particular types of
!\l1 (:l'cek art, it will be seen that idiosyncrasies of spatial rendering,
[Il1llrt'ly consistent in themselves, not only vary in different regions
',"1 Ilrc, in fact, essential to the character of each style.
II would have been justifiable merely to register such idiosyncrasies,
1.. 11 I was tempted to ask if they might not have a significance beyond
I lit Ikld of art proper; in other words, ifthey should not be capable of
ill. Iprctation in cultural rather than aesthetic terms. The question,
1IIIIIIgh legitimate, has obvious dangers. For once one admits that
11 11 problem of space in art need not be limited to a study of formal
'l'III'Il('tcristics; that this problem cannot be entirely divorced from
'lifo t or time; and even that the question of the relation between art,
Ii 1'1 IIl1d thought is here particularly insistent, then the crucial problem
iilll',1 be faced: how can this relation be made explicit? For there is
i!lIl.hllrt cut from formal analysis to cultural interpretation. Nor is it
iiI 11'1'111 to call to aid the content of the scenes depicted, if by this
!rl III we mean a mere paraphrase of supposed actions and situations,
Wld,'J. by the very nature of this art are often enigmatic, as we shall
r,
III Il'ying to penetrate, however, beyond the apparent content of
I!if) "C'I'lies with the help of historical material in the widest sense, of
1'" 1I111l.ivc thought, of social and religious preoccupations; in trying
1(0 IIC'clIlstruct what might-for lack of a better word-be called the
olcaning of the scenes, I found that the unexpected happened:
!'I 1'111'1 I.
lilll" MII~llilicance and formal peculiarities proved strictly correlated as
[Ill liN they were seen under the aspect of their space-time implica-
I ilijl~. III fact chnnrrcs in the one corresponded most strikingly with
XXlll
 I 'n') {(/'/'
hnngcs in the other, nnu spatial idiosYI,crnsicfl thcrcf'c)l'c $uddculy
became 'significant' .
Unfortunately I found myself soon faced with a peculiar difficulty.
Although the term 'space' in post-Greek art is a familiar concept
which only pedants would stop to define, this is emphatically not the
case here. It is in fact a matter of uncertainty in what sense we can
speak of space at all. I have therefore--at the risk of antagonising
the general reader-first tried to clarify some concepts, and in particu-
lar to show the interpenetration of spatial and temporal categories,
before discussing the actual works of art. Those who dislike abstraction
may well ignore this part which for obvious reasons could not be rele-
gated to an appendix. They will find the necessary references in the
Index.
Apart from this section I have avoided formal abstractions, although
the words 'space' and 'time' appear in the sub-title. None of the three
groups of remains dealt with would have yielded the secret of their
space-time character to a priori reasoning. The questions asked, the
categories used, were all prompted by the actual material and will
be seen to vary with each stylistic unit. Yet it appeared that in the
Ancient Near East representational art was haunted by certain funda-
mental problems which were solved in different ways but reappeared
throughout. One of these, the problem of monumentality, has ofneces-
sity become the Leitmotiv ofthis essay.
xxiv
INTRODUCTION
A Clarification of Concepts
A. TWO-DIMENSIONAL SPACE
T
he problem of space in pictorial art is a problem of relation. It
arises wherever points, lines, or surfaces are intentionally related
to each other: the interval which separates them is then a signifi-
1'lInt void. This void will be conceived as two-dimensional if it appears
III geometric decorative design on taut surfaces (we include globular
III' cylindrical ones); but even in representational art it may lack all
tlr'pth if, as in silhouettes Dr shadow-figures, bodies are, or appear to
Ill', projected on a plane.
In geometric design, this two-dimensional significant void is the
Illrt'elate of rhythm, balance, or proportion; in the case of shadowy
I'l'IIjections of human or animal figures it may also be the correlate of
1111 implied dramatic or psychological situation. It is then a 'field' for
II Ilsional forces. This field represents a spatial world unlike our own,
I ,('cpt in so far as its orientation may coincide with ours. A shadow
II~Cllre. on a blank screen is not surrounded by chaos; for, if its position
I 1I0t arbitrary but related to an imaginary base, it is surrounded by
I /lpatial unit, a flat world in which up and down are orientated like
,Ill' spectator's high and low.
I t must be remembered that the projection of bodies is, generally
IWllking, a playful trick which, as in shadow play, conjures up a two-
tlllllcnsional dream world. As such it belongs essentially to the realm
IIlllrl.istic fantasy (or of cheap realism if only outline-likeness is aimed
II) Hlld lies outside the serious pre-occupation with .actual form which
IlIlrILSSCS the creator of representational art. But although deliberate
1" ojt'ctions rarely occur apart from playful use, some ways of render-
'"I: hodies on a flat surface come very close to it. We fin,d, for instance,
11111 II ill decorative and rcprcsentational art, ani/nal shapes whosc out-
hill s practi('ally coiJlcide with silhollcu'(' ('OItl:OurS. If' only the nllUin('s
~ 1 I' ..... M.

., (\/(I"~F('flli(}11 /~l ('(llIf'/'/Jls
are given, our imuginution is apl \'0 fill in \'he blallks wilh rounded
forms; the surrounding void may thcn appear shecr depth. Hut in the
case of Susa pottery (PI. I, IIa) or Egypt.ian red ware (Fig. 1) a black-
FIG. 1. Predynastic Bowl from Egypt
ening or crosshatching of the body frustrates the efforts of imagination.
Where rows of such figures occur they appear to move in a two-dimen-
sional 'field' like the curiously flat animals we may see on the skyline
against a depth-devouring sunset. Such art is completely surface-bound
even where it does not destroy all suggestions of depth by boldly re-
ducing organic forms to a more or less geometric pattern. There are
even rare instances of human figures which show this binding to the
surface. The sturdy little man on the black-figured vase (PI. IIb) runs
in a posture which comes singularly close in outline to an actual
shadow projection of a running figure, for the violent movement of his
arms necessitates the twisted torso. Moreover, the running hare on the
opposite side explains his actions and makes the void around him a
tensional, significant void. Hence the plausibility of his fantastic
chase and yet its dreamlike unreality. Banned to the surface of the
vase, the little man must run his course around it in a depthless world.
Such instances are, however, as rare as freaks und nearly always
playful.
2
"'/)(1('/; al/(i ('nr/)o!"l;alil
B. SPACE AND CORPOREALITY
'I'hl' problem of space in connection with the rendering of bodies
III hI'" than in shadow-form is so complex that we intend to proceed
'111111 the familiar to the unfamiliar. And a familiar aim (though lately
III dif;credit) in rendering objects is to achieve a maximum of illusion-
II)' ('orporeality; the object must appear-not only be comprehended-
1'1 three-dimensional. What constitutes corporeality, however, is a
1II II ('\'iona]1 relation between object and observer and the only way to
IIIIIkl' this function explicit in an image would be to render the contour
Illd proportion of the object as if it were a projection on a transparent
'f ,'('('n cutting the observer's lines of vision-in other words, to render
1111' object as seen. In order to produce an equivalent image, any surface
1l1'I'd would have to be considered as substitute for such an imaginary
I I «'I'll. The contour and proportion of such a rendering will not have
tlu' validity, the finality of a shadow-form, but can only be understood
III Ic'nns of reference, of relation to the observer.
This has two implications of importance for our subject. Firstly,
III "('lIdering which aims at illusionary corporeality-and we shall in
1111111'(' refer to it as functional rendering-implies, on the one hand, a
lII'lIl net in the choice of viewpoint and, on the other, a resignation in
Ilull i l. accepts the 'autocracy' of the solid form, its inner coherence:
1111 1I11're viewpoint can tamper with the co-ordination of its parts;
11l1I'Hhortening, overlapping must be registered. And secondly, an
.1 '11'1'1. thus rendered is conceived as existing in space, the familiar
! IUI'I'·dimensional space which comprises both it and its observer; in
[n, I, ('orporeality and existence in space are concepts which mutually
i Iqllire each other. Consequently, the surface on which the image
.; 1lIlI'III'S is no longer self-sufficient. As substitute for the transparent
, 111'11, it loses, as it were, its solidity, becomes the pretext for a spatial
dlll·'I(III-a mere window. A single projected silhouette is surrounded,
I I 1\'(' saw, by an alien flat world; but the isolated image of a figure
I. 11111'I'('d as observed, by a conceptual, three-dimensional void, appears
'"' \iNI. in space.
W«' said that objects rendered as seen (that is, in a definite spatial
I' lill j01\ to the observer) will usually show foreshortening and over-
li'llpllig. Where the human figure is concerned, there are two points
pi \ ie'IV ill which the technical problem of foreshortening provides
1,11.1 dilliclIlty: namely, profile and full-face view (herc nose and feet
• \\'1' IIN(' !'hc tcrlll 'fllllf'tionul' hcre cxclu~ivdy as implying' a relation between
.lllll.II'H,
IJ
 I C/(frijj'/'tt! iOIl (~j' ( '/JIII'I'/II.\
form the main stumbling-blocJ\s). We :-;hall s('(' late,- that when cOI'por-
eality in the functional sense is definitely not aimed at, cven profile
and full-face renderings are often assiduously avoided.
On the other hand, when they are used, a profile or a full-face
figure, even in barest outline, will, on the strength of its definite
spatial relation to the observer, quite unintentionally, perhaps, appear
not only three-dimensional but as existing in space. It is interesting to
compare the following isolated figures, one from a period which pre-
cedes the 'discovery of perspective' (PI. IlIa), one from the time when
this discovery was fully utilised (PI. IUb), and one in which it was
deliberately ignored (PI. IVa). In all three instances a 'halo' of three-
dimensional void is unmistakable, all three appear to exist, almost to
float, in space.
'When bodies which arc rendered functionally are depicted in re-
lation to each other, the space which separates them also appears a
receding void, Two human figures thus rendered against a so-called
neutral background may be related by gesture or mere awareness of
each other's presence; they will be separated by the same conceptual
void in which both they and the spectator are contained.
It must be realized that although the observer's viewpoint is more
or less fixed it is not identical with the centre of observation of scien-
tific perspective, In a small group of, for example, two figures in profile,
the spectator's viewpoint has considerable latitude (provided no
material setting is indicated), since figures seen in profile may have
axes which converge either more or less towards the spectator. With
larger groups of figures the spectator may have to move along a line of
successive viewpoints (with vase paintings this is, in practice, an inevit-
able procedure-one turns the vase round), but even this shifting
viewpoint need not impair the corporeality of the figures or the charac-
ter of the surrounding space. Only where adjoining scenes are conceived
as spatially unrelated units does the blank which separates them
lose its character of conceptual space. It then becomes a mere hiatus.
In the foregoing we have implied that the figures and objects
appear on a neutral or blank background. The term 'background',
however, may also be used in the sense of a separate feature such as a
patterned surface or solid colour surrounding the figure or even as a
'setting'. The effect on space of the first depends on whether or not
the ground-lines of background and figure coincide. 'Where they are
separated by even a narrow strip, pattern or colour acts as backdrop
and the figures appear in a well-defined stage space.! Where they
I This term i~ introduced by Miriam Schild Rllnim, Space in lJled·iaeval
l'aillli,lJ.! (IUd Ihe POTem'llllI'TS o/I.J/l'sj!('('liv(' (New York, lU'LO),
II,
11,\, HII\\'I, ','Hcli\! SI'H.\
(/ III,J.:. /',1' ~, I t, (\ )
 'l'lll' '/'1/1//' As/),'('/ /J!
. ()""Ol/IC
n Form
(·/lillt·ide 01' wherc an isolatcd ligllrc is s(-I, ill lhe midst 01" such u blLc"-
l'OUIl(l, spn,tioJ imagination is frustra.tcd and a curious conflict arise's
Iwl weell the 'corporeality' of the figure a.nd the depthlessness of lh!'
III'l'ounding, The result may either be, as in the case of l'ompeinn
hlnc]': foil,I a decorative absurdity or, as in the case of Byzantine gold
IllLckgrounds, a reduced significance of the corporeality of the figures
which may enhance their mysterious potency. Only the colour bit)..
will, for obvious reasons, invariably suggest sheer depth.
Background as 'setting' means that a spatial relation is intendcd
IlIA. ASSYRIAN FIGURE lwtween figures and objects, landscape, or architectural units, whcn
(page 4) thcir position is not on the same actual or imaginary groundlin....
Where figures in functional rendering do appear on the same ground-
linc it acts as skyline, as horizon, but superimposition means that th
higher ones are conceived as receding in space. This space may be left
L more or less inarticulate emptiness for spatial imagination to wander,

vertical features may be brought into view without coherence (PI. IVb)
or a kind of geographic discursiveness may be indulged in (PI. Va).
Hut a true functional rendering of figures in their setting means thal
'he fluidity of viewpoint must be reduced to the pin-point precisiolJ
or scientific perspective.

C. THE TIME ASPECT OF ORGANIC FORM:

/~ We have so far omitted distinguishing between the functional

, .- (~\
I'('ndering of organic form and inanimate objects. This becomes in-
I.
,'vitable when they are viewed under the aspect of movement, that is
of space and time.
Human beings and animals-we shall consider vegetable fornls
liller-are potentially mobile, their posture and gestures must imply a
lIloment of transient activity or equally transient repose (PI. IlIa).
Therefore, a choice of moment, no less than a choice of viewpoint, dctcr-
,"iIlCS the pose of functional rendering and the implicit transitorincs$
III" hat pose is quite independent of the fact that either a phase ofmov('-
111('11 t or rigid immobility may be chosen, for organic immobility is neVer

"hsolute. The term 'corporeality' has in connection with such figures

1\ krnporal connotation and the term 'space', denoting the surrounding
vllid, a dynamic one-it is the space in which movement may OCCIII',
IIIE, GREEK FIGURE Bill. in this pregnant sense the terms are applicable only where the inner
(page 4) "ohl'l'cnee of organic form is left intact; in othcr words, where Iht:
I I.. ('lII'liIlS, Die lVll1ulmalcrei l'omlH:iis (I.('ip;o;ig. 111211).

WI' limy lIote that in 'VVet!gwol/d !'oU.... y with ,,!,!,Iiqu!" figul'''s ill thin rl'ik·f
" Ithw 1)1I('kg"OInHI is !'1'('f'(-rt'('(l.
Ii
 fIJI /;i/1, /I il ii'" I ~r N " f ~ 1'1/ /11'1/1) /Ifl / H Cf If /I,,.i lip,
I (11(f,.~ji'('(f1 ;011 t~r (',"'/'1'1)1,\
of HIOV('/III'lIt ns wi'll as I,hl.: 1II1I,.)\'rH/'y of 1'''''11) i,'l J'(;speckd
l\,lIl0/\()JlIY
II. is ('ul'ious that altlwug-h I.hl' IWIlSil'1I t qual i ty of a scenc dcpcnds
and not destroyed by u more Or lc::;::; w.ilful HITHllgC,lIIl.:lJl of different jll. III(' type or :'\.ctio(l or situation dcpictcd, it::; transitoriness is usually
parts which would obviate their interdependence. 11l14'IISilicd, as if by contrast, through the presence of inanimate ob-
We thus reserve the term 'organic corporeality' for functional ren- i'-"I'l or landscape features (PI. VIII). Spatial and temporal definition,
dering, but it is not merely a paradox that, in a derived sense, it may I.. ,'C' lll'ought into relation, will both enhance what we shall henceforth
I 1111 I he (u;lualily of a scene.
be applied to shadow-figures and the strange flat world they inhabit.
For if silhouettes are understood as a projection they are thereby
Il. THE AMBIGUITIE.S OF NONl"UNCTIONAL RENDERING
functionally related to the projected object-not to the observer-
and will not only suggest an analogy to organic coherence but retain
We found that when bodies are projected on a plane in shadow-
dynamic associations. However, even the temporal connotation of a
1111111 or rendered as observed, the surface space surrounding them is
'lively' shadow-figure will vanish if it is reduced to a pattern or used
, lIl1(Ti vcd as two- or three-dimensional, respectively. The first manner
in purely decorative context.! In this case, it may be enslaved and
bound to design, reduced to a matter of lines and curves, and will no
'I IIIHinly restricted to playful or decorative use, the second to Greek
Ilid post-Greek art. Ancient Near Eastern art, on the other hand,
longer appear a potential centre of activity. The ibexes on Susa pottery
"lllrt's with most 'primitive' and nearly all children's art a way of
are a case in point (PI. I). They are so superbly characterized by the
" IlIkring objects which differs fundamentally from either and has a
taut curve of the resi.lient body, the tense contraction of the legs, the
.llrfl'l'('ut significance of the surrounding void as its concomitant. As
exuberant swing of the horns, that, though by no means projections of
1111 I hods they have often been lumped together and labelled in a variety
actual forms, they appear to have inner coherence and are not built
III \\'IIYS as 'paratactic',I 'vorstellig',2 or 'ideoplastic'.3
up out of geometric abstractions. But they also form an intricate
III order to avoid all psychological connotations, we suggest calling
pattern which harmonizes with the decorative scheme and the essential
tl .. II l/lnner in which they render objects 'nonfunctional'. This negative
forms of tall slender beakers and which on round bowls accentuates
I. 1111 mcans that, logically speaking, such rendering is independent
circumference and radius (see below, p. 147). The result is that these
.11 11\l' nctual appearance in space of a figure-it lacks an unambigu-
animals seem neither moving nor at rest: they are pure form, all
,11~ Ilplltial relation between object and observer and therefore lacks
temporal connotation is absent.
, III porl'ulity in the functional sense of that word. By no means does it
Even if functionally rendered organic forms are almost reduced to
1l1lply II lack of interest in-or visual knowledge of-natural forms,
a pattern, in emblematic and heraldic devices, the figures may lose
11111' dOl'S it simply mean the rendering of what is known rather than
their actuality and become transfixed rather than caught in motion.
11111 is seen, in the way some 'ideoplastic' children's drawing consists
Where the lively scene of browsing goats has been made into a mere
"I II ,ucre addition of known features. Non-functionalism (sit venia
antithetical group or the violent action of heroes fighting beasts into a
, • I fill) iH a logical concept, not an aesthetic or a psychological one. It
decorative arrangement of limbs (PI. Vb), their posture loses its transi-
dlllrtlcteristic of nonfunctional representations that the surface is
tory quality.
Ii' II her a completely dominant factor nor reduced to a mere oppor-
Yet another time aspect will have to be considered. For if figures
lllllily for spatial illusion, but that the conflict between the three-
are depicted in relation to each other (see below, E), either explicitly
ilillll IIsional object to be rendered and the two-dimensional oppor-
in action or implicitly in a 'known' dramatic situation, the resulting
1111111 Y ~iven has not been solved in favour of either.
scene has temporal as well as spatial implications: the gestures made
"'his conflict is generally least acute in the rendering of animals;
are conceived as simultaneous (PI. XXXIX). We saw that in a large
WI II, pl'Olile outline happens to be the one most capable of rendering
group different spatial units may merge or fall apart-the unity of
[liiJ ,·hlll'll,ctcristics of animal form, if its major axes run parallel with
action, too, may either shift surreptitiously or different stages may be
I hI] '"ll'fIlCC plane, and this facilitates a simple transference of contour
separated by an 'interval'.
1 \Ve exclude here the use of figures for the embellishment of objects if the
'e:, l(rlLhlllcr, lNgltr und !lll'Um in der aegyptischen und griechisch-archaischen
WI1/ (I ladle:,l\J:n).
relation between the two is merely one of surface and ornament without aiming
II Sl'lmdcr, Von (1.I·~!lptisclt.c'r Kunst (Leipzig, 1930)
at the integration of form and pattern, e,g. qucen Victoria's IlII,qt on fL CO!lI- 1,lx V('rworn, Idc(/JlIII,~ti,w;lt.c /(Ul/St (.rcna, l.H1.4).
mcmorativc tcacup.
7
6
 I. ('/It"~'j" .
1i'{l!lO/l '? j' ('OIIl','/iIS
on i,mrf,tcc wit.l.1Oll\, referellcc 1,0 vicwpClillL Tilt: 1l10VcJflCHt of hClL(J,
limbs, and tail may occur in the plane or parallel to it. Therefore,
exeept in the ease of horns, no conflict need be realized between surface
plane and the orientation of form and movement.
With solid angular objects a conflict can be avoided by projecting
one side only. But if for the sake of a detailed description more sides
than one are to be brought into view, their relative orientation must
be ignored (PI. Xa); aspects may be added but they cannot be co-
ordinated as long as the surface as such is respected, not used as
pretext for a spatial illusion.
It is the human body which presents the greatest problem-a
problem unsolved, e.g. in palaeolithic art with its unerring sureness
of touch in animal figures, For there is no way of transferring the
contour of a human form, especially in movement, to a flat surface in
which the problem of depth does not become acute: the most explicit
characterization of one part of the body will claim a different orienta-
tion from that of another part and the multilateral movements of head
andlimbs'in action will not all be parallel to the surface plane. There-
fore, some kind of analysis, some kind of synthesis, will be needed in
order to adapt them, unless the conflict is shirked by hiding the body
in shapeless garments. Either the three-dimensional co-ordination of
various parts must be ignored and, for instance, a profile head and legs,
a front-view torso be paratactically combined (that does not merely
mean added) in order to obey the summons of the surface plane
(PI. VI), or articulation must be sacrificed and the figure made
'amoebic', as it were, by giving it a vague fluid outline (PI. IXa,
bottom). We shall see in the next section what effect this has on the
organic coherence of the figure and the problem of movement. We shall
here only consider the question of corporeality and space.
Robed and amorphous figures may, even in the case where shoulders
prove to be an insuperable difficulty, give a suggestion of cylindrical
corporeality (PI. LXV, left). The notion of a functional relationship in
connection with cylindrical forms is, of course, meaningless. Yet" the
suggestion of roundness will affect the surrounding background, make
it appear somewhat like empty space while only the far shOlilder
appears pushed forward (by the hard surface).
In 'amoebic' figures limbs are not articulate parts of a solid structure
but more like soft excrescences. Here, as in the case of molluscs, the
question of three-dimensional eo-ordination barely arises. The Cretan
deer of PI. LXXXIV and the figures of slain men on PI. IXa not only (\',\. I'H,\YINC 1,'ICI'Rl': FROM CATACOMBS
lack true corporeality but the space surounding them is also ambig- (j HI!!I' tt,)
uous; they sCPO) to flQat in a mClliulII whieh baulks spatial imagination.
I \' II. II I: I 1Y I" I ST I (' I~ I': 1,1 I': 1"
S (/111/':,'" r))
z.
:...
X
~
"" '~J
~ ::::
~
~
..:..
L
....
:..
L
~
" :'1..
f!.
--.
..:..
/
z.
- /'
z.
~
:...
--
:..
L
 IIIII/Ihlll/II'S I!l NOI!l"f!('II/JfUtl llouit'rtlf'
Wlwn', 011 I.he other hll.lld, li/.:lII'cs UI'(.: pll.mt'l(;ti('o,lIy cOInposcu
(I'J. V 1) and cvutour lJ,lId proportious neither merely transferred nor
de h'rlllil\cd by the rela.tion between observer and observed, the ima.ges
_ltI not hint ftt a reality beyond the pictured surface nor are they like
lI11dow-forms entirely caught in or part of it. In other words, they
('('m neither quite round nor flat, the background neither solid nor

I "Hllsparent.
This becomes clear when we compare the Egyptian figure of Pl. VI
\\11th the Greek one of Pl. IIIb. The latter, functionally rendered, is so
lI11lLmbiguously corporeal that we can move around it in imagination.
1'0 attempt this seems an absurdity with the Egyptian figure. In fact,
\\ I,,'n once and once only in a historical development of several
1I1111('nnia the three-quarter back view of a serving girl appears in a
I'lll'ban tomb with the proportions of perfect functional rendering
1'1. XXXIII, top left),l the effect is positively startling. She appears a
I nI nge disturbing phenomenon in a spatial world which, for better
'. worse, is alien to ours. It is emphatically not even the narrowest
'"~(, space'; the emptiness around the figures is neither a mere field for
VIlA.
plllllltom movement nor the dynamic space which, as we saw, is the
'HUNTERS'
• III "('late of organic form, The figures often appear neither active nor in

PALETTE II !'lIse; their gestures, even if explicative, seem fixed, robot-like, not

(page 18) 'I iI IIsi lory. In fact, the time aspect seems here as problematic as the
11'''1'('. This should not be surprising for we saw that nonfunctional
j. IlIlt'ring in adapting solid form to flat surface must sacrifice either the

I Ill'll ination or the articulation of structural parts. This means in the

I I" (If organisms that their relative position in any phase of movement

'''I'd in many cases remain problematic. For only where movements

I 1II1IIIy occur in one plane can this position be transferred without

" II ""lice to the spectator's viewpoint and yet not result in ambiguity.
I 1111 hi" stems of plants, fishes, molluscs, and most quadrupeds are
I."d,' forms in this respect. In simple projection their posture may
1'1 it'llI' quite plausibly organic and therefore transitory. Consequently,
I It, Holid background will become diaphanous, as it were, and may
1'1 ('!'('lIt either the emptiness above a horizon line or the roominess
I lllflllqueous worlds. The human figure alone remains obstreperous;
! '"ll1plex structure of solid parts with multilateral mobility, it will in
VIlB. 'LION' PALETTI".
Iljlllt'llllI'tional rendering appear the less organic, the more articulation
(page 18) h 1I1',,~I.('d on.
II is <'urious, for instance, that in the case of a IVlesopotamian
ill", tile spiral fringe of a nondescript garment somehow hints at
" , "II this ligul'l': the remarks of Hertha Mohr, The l11asttlba of JIctep HeT-
Ii (1"'lell'll, 1ll·1.:I), p, Ii.
!)
 I ('I(j"~}II'(fII()" (!}' (',III1'I'/i!.\ I (JI)/nll (~l ( 'O/"'/TIJi'/' ,~j' 8'lJ,II!}If'fllIl 8('1'111''\
()I'g'all ... llnity (PI. LXV). Tht" lwiskd ,.;llIlllld"rs :-<i"'111 ILwkwardly illy is (.I'I.clI 1I111t1ISWt·I'lI.hl\', IlIld tl1I' illtcl'prl'l,l'I' is ill \'OIlSLHIII
!'C,llIl!'11
incollgruous bu!; the geslun;s of anllS ll.lld Jlltllll:'! Illlly fl.ppcur moj'(' .11111/.:1'"of 1'l~IlUill~ ill!;o IL scene whll.l. he Wfl,lIts to dcdllec frQ111 j!; and of
organic, more lively than the smooth pattern of :1 far more detailed I ,plllining the absencc or presence of features whieh do 1I0t tally willi

parataetie rendering such as we find in Egypt. h," illkrprctation as artistic incompetence.

An articulate figure in nonfunctional rendering will only appeal'
organic if a particular movement necessitates such violent contortions
as to bring limbs and torso into one plane. But where a figure is merely
composed and limbs are wilfully arranged, not caught in motion, thc
autonomy of movement is bound to be violated and the problematic
space surrounding them can no longer be called dynamic.
WI' cannot by-pass this vexing question, which in practice can
III VI"- be solved satisfactorily. All we can do is to avoid treating the
I'h'lorial evidence high-handedly, to draw on all available material,
lti~I()I'i{'al and literary, for our interpretation, and to leave room for
11111 may well have to remain enigmatic in such remote and alien
11111 krinl.

The latter term would, on the other hand, apply in a restricted

sense to the ambiguous space surrounding 'amoebic' figures (Pi. IXa,
bottom). For their posture will show inarticulate coherence and the
tentacle-like stretching of boneless limbs may appear transitory; it is
paradoxical that in the predominantly paratactic figures of Egyptian
art the only instances where the term applies appear in the case of limp
postures of slain or falling men.

E. THE PROBLEM OF COHERENCE OF SIGNIFICANT SCENES

Those who were patient enough to follow the rather dreary path
of abstract reasoning will have to face one more difficulty before
tackling the monuments, namely, the question of what in actual fact
constitutes a scene. Can we trust self-evidence if we are to decide
whether a conglomeration of figures is intended to represent coherent
action, whether juxtaposition means proximity? We shall have plenty
of opportunity to note that we cannot, but must rely on imaginative
interpretation.
Now the logical difficulty that we should in a sense have to create
the unity of a scene, while this unity must be in some manner pictori-
ally manifest if our interpretation is to have any validity at all, is a
real difficulty only in nonfunctional representation. Modern art often
ignores space-time unity deliberately, while in Greek and post-Greek
art the scenic intention is usually obvious-even explicit-where, as
in the case of Greek vases, the names of the actors are added and the
meaning of the scene can be corroborated by literary evidence. But in
pre-Greek art with its 'problematic space', its ambiguity of movement
-we shall see it can often not be decided if a figure is striding or
standing-the word 'scene' may hardly be warranted, may in fact bc
utterly confusing just because it has the definite connotation of
dramatic actuality. Hcre to decide if ligurcs nrc intended to be spati-
10 11
 CHAPTER I

The Pre- and Proto-historic Period

A. REPRESENTATION AND DESIGN

he astonishing duration and homogeneity of Egyptian art

T proper, which appears a fait accompli already in the Third

Dynasty and keeps its identity through various phases of
owth and changes of mood for two thousand years, may well tempt
WI to ignore its antecedents; but the peculiar temperament of this art
III regards 'arrest and movement' is better understood when we sec
hllw it emerges in yet experimental stages, how certain forms are
II'('cpted and tenaciously adhered to, others rejected. The art of the
proto-historic period, however, is linked so closely with still earlier
phases that we shall have to deal briefly with the history of representa­
IiOtl in Egypt and start with the crude images on prehistoric pottery.
I t will even be useful to look, for a momen.t, across the formidable gap
III Hpace and time which separates these figures from palaeolithic art;
til" if, in tackling the problem of space, we consider the relation between
IIUtlrc and surface or figure and figure, we notice a striking difference
III rl'.
Palaeolithic cave art, predominantly concerned with animals drawn
II profile, shows complete indifference towards their appearance on
lll' fmrface. The images are scratched into or painted on cave walls
Ilid {'cilings in every conceivable direction, overlapping, superimposed,
lip/nell' down, without a trace of orientation. There is, in fact, no relation
\ It II Iever between form and background; the single form is simply set
,U II Hili nst chaos. l If we were to see such a figure singly, it might have
1111' lIsual spatial halo; but this halo will vanish when several figurcs
1liwl,hcr make their lack of orientation apparent. Now in comparing
fllill Iwculiarity with post-palacolithic art we might look for a differ-­
111'1' Nirnilar to onc we m{lY obscrve when a child no lonw'r scrihbles

1 G. It. Levy, 'the 011.1,' uJ l/"rH (Loudo!l, JII·I,I)), C1l11.pt,·l' J.

r;.
 , .
'''he /·rc- (lml /Jrolo-/iisllJf'lc' I Jt'f'lOd I I Cll ,.(',';(' III (( II I (flit! I h'.'iIPJII

on l'\. shcet of paper in all dil'cetions, bCeuliHe hl' is IlIcn:ly conccrned ... ,.- -._.- ~

with the images he wants, but when he keeps the shect in one position
and treats it as a spatial unit, however vague, a world with up and down
-his own, the spectator's up and down, in fact. But in neolithic art
the matter is actually more complex since representation as such was ~

not yet the main preoccupation.
It must not be forgotten that when neolithic agricultural communi-
ties, in Egypt as elsewhere, had lost the palaeolithic hunter's exclusive
interest in animal life, their main artistic concern was with ceramics,
that is, with the creation of new plastic forms and a type of abstract
ornamentation meant to emphasize and to enhance these forms. What
these primitive artists achieved was, in fact, a new world of 'order,
measure and relation'. When, by and by, representational images
appear in decorative context these are applied on shaped, smoothed
surfaces which demanded respectful attention. Organic forms, both
animals and humans, were then at first boldly treated as a pattern,
simplified, dissected, and joined again to form a decorative motif.
Where this was not the case, as for instance with the squat forms of
hippopotami (Fig. 1), they might be simply arranged in a circle inside
a shallow bowl, their orientation entirely subordinated to decorative
intent. The earliest type, the so-called 'white cross-lined' pottery,
shows this particularly clearly, although it also may occasionally
happen that the surface of the vase does not indicate the arrangement
of the figures, in which case these will suggest a primitive type of scene.
The slightly later, so-called 'decorated', vases seem to hover between
the two extremes of pure design and representational art proper. True,
the boats, animals, and humans which occur are vertically arranged
in groups that form a pleasing rhythm without the slightest considera-
tion for logical coherence (PI. Vc). No pictorial statement seems implied
except, perhaps, in the case of the boats which may have funerary and
symbolical significance, Human figures as well as animals are a mere
matter of solid triangles and tendrils and none of the figures are
in any way spatially related though, in a few .instances, the human
figures are joined by contact in a schematic action. And yet the mere
fact of their vertical orientation gives to the background the quality
of depthless, undifferentiated space. Somehow these schematic figures
no longer appear in a pure correlation of surface and pattern like the
~~
1\/ r'.' , . "\
)-~ kif'-- ~ ~
~ 'il\,
~~),J'. ~ ...
~. ~ -" .... ~~
....
¢i\ ~ ~~':fr lfft-~~·
Ii -- C~_
FIG. 2. Predynastic Wall Painting from H ierakonpolis
1111'111.; and though some vague general scheme of decoration with lar
Jlllllow boats appearing at intervals recalls the 'decorated pottery',
i ht I II novations are very striking. The figures are no longer shadowy or
"\I'/'cd with a pattern: they have a differentiated surface which shows
, thsl.ic intention; the rendering of a single creature, not an abstract
,IWIllC, was aimed at. Moreover, action is depicted and figures
11111 cd not only by the simple means of contact but even by proximity.
1111 yare rather wildly scattered, but all vertically orientated; one of
1111 II II imals is pictured with its head turned back-although no pursuer
Ildicated. And in two instances figures are bracketed by what
111'1'111'5 to be a groundline, the ibexes at the top and the human figures
!', I Itt, Icft bottom corner. These are particularly interesting bccausv,
i'-'I I lit, first time, an ideogram for the slaying of enemies is evolved in
hlc·II Ihe three little figures appear as an abstract plural rather than a
111I1fl. The almost heraldic antithetical group in the centre and the pre-
!!lIlllhly conceptual rendering of such a complex situation as five ani·
i'l!lh, III IL trap (ifthis is actually what is represented) completcs a serieS
r I lH'riments never quite equalled by any later Egyptian monumell t.
I~' III Ilie figures themselves, ill-executed though they are, show a. kind
p Illh ('lIturousness in postures and contours. The severe pattern of
III lit' figures which we found on decorated pottcry is here rephLeed

hippopotami on the bpwI.
A curious stylistic transition between prehistoric and proto-histori<'
art exists in the wall painting at Kom el Ahmar (Fig. 2), which hcralJs
a trend towards rcprcsentation for its own sake. The carefully pre-
pared section of the WAil ~uvc ample opportuni ly for pictoriul experi-
t.l
0)' 1I",ly, but more realistic, bodies with frantically outstrctched arm...
iit H' 1\l'1'01 thc figures have a dynamic quality; and the wholc ann ngl'-
nl.lIl llf the figurcs on thc wall is no 10ngcI' suburdinated lO, anti
IlIllllt'd by decorativc p1ll'poses. Ucprcscnto.tion Wll.S t.he pJ'imll,ry
fil, IIlld the frcrc!om which the Ittl'W' wnll ('()lIld give was {'xploiLi'd
17 l,h,M.
 l'IIl' 1'1'1' (/1/(1 I'/oln 1II,'/l/flt 1'",/111
with uLLer reckles~;II1'sS. 'Phe rC/iIlIL, nL kliNt. ill I h c' low~'r rl'gis r, IS
some faint illusion of amorphous Spac(" less cklJLhll'sii than tho. nUll'
decorated pottery.
B. AMORPHOUS SPACE AND S]'ACE-TIME DEFINITION IN
PROTO-HISTORIC MONUMENTS
\Ve do not know of any monuments! in the proto-historic period
which would give the artist a similar scope. We find beautiful carvings
on utilitarian objects, such as palettes, knife handles, maceheads, and
their votive replicas. Here decorative purpose can never be quite losl.
sight of in the arrangement of figures, however much the artist's
interest shifted towards representation. Yet it is on these very objects
that we can follow the deVelopment which leads to the inflexible code
of later Egyptian spatial rendering. They do, in fact, embody th(~
proto-history of classical Egyptian art.
The earlier remains of this period-the so-called hunters' palette
(PI. VIla) and some of the ivory knife handles,2 often teeming with
animal life and human figures in pursuit or bearing standards-show
generally such chaotic lack of grouping that one might assume a com-
plete unconcern with anything approaching questions of space: the
rounded surface of the palette would naturally invite grouping around
the rim and simple filling. Any spatial illusion which the vertical
arrangement of rows of figures might evoke-as in PI. VIla-is then
shattered by the amorphous mass in the centre; and yet some of the
groups, when isolated, show definite spatial relation, while even in thl'
single figures, animals in profile (except for the horns), and humans
in pure or near profile achieve a vigorous and convincing corpore-
ality, enhanced by a wealth of detailed modelling, far removed
from the geometric abstractions or the incompetent realism of earlier
periods.
PI. VUb, on the other hand, shows no trace of subservience to
decorative needs. The circumference as such is ignored, and all in-
terest is focussed on representation. Figures are no longer aimlessly
scattered but make a scene in which birds, fallen men, and central
group have an as yet indefinite but unmistakable spatial coherence
which causes the lower group to form a foreground. All figures here arl'
related by either action, interest, or intent. The birds flying towards
the slain men or merely looking at them are not explicatory picto-
1 It has proved unavoidable to treat the rendering of figures in relief and pa,int
ing indiscriminately. This is jnstified because in the Aneknt Near East both til'"
first and foremost a type of drnwillg.
2 G. DencditA', .f./~.A., V, PIs. XX--"{" XXXl V.
8 !)
'''Uf II/lU", (Illfl '''Ilrll/ Iii",' r"./ilIIIIIJII
!lI1l111. 1,111. (~~I'f1I1P wllidl, 1l1llIIHh it J,ll:.) ItO NJliLl i"ll'IlIriLy 11.:1 yl'(,
l'or'llI
I!Fi8 1ll1l1l'IIinlJIy t"rl'l;.diJll('n~i/)/IId i lill'lI Li(lII. 'I'h/· (,rrV('C of It ('olwrl'1I
CCill iM illtcnsWcd hy OVCdltppill~ limbs (llute tbu prlfiOnfTS in til
•:,-'11 Iallllc! CO I'll 01' and the attacking lion), by the gesture of the flgul't:
If fit" 101'1., I'lwning away I'rolll, but looking- at tho lion, and by the odd
Hflld. IILld stepping of the captive on his fallen cOlTu'ade, wbich lillkfl
I '1 dilollml'l1te groups. It is a pictorial narrative as bold as it is inJloclJnt
I 11,\, pl'olllcms it seems to solve; it has something of naivete and play-
',dJII-''CIl. soon to be lost and never again quite to be regained. 1"01'
:viil, lilly already in this period statement, more than illustration, soon
!n, IlIIln the primary concern. If the names of captured towns and tho
',iltlllwl' of prisoners taken have to be recorded, symbolical signs ar
;,',oI,·d. The use of these, however corporeal their rendering a,ud
ilni,·,ihlc their acts (note the standards holding and leading captives)
f,,,I.t.o shatter the illusion of spatial unity.
III this respect the macehead of King Scorpion shows a new ventur
j" V11 I). The figure of the king appears to stand on a groundIine, bill:
! hi 1101. the topographical abstraction of a later period. It is a lightly
,,,i,-lllll~ting line which apparently forms the river bank. The frgUT
lijCltili not rendered functionally but has both clarity and articulation
ild II", gesture is vigorous, not that of a robot. It has the tension or 0.
IIlli t • unit and its pose the transient quality of an actual gesttlt
ii "'ll, in contrast to the picture of Narmer (see PI. IX). Also, th
I lllpping fans behind the head and the near-profile view of the
J "lIpilll-{ attendant, whose right hand disappears behind the basket,
t I ~ I~ faint illusion of three-dimensional space. Most curious is th
LU IIlpl. at giving topographical detail-the winding river or canal
nd I he crooked enclosure with the trees. These are no mere expli-
f III~ accessories; they show a confusion of 'aspects', admittedly,
1111/ llfwe an unmistakable air of visual unity. This is perhaps bcs
I plllllled as resulting from the incidental placing of the enclosun",
ill' 1I1'gcnt but not very purposeful gestures of the figures, one of
1""11 holds his pick so ineffectually as to remind one of a gent
1,I//lIIIl~. The bold attempt to combine figures and setting was premCt-
liW Illld bound to fail, yet it enhanced the actuality of the scene, and
ll'l II. its character of a single event. True, there is no question yet of
!rIlllllttiC unity in thc sense that the action of the king and that of tlw
d,D'" I'll bdow are of necessity simultaneous though they seem part of
Ow 'Hunc occurenee. 13ut it is interesting to note that the transitory
jllllli IY of the gestures is dependent less on the speed or violence of til"
, I (/III I hnn on the space-time integration of the l'endcrillg. It is thel'c-
I' wit It somcthiJ1!"' like regret that one lco.ves behind tIl(} last illllsiulJ-
 "'/u' /'/'(" (lwl I',ulo /II,\/IJI If I'" /(,,1
istic topogrlLphi('1l1 ('lI r'Ve (l.'ll,rd rig tL f'ew II i Ill1r'/dl II \ 1111 (." Ii II Ii I jill; lie('lIe::)
'or one and n half millennia and with it l'l'HcLit'rdly I he last uppeal tt,
spatial imagination. From now on a tyraJ1llical and rigid L!J"oundlin"
is the rule.
'Ve cannot say with certainty when this makes its first appearance.
Somewhere between King Scorpion and King Narmer seems most.
likely, for on the fragment we analysed it is already used to bracket
a group of symbols. In the fragment shown in PI. Xa, its discipline can
be appreciated, for it has tamed the unruly mob of the earlier palettes
(although it seems to have robbed every creature of some of its mys-
terious potency), and coerced them to move evenly. But with Narmer's
palette (PI. IX) the insidious potentialities of a groundline have be-
come apparent. It binds each figure to a definite unspecified locality.
None of them can longer float in an amorphous or confused setting.
But this same depthless and anonymous locality, this line, bans all
figures to the pictorial surface and limits their spatial coherence to
movement or interaction in one plane and on one level. There is no
possibility for figures on superimposed groundlines ever to achieve
some kind of spatial relationship. Recession and illusionistic fore-
ground are (for better or for worse) barred, while the line itself can act
only as a tenuous spatial link in the case of figures moving in succes-
sion or figures joined in action. If the groundline originated in a
simple 'accolade' with which to link a set of abstractions, it was soon to
give just so much but no more coherence to a number of separat('
figures. It is obvious that the use of a groundline must also inevitably
lead to the use of registers. The obverse of the Narmer Palette (PI. IXb)
already shows these, and it is curious to see what happens to thr'
figures which, for one reason or another, escape from their ban. Th('
decapitated enemies in the top register are a mere pictographic state-
ment practically on a par with the hieroglyphic signs above them.
The figures at the bottom of PI. IXa no longer appear to be slaill
humans in the foreground of a scene as on PI. VIIb, but seem to swim
or float aimlessly in space. The pathetic bull on PI. IX bottom right.
must even step off his groundline in order to crush his floundering
enemy. And, although Narmer's sandal-bearer, spatially unconnected VIII. MACEHEAD OF KING SCORPION
with the king, is standing on a groundline, the figures holding the long (pages 7, 19)
necked monsters lack theirs undoubtedly because their spatial relatioJl
with the beasts, though not clearly defined, could not be ignored.
We see, therefore, that within the span of a few generations tlw
bold efforts to depict coherent scenes in space and local setting an'
sacrificed for the sake of a rendering in which i1epth is destroyed aJld
unity rcstrictcd to n, mere scquence of ftlluI'CS or of actions whir'lI
o
 S!JNt't' 'I 'J/lft' 11II/J!{('(fIIOIIS
!'I\ Illvc' theil' tuw..:ili/lg (ill I'll"'\.: cnsl's I'VC" OVI·rllLfl[lillg') jlll~ IH'llr-pllllll'
r", Ill\(~ leYel. The numinous .'l~rclIg~h of ~hc buH-king' ttlu11pling on Lis
II' IllY. the human dignity of hillg Scorpion, Ijtanding in homcl

II Iii Y LwLwccn his fan-bearer and hi!' reverent acolyte, have been SUpf·'··
IIII'd by a hieratic figure performing a symbolical act (Pl. IX). Froll.
L!1I1il 'Lc't all confusion inherent in a vague and fumbling spatial rcndt·l'-
; 111-1 IlliS been eliminated, This is not an act performed at a certain plare.
llill'ssed from a certain angle; no functional relation cxists betwcI'11
UII ohserver and what is depicted, which is utterly remote from an
~IIII' inl considerations. We saw that the landscape setting on the mace-
':'1
II' lid l'nhanced the singleness of the occurrence. But from the Nal'Incr
j'.ll,·tl,c coincidence and contiguity are barred and the king's mnT('
IIh-IlL gesture has therefore the peculiar static quality of a symbol.
till! Narmer's is a timeless act.

('. THE SPACE-TIME IMPLICATIONS OF MONUMENTAL AnT

We have, so far, in explaining the scenes, given what we called

I" !'me 'a mere paraphrase of supposed actions and situations'; it i:-;,
1'"w('Yer, also possible to consider their implicit meaning. In mosl
Ill~S the names of the royal participants are given so that the SertH'S
IIl1lJt·niably refer to actual historical events even if, as in thc case of'
till' Narmer Palette, the reference is indirect. We do namely know tho. I,
lI'III(T did achieve an important conquest. In fact, thesc proto-
1\' IIILHLic objects are, in the original sense of the word, monumellt~,
I hl'y nre 'reminders', they commemorate: Historians interpretingthciJ:
1I11'lIning and spelling out the names of the principal actors arc well
\~ IIrc of a momentous break with the preceding period in which prv-
lIil the slow, anonymous, and undramatic changes of the prehistori
IW'. Hut the fact that the proverbial 'dawn of history', so conveniently
tllIHidered synonymous with the discovery of script, should eoincid"
11'1(' with the creation of 'reminders', has been too easily taken as
ftllillnate contingency. For elsewhere personal identity and secub.r
\1'1I1. have by no means been the main concern of the earliest writers
liid the artists, their contemporaries. In Mesopotamia, for instance,

Illldler-of-fact accounts, word lists, and religious scenes predominut('.1

III fllcL, proto-historic Egypt is quite cxceptional in that it apparently
1\ lJidcd depicting divinities and fell into the temptation of appraising-

'lid pl'Oclaiming the significance of human acts. Now the crcatioll of'
tlllIllll mcnts in the sense of reminders, does not only reveal a pre-

Ill'I'Il!ltLtion with actual events. For since no doubt frOTTI time imllll'ltlO-
I Oil ell rly word li.~ts un,1 contr:H;ts /:ice A .• ,',t1 kt,:llstcj II, A r('/lai.w·IIe ')',\,'Ie (I/I.~
, ,"I. (Ilt-rllll, llIaO). S(;t' al;;o p. l'J,!;l.
21
 1'1/1' /'n', ((I/(ll'r% Im/wlf "/lltH!
'illl, legend Jmd be('11 Lll(' fmil dl'pOiiilw'y or IlIHII i Iklilit ('venL, Lt.e
'l'co.Lioll of monuments can only be 11l1l1cl'fll,OI)d IlS It «:hnllcngc. If lL
single occurrence or achievement is claimed tv )mve more thall
ephemeral significance, and appears to be threatened by oblivion, this
threat may be answered by the creation of lasting reminders that shall
give them the dignity of the unchanging. Through an indestructible
message or pointer, it may be claimed that one isolated fact or single:
person is significant beyond the here and now and can be rescued foJ'
and from the future; in this assertion the dual aspect of time as both
exalter and antagonist of man is implied.
Weare here primarily concerned not with monumental intention
but with the fact that in the art of the proto-historic period some
'reminders' depict actual events while others seem to avoid this. Are
we to call either of these 'monumental art'? At the risk of appearing
paradoxical, I would suggest that the term be avoided here. For
though monumental intention and artistic representation of actuality
may coincide, they need not be truly correlated. If the function of a
monument is to perpetuate the impermanent, to stress the trans-
cendent significance of human action, then the term 'monumental art'
should be reserved for those rare instances where this implicit paradox
has found aesthetic expression. Monumental art in this pregnant sense
is sui generis; it neither renders mere contingencies, nor does it com-
pletely avoid actuality; it does not hover between symbolical state-
ment and factual representation; both should determine and require
each other within the one achievement. The criterion of monumental
art should, in fact, lie in a tension between the ephemeral and the last-
ing, between concrete event and transcendent significance. And it is,
as we shall see, the very absence of this tension which makes it
undesirable to apply the term (in the sense in which we shall hence-
forth use it) to the bulk of Egyptian representational art.
In the proto-dynastic monuments neither the earlier reliefs nor that
of Narmer deserve the term, for opposite reasons. On the lion palette
(PI. VIIb) a battle was commemorated, on the macehead (PI. VIII)
the opening of a canal. These occurrences were evidently considered
of lasting significance. Yet the actual representation only reveals thei,.
transient aspect. It is an artistic rendering of an event, not ofthe trans-
cendent significance of the event. This, on the other hand, has beell
achieved on the Palette of Narmer, but at the cost of actuality. WI'
can here for the sake of clarity contrast these scenes with a superb
example of true monumental art in Mesopotamia (PI. LXII). ']'It(·
stele of Naramsin docs contain the tension between the human HilI!
the exalted, between actual event in time Ilnd spn.ce and (\, diiipJay or
~~
1';/1'/11'.\/1,\: .')/'/"/)1/11'(' III tI//' 1;01/1/(/
lIJ!('rhlln1n.f) myul powe!' wt.id. L"nnsccnds the telllporai. We shall in
111(' clJurse of our analysis of classical Egyptian relief and painting
n·pl'o.tcdly hnve to point out the absence of this 'monumental tension'
Illd shall find it confirmed by the predominant choice of subject matter.
'I'his always moves between the two extremes of secular scenes in a
Irivial sense and symbolical abstraction; it also avoids with a consis-
h'ncy which should have surprised the Egyptologist (but apparently
IH~ver did) all reference to myth. For mythical acts, heroic or divine,
I\lwe both a dramatic character and a timeless significance which
hould make them particularly suitable for monumental treatment
II'! the Greeks have shown.
It is tempting to speculate on the historic implications of such
I'evolutionary changes: the sudden appearance on proto-dynastic monu-
lllcnts of a bold emphasis on actuality, its equally sudden disappear-
JUIce in the rendering of the king from the time of Narmer on. But we
hrwe no data with which to corroborate what must remain a mere
l'onjecture, namely, that the strict dogma of divine kingship, which
later dominated Egyptian life, may well have crystallized in this very
period, and did not allow of any tension between factual and ideal
power,1 Here we can only stress that from Narmer on all royal acts,
('ven if spectacular, appear in art deliberately deprived of their too
pecific, too ephemeral character, become typical repetitive acts. All
royal figures become formal, enlarged; they have something of the
restraint, the dispassionateness of ritual actors.
D. EXCURSUS: SCULPTURE IN THE ROUND
We find, therefore, that in the art of the proto-dynastic period a new
preoccupation with significant event first leads to the creation of lively
descriptive scenes with monumental intent, but that their transitory
eharacter was sacrificed in favour of a symbolical rendering, in which
the figures appear static, 'timeless', not ephemeral. The paradox of
monumental art remained therefore unsolved, and it was only in the
plastic figure, which could remain aloof from the problem of activity,
that the Egyptian artist achieved true monumentality. It is curious
that in the period which separates the efforts of proto-dynastic times
lLnd those of the third dynasty, when the character of Egyptian art
/I ppears set, we witness the development of sculpture in the round.
r shall here briefly refer to it because in one respect its problems are
closely related to our subject.
Proto-historic carvings do not in the earlier stages show any trace
! TI. Fmnkful't, Ring.sMp and tlte Gods (Chicago, 1948).
3
 "h,' ",/, (/"'/ /',,,111111.\/,,,, ','1/ 0/ /
or IIII' ndVt'IIIIII'O\lNIl\'SS 01' pitt.\'riul 111'1; 111('y III"(' 1110:-.11.)' illlll,ticulM
vitI, cylindrico.l shupeN, WhCl'CI1S the prchil4t.ol'j(' Clll,)' ligmincN, though
inar'ticulatc, havc bold plustic movement:; (1'1. Xb), lifted arms, and
massive jutting-out lower limbs, in the carvings arms and legs seem
pressed together and projecting forms are reduced and flattened, as
if to stress the self-containedness of the plastic unit by an unruffled
surface.
The first historic monument, however-the baboon inscribed
with the name of Narmer (PI. Xc), has both plastic articulation and
coherence; it has, moreover, all the characteristics of later Egyptian
sculpture-its cubism (though not yet pronounced); its frontality;
its closed, static form, Almost contemporaneous with, but in my
opinion just preceding it, is an astonishing small carving (PI. Xd)
which in spirit seems much nearer to King Scorpion's slate palette
than to Narmer's. It is the portrait of a stooping, almost hunchbacked,
old man with a wide, protruding mouth and misshapen ears, wrapped
in a regal mantle-a human presence, so concrete that it seems almost
poignantly vulnerable when compared with the unassailable solidity of
later figures; it is a living organism, not petrified life. This is not only
due to subject matter; physical abnormalities also interested later
Egyptian artists, if mainly in a revolutionary period. But never again
was the human body treated as a living organism whose gestures and
posture are imposed from within. After Narmer, in a few transitional
stages, the character of Egyptian plastic is set and never changes in
essential. It never breaks away from certain fixed codes, one of these
being an un-organic structural scheme for the rendering of human and
animal figures.
The concepts used in the analysis of Egyptian sculptural form have
been several: Schaefer's monster-word 'geradansichtig-vorstellig';l
Krahmer's 'static space';2 Frankfort's 'stereometric approximation'.
Each has its special merit; but I prefer the term 'un-organic structure'
although the term 'un-organic' has been used by Snijder 3 in a purely
deprecating sense, merely to denote the lack of anatomical articulation
in Egyptian sculpture as compared with archaic Greek art.
We mean by this term that the Egyptian does not render the
human figure as a living, potentially mobile organism, involved in a
network of relationships and to be comprehended by the spectator
only in a circular movement that can encompass the whole range of
its complex functions. The static quality of Egyptian sculpture is not
1 Vide supra p. 7, n. 2.
!l'I'11l should date from the very period when in relicf the trallsient
2 Vide supra p. 7, n. 1.
l'Iulnl.Ctcr of cvcnts is overcome. I mean thc magnificent ca.rving we
• G. A. S. Snijder, 'Ovcr Egyptisclw cn Grickschc Bccldhollwkunst,' in
Maal1dbladvoor lJrelrleru[eJ(ul1.slcn, IV (1l)27), lIIH HO.
2/t
'C./ClirSII:;: S/'/lI/lllin' 1/1 l/it' 11,)/111(/
IhiLt Or ILlI argO-lIhiO' j Il rcpOSe (1'" .. I h"1\ f('st is 11 1111'1'/' phase of' move­
rllcnt),; it has the immobility of u (·r'ySl,il.llinc structure, of 0. form rcdu­
riblc to a simple system of co-ordinates (pI. XI).
:h:gyptian 'cubism' is therefore not a stereometric mould forced 011
organic forms, distorting or effacing them; it is a structural system of
horizontal and vertical axes which the human robot is made to servc.
Within this system limbs have no separate function; incapable of
'sture, arms are limply or stiffly arranged; legs are not taut with
muscular energy but solid massive pillars, so that if one leg is advanced
It appears a diagonal prop.
This inorganic or even anti-organic rendering of the human figur
{ives it, however, its curious character of non-transience, of a tran­
quillity deeper than repose-its 'timeless' character, in fact, if we will
use this word in an un-sentimental, non-metaphysical sense.
But this represents only one peculiarity of Egyptian plastic.
I'~qually important is the lifelikeness of the face which, though expres­
ionless in the sense that it suggests neither character nor mood, yet
IIggests an individual. Attempts at formal analyses prove inadequatc
here. They leave untouched the mystery of a personal presence which
I hese faces convey; and they do not solve the problem of why such a
head and a rigidly formalized body were joined to form a superbly
dignified if always faintly disturbing whole.
It is this very problem which bears on the subject of time and
lIH)fiumentality which I discussed in the preceding section. We have
'cn already that proto-dynastic statuettes, though contemporaneous
with the palettes, are less revolutionary in character. Yet they are a
"urious innovation, in so far as the meaning and the function of these
J1/{ures is both novel and obscure. The pre-dynastic figurines, pre­
dominantly female, are invariably found in tombs and must have
hnd some magic-religious significance. The proto-dynastic statucttes,
however, were found within the temple enclosure; they are too numer­
IlIiS and too insignificant for cult objects. Can they be votive images of
worshippers or figures representing such dead as were worthy of vencr­
ILl ion? In either case there would be some relation between the imag
Illd an actual individual it would represent. This relation is, we arc
1I('lined to believe, one of complete likeness in the case of the ivory
Il,{urine (PI. Xd), a mere tranche de vie, a human presence, frail,
pllcmeral-unmonumental.
It does not seem mere accident that the first statue worthy of this
II I'·('l\.dy mcntioncd 01':1 b~Ll>oon bearillg NArmcl"s TWO'll' (PI, X('). It hilS
2r.:
 '/'h" I'!'(!- ftlul I'rota hi,\/OIlC' I', ('Iur! 1~.I'(,II"SLfS: ."lr·/tlIJ/llre IfL /1,,' "O//IIr 1

(as wun: joined wiLh a ,~upcrb naivcle ltJld tl

boon sugges ted thallh is enigma lic figul"o ""')I'I'Nt 'll!H I.h(· #.{ud Tholh II II\Sl!ive, ChtLllg'clcss rOl'lll­
lIlustcry which almost hides its parado x. From that J(JonlCnt
th
the baboo n does in laler times) and tlw:t the Jlllllle or NlLrmr r mercl
ent­
means that he had dedica ted it, but this would lJc con trary to all
sub­ Ji~gyptjan sculpto r seems -apart from a little playfu l ornam
only monum ental art. For thc
sequen t usage in Egypt ian art, where the naDlc always denote s destine d, doome d almost , to create
was only represe nted as 'lassical canon of Egypt ian sculptu re and its implic it metaph ysical
identit y. It is true that in later times the king
. In
a sphinx or a griffin, not as a sacred animal ; but if, as appear s also
from parado x domin ated also the later funera ry art of private people
of
the contem porary relief, the effort was made to overco me the all-too
­ fllct, only the recogn ition that histori c individ uality and the dignity
by I he unchan ging need not destro y each other but can formal ly be united
human in the render ing of regal superi ority (not only symbo lically facts
the act of an overpo wering bull) we might accept perhap s the correla ­ in a way not lacking in harmo ny may explain two correla ted
ental charac ­
tion of name and image and deduce from it its monum ental purpos e. that in Egypt ian art all human portra iture has a monum
y
The impres sive animal figure would then be pregna nt with an
ideal ter and that this art require s the setting of a tomb.l For if divinit
h
significance and contai n implic itly the statem ent that kingsh ip trans­ was the prerog ative of kings, the human cycle had to pass throug
of concre te life. Only the
cends mere human individ uality. l death to leave behind the changi ng charac ter
It must be remem bered that in this period not only the king
but tomb might be the backgr ound and the justific ation of a form which
royal
also his followers lose anony mity-a n innova tion quite unpara lleled Ilttemp ted to combin e the ephem eral and the timeles s. The
are mes indepe ndent of the actual tomb, as in
in other early Near Easter n culture s. In the graves of courtie rs Nlatues alone were someti
. 2 But, though this might mean Lhe case of the Sphinx and the later colossi .
often found stones bearin g their names and
that some form of lasting individ uality had becom e a more genera
l If one should ask why among st severa l possibi lities the cubic
need, though some dead no longer namele ss might magica lly preserv c not, as for instanc e in early Mesop otamia , the conica l form should
ber
their actual ity in a sculptu red word, it was at first solely in the figure have been chosen as a structu ral system it would be well to remem
y where for a length of five
of the living king that the monum entalit y of the human form,
the I hat Egypt ian art was born in a countr
land
correla tion of the concre te and the ideal, could be achiev ed. For the hundre d miles a lifegiving stream and a narrow strip of fertile
its
king was not a person al, ephem eral being. Whate ver the proble ms, in­ nre. hemme d in by the ruthles s paralle l lines of cliffs that mark
of
finitely involv ed, ofthes ignific ance of Egypt ian kingsh ip, the myster
y bounda ries; beyond lies the desert, lies death. The Egypt ian south
this one fact stands out: 'airo does not know a circula r horizon ; orienta tions run at right angles,
of its origin, the specul ation which obscur es it,
are
the king was not a mortal ; in him the cycle of existen ce was
com­ Hnd distinc tive directi ons are not only clear-c ut and final- they
an ever­
pleted and renewe d. pregna nt with meaning,2 Plastic imagin ation, perme ated by
be
The grandi ose parado x of sacred kingsh ip, of an ideal becom e con­ presen t cosmic antithe sis, may well submi t and, by submit ting,
(\nlarged and deepen ed beyond the range of wilfuln ess. The dignity
crete, this divine comed y acted and re-ena cted throug h the ages seems ess,
the parado x of monum entalit y itself. Once this had been tentati
vely nnd also the limitat ions of Egypt ian art-it s crystal line harshn
negat ion­
expres sed in animal form a swift develo pemen t took place. In a few its overwh elming preocc upatio n with transie nt life, and its
genera tions only,3 throug h a few labour ed transit ional stages,
a ILre those of the southe rn Egypt ian landsc ape.
of
plastic form of royal image is evolv ed-a tension al harmo ny 1 The fact that in the early middle Kingdo
m, and probabl y already in the First
temples is no
to both aesthe tic and meta­ Interme diate period, statues of private people were placed in local these statues
oppos ites-a form so deeply satisfy ing doubt indicati ve of the social upheava l: the formula s with which offerings (see
thl'
physic al needs that it could claim the artist's submis sion during lIre inscribe d show that the owner hopes to benefit
from the temple
Hans Kayser, Die Tempel­
alivl' Egyptolo gique, 1, 53 sqq., and
whcle of Egypt ian history (PI. XI). An individ ual head- alert, Muspero, Biblioth eque
berg, 193(:i).
anj,·, latuen iigyptischer Privatleute im mittleren und im neuen Reich (Heidel Intellect!'
-and a body lacking all hint at potent ial movem ent, an un-org "For the charact er of space in mythop oeic thought see The
til,· Idllentur e Of Ancient Man (Chicago, 1946), pp. 20-23.
1 There appears to have been a particul arly close connect ion between ill
Nachric hten der Ges. der Wissens chajten
earliest kings and Thoth; see H. Kees,
Gottingen, Phil.-H ist. Klasse, 1929, pp. 57-64.
2 W. M. Flinder s Petrie, The Royal Tombs
oj the F'irst Dynasty (Londo n, HUH)).

idem, The Royal Tombs oj the Earliest Dynn.sties (London , IUOl).

8 A royal head in Univers ity College,

London , j~ bclicveu hy Petrie to belon',

to the First Dynasty .

20 21
 CHAPTER II

The Old Kingdom

A. TIlE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENES OF DAILY

LIFE IN PRIVATE TOMBS

F
amiliarity may breed contempt; it may do worse: it may dull our
capacity for wonder. And the fact that the funerary reliefs 01'
the Old Kingdom have made us so familiar with the ancient.
Egyptian at work and play, his clothes, his skills, his food, and his enter-
tainments, may well make us forget that he is a unique phenomenon
in history. No other people paid such elaborate tribute to human exist-
ence in nearly all its manifestations. The fact that this tribute was
incorporated in a funerary monument is not a paradox; for in the facl'
of death the ultimate value of life may well be assessed, negated, or
confirmed. But it is amazing that the Egyptians apparently nevel'
questioned the value of life's typical occurrences, that they considered
these significant enough for pictorial treatment. This does imply a
resignation that is both naive and almost stoic. No Egyptian hero ever
challenged the gods in quest for superhuman achievement, no Egyptiull
prophet ever rejected life's trivialities in order to attain lasting values.
Even if death is praised it is in terms of life. The heroic or the ascetic
with its implicit passionate protest, its effort to transcend life's limita-
tions, has never found expression in either word or image.
Yet the familiar 'scenes of daily life' of the Old Kingdom tombs,
so worldly, so serene, present a veritable hornet's nest of problems.
What was their raison d'etre, for surely they were not a mere paeall
to earthly pleasures? Was their intention magical, commemoratiVl'.
or ostentatious, the summing up of a man's status and his wealth't
Is it the dead man who is depicted receiving offerings, watching tl\l'
harvest, desert hunts, trapping of birds? If so, do the scenes take pial'\' X 1\, ' LIB Y " T\" 1';\ LET' 1'1': ( /IO/.!'e ~ () )
in the Hereafter? The answer to these questions, which will prove I.) X 1\. /' In: /) Y 1\ 1\ S'I' I (' /.' I (; I' H I N I·: (/ )(l~'(' :! I.)
no means irrelevant for our problem, is both simplrr and more comoit"
Xl'. B,\B()O!'< O!" 1\1.'\1: t\,\I:~II·:I: (/If'.!,::'.' :!I.)
~I{

XI). HOY,.\I 111,1 lil'\I·: (/'(/::/ :!l.)

 SIf;II(jll'(IfI/'I' (d' '/1/' 8('/'/11',\ (~J I ),II~> I (
1111111 hUH Ol'tl'lI Iwell ItSSUll1l'd. Sill1l'k,' !JCCILIIIlC it is pO:-lsihlo 10 I'{'

Iljlf,(' ill the (lccoru\,il)1I of !'he ca.rlicl· I,ombs not un o.llllost ftllllllslie
lulwowtb. of primitive pJ"tlcticcs bllt lI. sober SChCJllO which shows
logical constraint. More complex because the relief::; of the royal
funerary temples, invariably treated as stylistically indistingoishaLl
fr'om private tombs!, actually differ from them both as regards rcplT
'ntational content and intention, so that whenever motifs, or even
notions, were borrowed from royal monuments by artists working 1'01'
private tombs, this entailed a confusion of contradictory schemes, not
IIlCrely innocent plagiarism. I hope to prove that many inconsistencies
which obscure the original scheme already in late Old Kingdom tombs,
h/lve their origin in royal temples, where they belong, and that although
Ihis original scheme was later rarely strictly adhered to, was seriously
Ilircatened in the Middle Kingdom, and even practically discarded
during the Amarna period, it remained basic throughout the complex
tI<'velopment of funerary art.
The earliest known representations found in a private tomb are
Ihose of the royal scribe Hesire, (Pl.VI).2 His tomb contained a series of
Ill' superb wooden reliefs depicting the owner. These were placed in
lIiches on one side of a long passage with a painted frieze running alon
Ihe opposite side. Only one of the reliefs-presumably the one in the
"llntre-shows the deceased sitting in front of his offering table, a
rone' known from a few earlier carvings and from archaic seals. III
Ilit others he appears, standing inactive, in the nonfunctional rendering
Iwd rigid, robot-like posture described in the Introduction. Th
Jminted frieze contains no 'scenes' as yet but the images of treasured
,J,jects and necessities of life: chairs, beds, games, vessels, and food
III quantity. It is obvious that these pictures must have had som
I Illd of magical intent, for though the interment of the dead man's
IlIlssessions may merely mean that they are taboo for the living­
III i 1\ ted with his now dreaded power-to picture them means to ensure
IlwiT presence for the owner of the tomb. But this strange link with the
llllll.crial world does not warrant the conclusion that the Hereafter was
.·tlUceived as a mere continuation of life on earth. There is, in fact, not 0.
1I~le early text to confirm this view (although there are many to refu"
') apart from the belief that the dead depend for their existence on
IlIlId offerings from the living. All other references to the life hereafter
"l' to the New Kingdom utterly lack the concreteness we might expect
I ~Ud1 views were held.
XI. AIVIENEMJ-IET III l~~xccpt in the case of food pictures where the purpose is urunistllJ,·
(7)(1/{f 25) I A. Scharff. Hand/melt dcr Altcrl-umswissenncn~cltafl (Munchen, 10;.19), 1, 5()7.

1.1. qllibcll, Ji:xCal'l7./iolls at SlIqqara, The ~l'{jllJb of I/CRy (Caim, Hll :J).

29

 SU.!.III Ii ('flI /('/' () I fIll' S( '('I/('S ( f)m h· LtI't'

/'/,1' Old l\lm:.t llIII/
H bonL Or the H/linm ls belong ing to his 'home of eterni
ty'-cit hcr his
n,hle, thcrc iN sonw dlLn~('t ill liNing th{' wI/I'd 'Ilulgi," "l'l'C; it
IrIlLy
man
lize the purpos e of these picLure s and funera ry estate or his domail l in genera l. The parado x of' a dead
t('mpt us to dc!inc anti raLiona
to assume that the ancien ts though t and acted with primit ive logit­
represc ntcd as a living person and watchi ng the triviali ties of life which
and

though startin g from wrong premis es, namely , that life after deat" include plough ing, the catchin g, carryin g, and cutting up of fish,
estates ) might the

entaile d the same needs and enjoym ents as before. All we can say
is hringin g oftribu te by servan ts (who repres ent named
a Here­

that ephem eral life and its necessities still matter ed to the dead;
ill be neatly resolve d by assumi ng that these scenes took place in
ing
fact, the whole subseq uent develo pment of funera ry art shows that. ILfter identic al with actual life or, as Monte t has done,l by explain
of the living, as if the dead man
it matter ed greatly . The dead, far from being comple tely severed thcm as posthu mous visits to regions
Both
from life, were linked with it by ritual sacrifice and by the perma
nent ('ould still claim an interes t in and. lordsh ip over his domain .
2 that the
presen ce of life's pleasu rable aspect s in their last and lasting dwellin
gs. interpr etation s are conjec tural, and even Kees' assum ption
the
To explain so comple x and so contra dictory a phenom enon as the cenes repres ent a fictitio us, a symbo lical domai n to compe nsate
attemp t to see in them the summi ng­
symbo lical presen ce of treasur ed goods by assum ing that they were
a dead for actual loss, or Spiegel's3
the
magica l device for ensurin g use in the Hereaf ter is as arbitra ry as it lip of a life's achiev ement, ignore the only statem ent we have of
an nncien ts themse lves. The dead man sees or watche s.
would be absurd to explain in a similar way the fact that Americ
mourn ers dress a dead man in his best clothes before burial. The
word This simple statem ent has never been taken at its face value and the
'magic ' may merely prejud ice our unders tandin g of later funera ry verb m" has usually been render ed by 'inspec ting', a far more active,
s:
usages. 1 far more practic al word. The reason for transla ting it thus is obviou
it tempti ng
The tomb of Hesire is the earlies t examp le known of the mural he liveliness of the scenes, especia lly the later ones, makes
orbit
decora tion of private tombs;2 and it is unfort unatel y the only
one to draw the figure of the dead man, even when inactiv e, into the
will prove unwar ranted and may, as we
known in the Third Dynas ty. The subseq uent develo pment of tomb of genera l activit y. But this
which can be avoide d by
decora tion is all the more remark able for being sudden ly interru
pted shall see, lead to strang e misrep resenta tion,4
may be that
by Khufu 's reign. The tombs of Rahot ep and Neferm aat in Medum keeping imagin ation in check. The reward of this effort
more
which are contem porane ous with Sneferu, show most signifi cant experi­

t.he schem e of the scenes appear s less charm ingly naIve but
that the dead man merely sees or watche s,

ments and innova tions, but these find no scope in the austere mastab as Nignificant, If we may take it
be hard to find a term more
of the later Fourth Dynas ty in Gizeh, where all decora tion is restric
ted then we may admit that it would actual ly
scene
to a small plaque showin g the dead man and his offerings. Nubtle and more suitabl e to expres s the curiou s implic ations of a
The
Most remark able in Rahote p's tomb (PI. XII) is the fact that the in which the dead man and the living world are confro nted.
the watche r shares, but he does not partici pate; his is not merely vulgar
owner is picture d not only seated in front of his offering table- ia­
classical scene which from now on was never absent in the most /.freed for the perpet uation of earthly pleasu res nor a comple te renunc
the word expres ses
impor tant place of the tomb, the recess or false door throug h which I ion of all life has to offer. I do not mean by this that
man,
/1, purely aesthe tic enjoym ent. Most scenes
have a bearin g on food
the dead commu nicated with the living -but, like a living

watchi ng (so the text says explici tly) a variety of scenes. These scenes produc tion, and food offerings were to guaran tee existen ce in the Here­
t ILfter. This and the ostenta tious empha sis on wealth and status

are as yet very simple and are vertica lly arrang ed in registe rs withou nta­

appare nt order, the large figure of the standi ng man bracke ting the undou btedly have some magica l intent. Yet in this strang e confro
g of I ion of the dead man and gay scenes of daily life, the word
'watch ing'
groups . The text states that he is watchi ng the hunt or the makin ng­
('xpresses both an elemen t of resigna tion and an elemen t of clingi
1 On magic in funerar y usages see pp. 50 and 51. which makes the word 'magic ' appear too primiti ve, too gross. If magic
a special
2There is one painted fragmen t in the tomb of Hesire which presents marshy la vie privee dans les tombeaux Egyptiens de
to be a J Pierre Montet, Les Scenes de
problem (Quibell, op. cit., PI. VII, 2), a crocodile and what appears scene since thl' I'll'Itcien empire (Strasbo urg, 192,.;).
setting for wild life. This has been rather rashly called a hnnting r (Leipzig ,
wooden reliefs of the owner have no relation whatev er to the painted rnny merely
catalog ue of • H. Kees, TOlenglauben und Jenseitsvorstellungen der allen Aegyple
s no human beings, this 'scene', if it is one, 1lI2G),5 0f.
belongin gs which contain (Leipzig,
mean the symboli cal presenc e of yet another instruln ent of I\ristocrIt need 1101.
atic enjoy­ • J. t;piegcl, Die Idee von Totengericht in der aegyptischen ReUgion
lOllS), p. 6.
ment and display of /ikill, on a par with t.he dcpicted /otIlIllCS Ilntl Koods. • Sl'e below, pp. 32 r., and cop, 11.:3,
be explaine d ns l\ picLllre ofl':lysi nn huntinl-( fields.
tl :n
 rill
1111 \'lInt WtlS ill"'l1d('t1 LlIl'" Ill(' 't 11Il\INllll(hl cA' heel',
NIINLt'I1I1II('(' WUH
lhowmnds of Iwcl),d' of the (/rf'('t"illg li~ls or' I "t' pic'tlll'C l ) f scrVlUlls
bril1ging tribute would have sulliccd, SincC' tlwy cvidcnUy did 1I0t WC
must assume that not only food, but the manifestations oflife itself, in
effigy, were brought into the tomb in order that the deceased might
behold them,
It may be argued that the dead man's inactivity merely means
that he wishes to pose as a man of leisure-that in such scenes he might
therefore be rendered as he was in his lifetime. It may also be argued
that there are instances of 'biographical' and active scenes which
would contradict our interpretation. This, however, does not hold good
for the earlier examples. The often-quoted instance of Nefermaat
holding his hounds on a leash and catching birds 1 is invalid, for we
have to deal here with a double tomb and it is not in his tomb that
Nefermaat is pictured thus but in that of his wife, who stands motion­
less to receive the gift. It is a curious fact, which has so far escaped
notice, that when Nefermaat and his wife Atet are pictured together in
his tomb the wife clings to the husband who remains inactive through­
out. 2 In her tomb, on the other hand, he makes his wooden gesture of
protection and is shown active in procuring food for her.
The possibility that the dead man poses as a man of leisure has
little in its favour. Where the confrontation of the dead and scenes of
increasing liveliness would almost of necessity invite them to partici­
pate, it is striking how reluctantly small changes were made in the
direction of activity. We do find, for instance, in the middle of the Old
Kingdom, not only the dead man facing those who bring the king's
gifts or the account of these, but his seated figure with hand out­
stretched as if to receive the account, though not actually grasping it
(PI. XVIIa).8 We see him in the so-called 'toilet scene' as if submitting
to the treatment of servants,4 or being carried in a sedan chair,5 instead
of standing or leaning on his staff. It is here that one might be tempted
to argue-on the basis of early material-in favour of a 'scene of daily
1 Flinders Petrie, Medum (London, 18(2), PIs. XXII and XXVII.

2 lbid., PIs. XVII and XIX,

3 L.D. II, 74c; Luise Klebs, Die Reliefs des Allen Reicks, p.24. It is interesting
XII. PAINTING FROM THE TOMB OF RAHOTEP
to note that in Giza II, 128 and 129, the 'giving of the list' (namely, of royal
offerings) is mentioned, and also 'seeing the offerings which the royal palace has (page 30)
brought, 1000 young cattle, etc', but the cattle are not depicted and the list is only
being held out, Only in Sixth Dynasty tombs, Blackman Meir IV, PI. XV, Junker,
Giza VI, p. 115, Fig. 34 and PI. IX does the owner grasp the list.
• Wreszinski, Atlas, III, PI. 2.
5 vV. M. Flinders Petrie, Medum, PI. XXI, where the context is obscure; Giz.a
I, 189, Fig. 37, No.8, is doubtful; Ti, PI. 16; Mereruka I, PI. 14; ibid., II, PI. 157;
F. W. von Bissing, Die Mastaba des Gem-ni-lcai (Leipzig 1905; HIll) I, PI. XXII;
N. de Garis Davies, The Rock Tombs of Deir el Gebrawi II, I'!. VIII; L.D. 11,4.;:
llnd 50. Giza. V, p. 85, Fig. 20.

:1'

 (88 J,fJml) 1.1 3:0 t1:HIOL 't)\UG'lH1II J~Yot[ 't1:AIX

(LS Jf}1J([) 11, 3:0 ffHIOJ, 'dOHS)ITIONl S, TIO.Ld'Ifl;)S 'VAIX
 'itrlll hC((f/~'" . lit '('CIl /'S . Unil,,' Li{~'

life' whieh would include the dead. It is also in scholarly descriptions

of such scenes as these that expressions like 'pleasure- or inspection-
trip', 'morning toilet', or 'morning reception' abound and prejudice
the interpretation. l But the loving care with which the passive dead is
treated or being carried, though not strictly in keeping with what we
called the inherent logic of the scene, does not wholly contradict it.
For it should be noted that the attitude of the dead remains passive
also here and though we must acknowledge that an effort was made to
bridge the gap between the worlds of the living and the dead, only our
interpretation can account for the fact that while there is frequent
mention in the accompanying texts of the activities of others, never
once is any reference made to the dead man's actions other than
'watching'-not even the receiving of accounts~and that apart from
one instance in Ti's tomb he remains in the earlier reliefs passive
throughout. In this one instance, Ti, identified by name but character-
istically without mention of his act, is seen to give the signal for
closing the bird's net. 2 It is this persistent passiveness which corrobo-
rates our interpretation of the term 'seeing' and it is the combination
of both which makes us feel justified in considering the original scheme
both subtle in meaning and restrained in purpose.
Another fact should be stressed: only the explanation just given
can account for the absence in the scenes of biographical material,
which is abundant in the texts. This should be surprising only to those
who insist on calling the scenes 'narrative'. This term is anyhow mis-
XV. CATTLE FORDING STREAM; TRIBUTE BEARERS, TOMB OF TI leading. There is no question of a story told in these pictures. Apart
(page 44) from sacrificial scenes life's typical aspects are rendered, especially
those with a bearing on food production-agriculture, cattle raising,
game provision, and fishing-though industry and even trade occur.
We find, in fact, elaborate pictographic conceits rather than images of
transient events. These conceits may need multiple statements, con-
sisting of the various phases of one typical occurrence. They should
lhen be 'read': harvesting (PIs. XVIIIa; XIXb, c;) entails ploughing,
sowing, and reaping; care of cattle entails fording of streams and
milking; boating entails fights between sailors, etc. The sequence of the
scenes is purely conceptual, not narrative, nor is the writing which
occurs with the scenes dramatic in character. The signs, remarks,
names, songs, and exclamations, which illuminate the action much as
does the text of a comic strip, do not link events or explain their
I It does not seem worth while to collect instances; Luise Klebs, W. Wres-

I.inski, and even N. de Garis Davies have frequently used these or similar expres-
Ions.
• Ti, PI. 116. Seneb, in the Sixth Dynasty appears pulling a rope in his boat
llilin~ to the Nccropolio. Giza V, p. 63, Fig. 14. See below, section E, pp. 56 fl.
:l~l F.A.M.
 I 'I Ii': () 1d 1\1"/-i tit) /II
development; they lLrc lypicuJ sayings helonging LIJ typical ~itIlILtions.
If, as we maintain, the rendering of 0. typical timeless event meant
both a potent presence and a source of joy to the dead, then it would be
entirely consistent that although the owner of an Old Kingdom tomb
might state in lengthy texts his station in life, his achievements, his
adventures even, yet no pictorial reference to such transient matters
was made in the scenes of his tomb. Hence we find that also in these
cases the dead is depicted merely sitting in front of his offering table,
never actually eating, though occasionally raising a lotus or unguent
vase to his nostrils (a rather touching hint at his condition)l and
watching the activities of life.
It is, however, largely owing to two types of scenes that, notwith-
standing the inactivity of the main figure, the general scheme of the
decoration has been interpreted as an account of an Egyptian noble-
man's daily life in the sense of a tranche de vie and explained as a
magical device to ensure his pleasures in the Hereafter. These scenes
are the boating and the hunting, fishing, or fowling scenes. The boating
scenes occur already in the early Fifth Dynasty 2 (PI. XIII). It has often
been forgotten that, although the owner of the tomb appears here as
elsewhere as a living person, the scene depicts a posthumous event and
has, as in the case of the pulling of papyrus,3 a strictly religious or
ritual meaning. The accompanying texts make it clear in every case
that it cannot be interpreted as a pleasure trip on the Nile or even as
a journey of inspection. The first is never mentioned, the last only in
one instance: an often quoted text in Ti's tomb. 4 But here the owner
has in this particular case been significantly omitted, and I do not
know of a single case of the dead man participating in a boating scene
where a purely secular motive for the trip has been indicated before
the Middle Kingdom and that in an exceptional tomb.
The desert hunt in Ptahhotep's tombS has been demonstrably
copied in parts from Sahure's temple, but in contrast with these royal
reliefs it does not show the dead man shooting. The first instance of
such direct plagiarism occurs in the tomb of a local princeling in the
1 L. D. 53 and Wreszinski, Atlas, I, 376. Sometimes the dead touches the stem
of the lotus which is being offered: Giza III, p. 153, Fig. 21 and PI. II; Giza VI,
p. 57, Fig. 13; Giza V, p. 91, Fig. 23.
Two instances of the dead touching the offerings placed before them are
quoted by Junker, Giza I, 33.
2 Giza II, 66-69.
3 SETHE, in Z.A.S., LXIV, p. 6-9. Giza IV, 77; Giza V, p. 6ti and Fig. 15. W. S.
Smith, A History of Egyptian Sculpture and Painting 'in the Old RingdO'm, p. HifJ,
Fig. 64.
• Ti,80.
5 Ptahhot<'p I, 22. (Cf. our PI. xvnC.)
iJt1·
'l~lliJi'c;(UI('(1 V/ I h(' Scel/es of J)ail:r CU'"
Middle King-durn in Meil'J where, as we shall sec, the killg's prerogatives
arc often trespassed upon.
There is only a single instance known of a fishing or fowling scene
with the dead participating which antedates the scenes in the funerary
temples of Userkaf and Sahure. This is in the rock tomb of Nebemak-
het2 at the end of the Fourth Dynasty, when a number of new features
appear. In this case there is no question of the prince providing food
for his wife, but it should be stressed that when such scenes occur in the
earlier Fifth Dynasty tombs, the dead man stands inactive in a small
papyrus boat 'watching' the catch. Not till the late Fifth Dynasty was
he shown holding the throw-stick or the double-pronged spear com-
plete with fish;3 and, barring one instance in a late Sixth Dynasty tomb
at DeiI' el Gebrawi,4 it is not till the Middle Kingdom that captions
occur which mention his 'roaming the marshes' and 'catching birds'
or fish.
All this evidence appears to justify our assumption that, although
an approximation of the two forms of existence, before and after death,
seems sometimes aimed at, the 'scenes of daily life' in the earlier Old
Kingdom are not a survey of the dead man's activities in life but the
image of man-in-death watching life's manifestations. His inactivity
should be considered the clue to his status as one of the glorified dead;
his watching, the tenuous link with life-not without a vague magical
purpose-and the raison d' etre of the scenes. That this inactivity
should be gradually suspended in the fishing and fowling scenes may
either be due to the fact that posthumous boat scenes were a regular
occurrence or to a rather innocent plagiarism which hardly trespassed
on royal prerogatives. It is a change all the more explicable because
even the unimaginative Egyptian could undoubtedly picture the dead
roaming the shadowy world of dense papyrus marshes or the eerie
silence of the desert. It is also conceivable that in this particular case
the notion of food provision by the dead man himself played a part,
for it is characteristic that though he is pictured in several instances
as watching a hunt on hippopotami, he never participates. As far as
we know, the hippopotamus was not eaten.
The fact that funerary rites are often elaborately depicted in the
late Old KingdomS might seem incompatible with the intention of the
1 Meir I, PI. VI.
2 Nebemakhet, Smith, Old Kingdom Sculpture, pp. 167 sqq. AJA, XLV, p. 515.
a Boeser, Beschreibung der aegyptischen Sammlung ... in Leiden (The Hague,
I flOS), I, PI. XIV.
• N. de Garis Davies, The Rock Tombs of Deir el Gebrawi 11,29 and PI. XXVI:
'11('nqll being conveyed over the badnvaters to spear fish'.
• Sec .J. A, Wilson, 'Funeral Services of the Egyptian Old Kingdom,' in
.IOIiTIlIII Of NN1T ellsll'rn S'II/t!i/'s, II [(llHtt). ~01-18.
;l!i
 'III' Olr! AIfI/ir/ulIl
ther sccncs. Mol'('()v('I', they do I'CP"('SI'IIL illll' "I'IUlc' lind histol'j('1l,1
event. However, ijincc this took pk'\,cc a. ('()J\sid('r~hlc tilJle afLcr' dCI\,!,h
and was to ensure posthumous existence, its symbolif'il,l prescncc in tlw
tomb meant a magical assurance, a lasting guarantee to the dead mall,
which though different in character was not wholly inconsistent with
the other scenes, since watching the properly performed rites must also
have been a source of joy.

B. THE NON-ACTUALITY OF THE RELIEFS IN

PRIVATE TOMBS

Although our interpretation of the meaning of Egyptian funerary

art must necessarily remain conjectural, it may help to understand
some of its baffling contradictions: its liveliness and its monotony; its
realism and its haunting unreality; its solemn and trivial air. And when
we shall find in our analysis that notwithstanding some timid efforts
by heretic artists and a more formidable onslaught on traditional
schemes in the Amarna period, all rendering of illusionary space was
consistently avoided and, generally speaking, the use of a groundline
and the nonfunctional drawing of human figures rigidly adhered to, we
need not explain this fact by hypostatizing a domineering Egyptian
style but may look for an existing correlation between spatial rendering
and the speculative thought, the peculiar logic, which the scenes imply.
For if the confrontation of the deceased with sacrificial scenes and a
variety of scenes of daily life should signify a vague, though potent,
presence of the latter for the benefit of the former, then the original
and most frequently occurring scheme of a large inactive figure brack-
eting a number of incoherent groups (Pl. XII) would appear to express
such an ill-defined association most satisfactorily, while the paratactic
rendering of the larger and many of the smaller figures would never
help to conjure up scenic effects, which were not intended. l
Now we saw (pp. 8-11) that this type of drawing with its correlate
of 'problematic space' may merely embody a rather primitive solution
of the question of how to depict human beings on a flat surface, that
it may (as in the case of the Scorpion macehead; see Pl. VIII) be dw'
to incompetence rather than intention. This, however, cannot have
been the case here, for Egyptian artists in historical times proved
perfectly capable of rendering a figure in true profile when they XVI. REED MARSH, TOl\IB OF 1'1
needed it as a preliminary for plastic carving; and they frequently (page 39)
used it in relief in order to differentiate between human beings and
1 On the very rare Old Kingdom examples of alrTIOHt frOl1t view in Hub~i(IiILl'

figures, sec W. S. Srllith, 01'. (;it., p. a2:3.

30
 NUfi (/('ll/flll/,) (d lIlt' III //(:j:~ //1 1',II'ffll' '/'ul/Il).\
statll('S IlS 11I('J'C Objc.:Cll'l (T'l. .x IVu). WI' Illight. th"Yeflll'l' ('()IICCUC LhlLI
a paratnctic nmdcl'ing is u.lsll eminently suill1ulc in casell where th,'
artist's intention was not prima:rilyto nppeal to a spectator bydcpi
an event in space and timc, and that the-unfortunately inevito;
use of the word 'scene' with its implicit functional meaning, is he,."
more often than not misleading.
It may be objected that the same type of drawing prevailed whel'
most lively action was depicted; but here also (and, we shall see, ,in
funerary and other templcs as well) an originally primitive trait may
have fulfilled an intention which was by no means primitive, This
possibility has been ignored by all those who found that a discrepancy
existed between the virtuosity of the Egyptian artists and their 'idco-
plastic' methods and who explained this either by extreme conserViI,-
tism and the use of samples from an early date or by a hypersensitiv
appreciation for the smoothness of stone walls which invited a spread-
ing-out of figures. However, constant innovations invalidate th
theory of extreme conservatism, and we shall see that Assyrian artists,
who render figures in profile and delight in spatial illusions, use a relief
as smooth and shallow as the Egyptian. That the matter is more com-
plex was sensed by H. Schaefer; he observed, when critics pointed to
numerous instances where the rendering of depth was unmistakabk.,
that the main interest of these cases lay in the fact that they were of
no consequence whatever. 1 New subjects, new mannerisms might b
introduced and copied but never those which rendered human beings
functionally or which aimed at illusionary space: these were consistently
-and, we may well believe, deliberately-rejected.
'We hope to prove that both the paratactic drawing of figures and
objects (in which Schaefer was exclusively interested) and the obstin-
ate prejudice against illusionary space are different aspects of what
we might call an anti-functional tendency (p. 7 above) in Egyptian
art and that this is more significant than a mere aesthetic whim.
When Riegl, on formal grounds, stressed the haptic (as opposed to
optic) character of Egyptian art in rather equivocal terms,2 he touched
the heart of the problem. He saw that these 'haptic' figures lacked an
appeal to the spatial imagination of the observer. He did not sc'"
however (nor did his followers in the narrow path of formal criticism),
that they also lacked the intention of affecting him or of communi
bng a pictorial message in the manner of true narrative or truc monu-
mcntal art. In fact, they hardly ever depict a situation which til
Hpectator-drawn as it were into the orbit of a 'scene'-was mcant to
1 II. Schaefer, Von ae{!..'Ipt'ischer KUTUit, pp. 213-15.
XVIIA. SCI':NI': IN TOMB OF I'T,\IIII()'I'EI' (/)((~I' :I~)
~ Hicgl, Sliljmg/Jit (13crlin, 11:)1):1).
X V II II. (' 0 W (';\ I, V It'd,. I' () 1\/ II 0 I,' '1'1 (I il I,.!:!,'I , 1.() 37
X\'II('. OI':SI-:/('1' Sl ";1\1,:, 'l'1)i\lH tIl,' 1"1 \111111'1'1-:1' (/ill.!.:.I' 1.1)
 ('lit' (}/r/ .
1\ /fU..:.dlllll
Nluu·('. l«jA'Y pl.inH flllwmry art is l)('dllLps lh~' ollly I Ypl' l)f' lIolJriLllttl
pictorial art kn.own in histOl'y whiC'h lacks all nppcullo I he imo~im\til)lI.
It renders in each 'scene of daily life' H. stage of /I. typic/l.l act, nol.
a phase of a significant occurrence. It does not demand £I.n imaginative
response in a temporal or a spatial sense, either as experience of the
pregnant moment or as reconstruction of the space in which the act
occurs. On the contrary, these 'haptic' representations of typical
acts, however 'lively', are neither significant for, nor focused on the
living beholder; they are primarily meant to be a presence for the dead
who 'own' them. Corporeality and illusionary space, because of their
functional implications, would have been an anomaly, but a paratactic
figure must have appeared a most satisfactory solution, while a ground-
line could come to mean more than a simple device for orderly arrange-
ment; it could be intuitively exploited against illusionary space. It was,
however, no panacea, and we find that the problematic space surround-
ing a paratactic figure adhering to a groundline does actually gain
transparency, on certain occasions. These are of two types, one of
which has been accepted as compatible with the intention of the
tombs, while the second was rejected.
In the first place, it may occur that the paratactic scheme of
arranging limbs and torso appears to render plausibly the contortion
of figures in action. These may then acquire a more convincing, in
fact an organic, corporeality, while at the same time the groundline
gains the quality of skyline (PI. XIVb). Groups of such figures may
seem not only to move in space, but even to move simultaneously. It
is this device which some egyptian artists have exploited to the full
and with great virtuosity, and it is here that the obvious enjoyment
in rendering such 'scenes' for their own sake adds a note almost of
frivolity to a solemn funerary atmosphere. Such instances may hover
between symbolical presence and scene in the full sense of the word.
The second occasion when problematic space gains illusionary
depth arises when a dramatic situation is depicted. Dramatic space
occurs when figures are rendered in a tensional relationship which
makes the distance between them a significant void. We shall give an
example from Mesopotamia (PI. LXIII b). The simplest and most
common 'presentation scene', however awkwardly drawn (though, as
we shall see, there is no extreme prejudice against profile rendering in
Mesopotamia), is a momentous scene: it depicts the awe-stricken figure
of a man confronting his god. The spectator shares it as if watching an
event. Now it is extremely significant that we can hardly find anythin
comparable in Egypt up to the Amarna period, either in the dull
enumerative processions of tribute bearers (Pl. XV, lowcr r<,gistcr),
lJ8
()II (/('II/(tI,1 lit (' /l / / f/ 1.\ II/ 1'11/ 1(/ I,' 'I '1/111 / J\
where th«: illtervltl hdw('('1l I.lIl' flgllJ'('s is (L 111("1'\' Ilintlls, 01' ill ri.lllld
~cencs; and only very rarely do we lind it. in a morc lively pOl·t.I·nyrd or
action. In fact, where it does oceUl', as for instance when n cOllversation
is depicted,l it appears an occasional by-product, not a cIassieu I
motif, like the presentation scene in Mesopotamia. This reveals a
horror vacui in a pregnant sense which neither Mesopotamian nor
Cretan artists knew-the aversion to rendering the type of void
which both divides and binds, the distance of a dramatic situation.
Egyptian art, in more ways than one, excludes the spectator, prevents
him from sharing an illusionary world.
'We shall now demonstrate the various aspects of the anti-fum:-
tional character of Egyptian art by dealing first with the isolated and
unconnected figures, then with the groups and the interrelation of
groups in early Old Kingdom reliefs and paintings.
Although the deceased usually differs in size from other figures, the
same formula for the composition of the human body is used whether
the dead or the living, the divine king or the gods themselves, are
depicted. A strict canon is used which has been discussed often enough
to preclude the necessity of our repeating the analysis. 2 The dead man
is, as we saw, pictured inactive; his posture when he is not seated is
often a kind of static stride, neither standing nor walking; or he
assumes the least transient of poses-that of leaning on a staff. Even
in fishing or fowling scenes the activity of the dead is confined to an
upright decorative posture which robs it of all plausibility and tran-
sient quality.3 Although traces of setting may appear-a few joined
pillars, 4 as if to represent a booth-which seem to aim at something
like a physical approximation of the world of the dead and the living,
the figure of the deceased is usually isolated, remote from considera-
tions of space and time. The matted screen against which it is occas-
ionally offset5 never leaves the narrowest stage space and does not
affect the corporeality of the figure, although it does lend a spurious
air of concreteness to the scene. Only in one instance do we see the
dead against what is unmistakably a background setting: Ti's Hgurc
in the fowling scene (PI. XVI) appears against a wall of papyrus stems.
The effect is very startling; notwithstanding the severe regularity of
the verticals the scene has something of spaciousness as if a figure in
landscape setting were intended; Ti's posture gains through it a
] Ti, PI. 133, p. 67.
2 Schaefer, loco cit., pp. 257 sqq.
• H. Mohr, loco cit., pp. 65 sqq. a.nd 69.
• Klebs, I, 65, Fig. 5a.
£ L. D. 57, fiB, li4, W. M. Flindcrs J>ctric, Deslw.~heh, Pl. IV. N. dc Guris OtLvi(;s,
'rh~ HorlctmnlJs oj Sheikh Said, PI. XV; Giza [J I, PI. 11; (Ji:::a VI, IJI. IX.
:39
 · (lId AI1Ip,tlo/ll
rcmo.rkn.ulc actuulity, which is llCC('lItUlllc<! liy LlIl' IlJutir of L1ll'
ichneumon stalking young birds in a nest. J lcre the c1illgonn.1 papyrus
stem fulfils a double purpose: it acts as a new groundlinc and, by
setting the steady rhythm of the patterned reed wall, it stresses the
purely intentional movement of the stalking beast. It is curious that;
although this did become an incidental motif repeated ad nauseam, the
solid background was not often copied. l In the majority of the later
fowling scenes, as in the case of corn reapers, some reeds or cornstalks
on either side of the figure are considered sufficient. 2
But although the dead man may differ from other figures in being
passive and remote, there is a similarity in that the latter are equally
inexpressive. By this we mean that gestures s and postures, although
more differentiated, explain an act or indicate a status but do not
appear to be dictated by human impulses or emotions. 4 All unconnected
figures-that is, those joined in action-form lifeless schemes of tribute
bearers, scribes, prisoners and courtiers, officiating priests, bowing
stewards. One may object that in these cases a bland formality and
identity of posture was indicated. But it is curious that where differ-
entiation of attitude was aimed at (PI. XVIIa, small figures on the
left) a meaningless variation of robot-like gestures was all that was
achieved.
It seems that Egyptian artists avoided expression not only as the
correlate of emotion but even as the correlate of physical strength.
Now this should never be explained by the mere fact of a paratactic
type of figure drawing and its lack of organic coherence, for this may
conversely be the symptom of a lack of interest in the transient aspect
of force. In Mesopotamia, for instance, the less detailed, in fact the
rather amorphous shape of a king or god or man may be an 'impressive'
figure(PI.IIIa); massed soldiers may convey potential force. In Egypt,
on the other hand, the sprightliness of soldiers and sailors 5 is too much
of a mechanical device to be really convincing, while the impassive
tribute bearers (PI. XV, lower register) never seem to feel their burdens
as do the slightly stooping figures on the Uruk vase (PI. LI). The few
exceptions in Ti's tomb and especially later in Meir have a humorous
1 Ti, 113; Mereruka I, PIs. 2 and 19; N. de Garis Davies, loco cit., PI. XI.
Birds sometimes appear against a backgTound of scattered seeds; Mereruka I,
PI. 52.
2 N. de Garis Davies, '1'l!e RocJctombs oj Deir el Gabrawi II, PI. V.
a See analysis of gestures in Hellmuth Milller, 'Darstellungen von Gebarde auf
Denkmalern des alten Reiehs,' in Mitteilungcn des Deutschen Instituts, Kairo, VII
(1937),57 sqq. See also W. S. Smith, op. cit., pp. 310-26
• The unique scenc of L.D. II, 0, of the man in the lliidst of obstreperous
donkeys, comes nearest to a spontaneous gesture of despair. 'I'll(' sC'enc is certainly
Int(~ Old King<lom.
" Gi7.n lJ, PI. IX; !<'<'c'hh"inll'r, Plas/il. rll'T AI'mJ1I/I'T (1l('l'lill, 10:31), p. 127.
10
/-((('IIUt/;I)' vf /Ile.: H('lh:J's i" /'rl/iO/,' '/'u/IIfJS
touch. III fnct, it is ill teres Lillg lo lIoLe Lhal. ill this connection Lbc ollly
peculiarities in posture and physique which the Egyptian likes to
accentuate are those of bloated, sagging, or emaciated bodies. The
outward signs of infirmity can be added piecemeal more easily than
forceful organic tension. We may note here that Pharaoh, when
performing an act of preternatural strength, appears as a neat lay
figure elaborate with anatomical detail, not as the embodiment of
strength.
It is therefore significant that, however sensitively drawn or
modelled animals may be, Egyptian reliefs hardly ever aim at making
them appear impressive in the sense of being overpowering or terrify-
ing. As we saw before, the coherence of animal forms in drawing is a
simpler matter than that of human beings, so it is not surprising that
apart from a faithful record of bony and muscular structure, typical
events in animal life are sometimes rendered in a way which shows
awareness of organic unity, for example in the spasms of birth (PI.
XVIIb)or the agony of death (PI. XVIIc). But after protohistoric times
in Egypt no animal-not even a bull in fight (p. 69, Fig. 9)-appears
in Egypt potentially dangerous. l We find here a parallel to what
Schaefer already noticed in plastic art: the snarling open-mouthed lion
of protodynastic times was never rendered later. 2 But what the plastic
lion may have gained in monumentality, the placid bulls on the reliefs
lost in comparison with their early dynastic prototypes.
Generally speaking, a portrayal of the organic which would entail
aspects of transience, functional corporeality, and above all a tensional
relation between dynamic centre and surroundings, must have seemed
incompatible with the static, alien world of Egyptian relief which
shunned spatial illusions. Action is depicted, but it is the lucid trivial
action that involves business-like manipulation, not gestures that
might be pregnant with meaning, or postures that might be purely
accidental: we find that falling bodies of humans or animals occur very
rarely and in a decadent period of Old Kingdom art. S
The conclusion reached by our study of the single figure is confirmed
by the absence of dynamic relations within the group. When several
figures are occupied with one single object, some kind of unity results.
It is then the sacrificial animal, the boat, the bird or fishing net which
gives coherence. In rare instances it may happen that three or more
1 The only exception is in a Middle Kingdom tomb; see below, p. 70.
2 Schaefer, loco cit., p. 15.
3 One instance of a falling figure in a Fifth Dynasty tomb: H. Mohr, loco cit.,
l.<'ig. 25; Boesscr, loco cit., PI. XIV. Later examples; Mereruka II, PI. 130; Jean
CaplI.rt, nul' des tombeau;r., II, PIs. 70-72. Sec also .Tol/rnlLl of NCltr Raster7/. Studies,
III, PIs. XII SfJ'l.
~
 ';'/' (Jlt! !\ ''U':''!III1'
joi IIcd Lo 1'(l1'1lI H Lmlll,lIcI't1 1/1' "II Y111\ II iI' 1'lLl.lc""l ( 1'1. XV Illll
figll rl'H Ure
J'ig-bL-hund boLtom comcr), buL hal'dly (,VCI' do WI' find ILl I Cxrl'{'s~ivc
gesture of either affection, fcnr, or threat which Illay I'Cltltc Lwo figures.
All gestures are practical, explicati ve of action, not of purpose or
emotion; therefore, all figures actually touch the object or the person
they are dealing with, and where this is not the case and the gesture
merely indicates a speaking or a calling person, it is either a device for
differentiating foremen from workmen or it represents a stock gesture
in a stock situation.
Family relationships are hardly ever indicated by gestures with
an emotional overtonc. In one single instance only do we find a
mother bending toward her child and upsetting the rhythm of a neat
row of prisoners in identical 'detached' postures (Fig. 8). Normally
FIG. 8. Libyan Captives of Sahure
a single robot gesture joins conceptually the figures of a family
group. Those in Rahotcp's tomb come closest to being affectionate.
Only once in the late Old Kingdom are the owner of a tomb (Mereruka)
and his wife, who is playing a harp, depicted sitting opposite each
other on a couch-a unique instance of something approaching an
erotic scene (PI. XVIIIb). In fact, thc absence of such scenes merely
confirms the general avoidance of dramatic situations and need not
be ascribed to a hypothetical chastity of the Egyptians.
Mere proximity is indicated only in two instances in Ti's tomb
where a conversation is suggested;2 and, though implied in the figure
of a sleeping herdsman, it is not expressed: the figure is not part of
a coherent scene, but an added motif (PI. XIXa). Simultaneity is
clearly implied in the Sixth Dynasty Mereruka scene we mentioned,
but it is by no means always intended in earlier groups. In the case of
1 Ti, PI. III, the three figures in the right-hun(l bottom corner; Fcchheimcr IQI'.
cit., p. 139.
2 'I'i, Pis. 117 and) :.la,
42
Uff (f/'11I"!",) I!) ,1/1' 1l1'1,,):, ((I I'I/Pol,' "0",1),\
l
shipbnil(1illg' (PI. XIVb) Llle' difkl'I'1I1,/tCI iviLil's /lillY 1'('l'relol/'nL dincn'"
sLagc~ of Lhe wOl'k. In bird-catching scenes, signal, cnLclr, and ('losing of
Lhe netcnnnot have been simulto.neouH. An cxceptioll willl/(..' 1"01111(.1 ugo.i/l
in the tomb of Ti where the loading of the grain (PI. XIXb) appears
as one stage in a complex performance of which the stack is the actual
centre. This effect is achieved because the heads of the workers are
tilted at different angles which cannot bc explained by the work they
are doing but by the fact that they are all looking at the same object
from different distances. In PI. XIXc the stack appears a mere pre-
requisite for explaining the action. 1
It is also significant that scenes of combat are as devoid of serious
tension in private tombs as they are formalized in royal art. The same
reluctance to depict physical strength makes fights between sailors
appear a graceful game on a par with acrobatics; they may, for all we
know, have been mere playful sport (PI. XXa).2 Compact groups of
soldiers or sailors in marching order never appear under the leadership
of an officer. In fact, although in fowling scenes the gesture of a signal
is recorded as a typical act, the expressive gesture of command, which
entails a spatial, as well as a dramatic, distance between officer and
soldier, is quite unknown. 3
We do find isolated attempts to create some kind of link between
figures or even groups by the simple device of turning the head of a
striding figure in the opposite direction (PI. XVIIIa, bottom, fourth
figure from right).'! But this 'looking back', apart from creating a
plausible contortion, is usually quite meaningless. In fact, the dis-
connectedness of figures and groups is so evident throughout that the
few exceptions (nearly all found in Ti's tomb) seem suddenly to
change the spatial character of a small section of a crowded wall. The
outstretched hand in PI. XVIIb merely indicates the status of a
foreman not actively employed, but in one desert scene 5 it seems to
point towards the distance. In PI. XVIIIa the 'looking back' of the
man, combined with the gesture of his hand, integrates the whole
group. In the case of the mother cow worrying about the calf with its
1 In Wreszinski, Ill, Pis. 51 and 52, we have a similar if slightly less lively
character.
• Ti, 110; Ptabhotep, Pis. XXV and XXVI. Further references in l{lebs, loco
cit., pp. 115 sq.
• It is striking that Hellmuth Miiller, loe. cit., only registers a number of ex-
clamatory gestures which might be mistaken for commands.
• Ti, 117, shows two men holding the ends of a rope of a fish net looking at the
foreman who stands between them, In our PI. XIXb the men with pitchforks
on either side of a heap of grain seem to be looking up with tilted heads at the
men thatching the heap.
~ He/' altio the gesture of the huntsman with greyhounds in Ptahhotcp I,
Pl.XXII.
4H
 I 'hi' Old /""i;rlIII"
lie-lUi 1IIl1ll'II hili'" (1'1. X V, Lop dghl.) lller(' ill ('Vi'li I~ 1(IIlNioll~uch uS
IIC \ ('I' II ppl'lII'li III'(,\VI'I'II hlll.1/111:'1 or eV(.'1I ill IlIlIt'I jll~ SCrlll'S
where, in lh..
wholll IdN\W'y of'lllgypliull urt. except in onl' .New Kingdom instance,
lilt' l'l'!lllioll lwl Wl'l'll hunlcr Hnd hUl.lteCl lIever unds cxpression in a
"jlIllif1c'HIII, void.
The conmWI1 gesturc of sailors placed amidships in the rigging
iT1Jical"s thaI, they transmit observations made by the man sounding
forward to the steersman astern (PI. XIII), but the gesture of a man
in :L skiff accompanying fording cattle means a spell cast against
crocodiles (PI. XXb).
We shall find that the characteristics of spatial rendering in
Old Kingdom funerary art remain the same in essence throughout
Egyptian history with few significant exceptions. The paradox con-
tained in these scenes is thereby robbed of much of its absurdity.
These paintings and reliefs are not monumental art in the full sense of
the word (see p. 22). They lack the tension between the ephemeral and
the timeless which, for instance, a preoccupation with biographical
detail would of necessity have introduced. Nor do they depict actual-
ity in the sense of single, well-defined occurrences. The consistency
with which in the confrontation of the dead and the world of the living
all reference to space and time, and all functional relation with the
spectator has been avoided, makes this most undramatic of represen-
tational art beautifully subservient to its strange intention; and inthe
light of this intention its limitations, the contrast between 'primiti ve-
ness' and extreme refinement, appears less enigmatic.

C. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RELIEFS OF ROYAL

MORTUARY TEMPLES

If the character of the scenes in private tombs demands an ex-

planation, those of the royal funerary temples apparently do not: one
expects to find, and does, a display of royal power, royal acts. Unfortu-
nately, however, all plausibility is invariably specious in connection
with Egyptian kingship, for the divine head of state embodies
here an absurdity far more audacious than is the case with his
equals in neighbouring countries. His assumed godliness is not merely
a mythical justification of authority or an expression of the obse-
quious way in which his authority was apprehended. For the ancient
Egyptians Pharaoh was god; that means he was not chosen for his
office, directed or inspired by a divinity as in Mesopotamia, Hc was XVIIIA. ACRICULTURAL SCENES, TOMB OF '1'1
not primarily the powerful leader, saviour, or guardian of his people but (lw,.!l:I' 42)
a divine presence on whom the life of the nation depended. Phn rll.oh thus
:\ V III II. 1\'1 I,: HI,: H ( , 1\ .\ i\ t\' I) " i \ H 1'1 S'J' () t\' (' () I ' ( , "
44 (/)(l~("\' I,:!, ;-,7./)
 \,)116"(/11'(1/11'1' (!!' 111(' 1i,'II/:/s f~/ Hu) It!II IIJI II/III) '/1'111/1/'"
uppcar'cd in l!:gYl)l,iulJ lift.: finlt. alltl 1'(.r'('IlION!. l~ ~Ilttic ItC'LllldiLy, both
concrete and transccndent; and Lilt: tUl'In static UUCB Il<Jt lIlean here I.hllt
he lacked the manifestation of power-he wa~ ex o.Uicio the cOllqucwr
of his enemies-but that this power lacked a dynamic relation both
with his subjects and with the gods. The question whieh will occupy
us therefore is if, and in what way, this concept of kingship has found
pictorial expression.
Now it has been proved beyond a doubt that the idea of a divine
king-whatever its atavistic African affinities-became articulate and
a dominant political factor largely through the person of Menes­
Narmer, whose historical act of uniting the kingdoms of North and
South had for later generations the quality of a myth and was enacted
in rituaI.1 We saw that already on Narmer's votive palette (PI. IX),
the ephemeral character of the conquest was lost. It should, however,
be noted that the palette itself was found in a temple dedicated to a
god, so that the proud monumental statement probably entailed a
votive or ceremonial act of humility. It may well have been the last
of its kind, for we find nothing comparable in the Old Kingdom, nor,
for that matter, up to the Twelfth Dynasty. Now it is true that an
argumentum ex silentio is always dangerous, and it is possibly even
sheer accident that-barring two sanctuaries of the sun-god in the
Fifth Dynasty-we have no remains of any temples dedicated to a god
up. to the Middle Kingdom. 2 But if we assume that the absence of
temples and votive objects indicates an overwhelming preoccupation
with the dogma of kingship in the early Old Kingdom, then two other
facts may become significant, first, that we have hardly any commem­
orative reliefs belonging to the period between Menes-Narmer and
Zoser and, second, that in this very period plastic figures of a truly
monumental character were introduced and were, at least from the
Third Dynasty onwards, placed in the royal funerary temple. This
indicates a shift of interest from pictorial statement (e.g. Narmer
palette) to plastic form in the round which may conceivably signify
a new desire to express unqualified rather than articulate and demon­
strable royal power. Ifthis conjecture is correct we might even go further:
if. would not be too bold to assume that some kind of discrepancy
was felt to exist between a strict dogma of the divine king whose power
was self-evident and self-sufficient and the representation of his acts,
XIXA. SLEEPING HERDSlVIAC'J
lind that this caused the latter to be omitted when pharaonic power
(page 42)
1 U. Frankfort, Kingship and the Gods (Chicago, 1947), chapter I and pa.~sim.

XIXB. S'I',\("[([NG CflAJN, 'I'OI\IB OF '1'[ • It may be argued that temples dedicated to the gods were erected in the
('I Lie!! on alluvial soil and are therefore lost to us, but if these were more tlwJJ
(I){(~(' 4.H)
Nltll\1I shrines then it remains unexplained why the important sun sanctuuri(·.'i

X 1X ('. ~'I' A (' 1\1 1\ (: ~ /I 1,; ..\ v F.~, To ~I It (II,' '1'1 werl' lJuilt on the desert edge.
Ij,,r;
(/III~,:"I' .1,: \)
 "'ltl' () I r/ 1\1 lit..: rill /II
WlIN 'Ll, it'l l1ciJ.{hl,. Fl)r it is VCI'Y NtriUlilr I Iud. 1~1 I hI' Iill\(' wlWl\ liv(")y
ligures in puinting' and relief UI)}JClll' in priVI1I,1' l,nllthl'l of the Third
Dynasty, King Zoser himself was dcpictt;:(l ill tilt: P<.\SLlIl'C of a riluul
dance but not performing a historic act. l And the hnilders of t[...
Fourth Dynasty pyramid temples seem, on thc wholc, to have scorll('c1
scenic imagery. Only insignificant fragments, presumably of a ritual or
tribute scene, have been found near the pyramid of Khufu 2 and in thl'
appalling austerity of Khafra's granite temples, pictorial treatment
must have seemed redundant; his statues, an almost monstrous unioll
~

of individual life and inorganic rigidity, merely embody unqualified

~~

majesty.3
It should be noted that such emphasis on the plastic figure cannot
be explained by assuming that there was in ritual acts a dramatic

"
confrontation of the divine ruler and his subjects. For these figures
were not the focusing point of religious devotion in the way a cult J

statue would be. In the case of Pharaoh there is no implicit tension

between the epiphany of a god in one single form and the human world.
The funerary temples-whether or not they form an architectural
unit with the actual tomb-differ from other temples in and outside
of Egypt, in that they are 'a house of god' primarily as a dwelling
for eternity, not as a meeting place of different realms of being,

the human and the divine. When in the funerary temples these realms
appear to meet in ritual act and sacrifice, it must be realized that the ~" .
"tl.r •• "
royal heir, himself a god, performed the main rites and that the priests,
endowed by the late king, were ministers to his needs, magic sustainers,
not interpreters of transcendent power and will. No royal priest was
ever called 'seer' as was the high priest of the sun-god in Heliopolis.
The late king was lastingly present in an indestructible dwelling.
Inside this dwelling the false door, beckoning and warding off, was
the focus of the mystery. Near it were multiple shrines, usually five
@~

in number, and an arbitrary number of statues was arranged in halls

and courtyards, a sheer quantitative increase of potency.
However, it was apparently only for a short period of Pharaonic
hybris that pictorial treatment could be considered redundant, for
a change did occur already at the end of the Fourth Dynasty. Thc
political disturbances and successional feuds of the early Fifth Dynasty
must have affected, if not the dogma, at least the unquestionable
character of the power of kingship. The rise of the sun worship in the
1 Firth and Quibell, The Step Pyramid, II (Cairo, 1935), PIs. XV and XVI.
2 W. Stevenson Smith, Egyptian Sculpture and Painting iu t1w Old Kingdo/ll,
(Oxford, 1947), p. 151,
3 Uvo Hoelscher, Das Gmbdenkrnal des Koenig~ Cht'prl~n (Leipzig, HH2). esp.

PI. V.
·w
 S'/i"!!II'(fI/('" (!/ I/'(' H, //1./' 11/ /(U\"I! I I", I Ii til \ 'l't'IfIIJ/""
llll(~ period nlsll Sl'l'lllS Lo ]/vint. 1,/11, hub,11' t.:hlill/-{(· iii I.h(· Illlkll\f' Niglli
t\('llIlCC of I'h'tI'{j,(I!,. II is t,hel'd'ul'l' :-,i/.{lIilkluIL thttL precisely uL Ihi,
point it was cOllsidcrcd desirablc uguin to articulate his divine ehuI'Il-c­
I.cr: scenic statement reappears, not on ceremonial objects this tilll\;
(though, for all we know, it may have survived there), but on the walls
of the funerary temple of Sahure.
The extant scenes are fragmentary and their position on the wnlls
is rarely certain, but there is some evidence which justifies the assump­
tion that the more secular scenes belong to the entrance passage and
outer temple, and this makes it possible that ritual and religious sceneti
occurred in the inner sanctuary.l I mean by this that, though divinitics
play an important part in the former, no reference to actual event is
made in the latter; in fact, it seems probable that some of the scenes
such as the king being suckled by a goddess, refer to an event after
death. z
It is interesting to compare the content of these scenes with contclll­
porary and earlier ones in the private tombs. Boating seenCti with
funerary significance and the typical scenes of daily life are conspiclI­
ously absent. The term 'watching' only occurs where it is least appn ,­
priate, namely, in a hunting scene where the king is actually shootillg
(Fig. 4).3 Sacrificial scenes and processions of tribute bearers ocelli" ill
both;l but here the gods themselves guarantee the king's sustenallcl.:.
they either bring or explicitly promise the needed produce. 5 They ::t1so
appear to guarantee the king's power, for they lead his fettered enemies
(Fig. 5), while the goddess of writing and accounts-who has been rather
rashly called goddess of history-notes down, not the historic feats of
the king, but the number of his captives. 6 The most striking difference
is that the king is either shown active, or as living cause of the acti vity
of others, and that a number of scenes refer unmistakably to actual
events. The king is shown active when destroying his enemies in tL
formalized gesture? and in certain ritual acts pertaining to the Sed
festival;8 he is also shown active in two instances when he is making
offerings to gods (a polite reciprocation of their concern for his well­
being),9 and once when he is being suckled by a goddcss. 1o We sa.w
already that he was depicted shooting in the desert hunt and there are
fragments which suggest that he was shown catching birds and tipcnr­

:. Sahure II, pp. 1 and 2.

2 This is also the conclusion I:cached by .Jequicr, Le 111onw7I.I:lIl jUl/em;,,' cle

J'evi 1l (Cairo, 1938), II, 24.

" SlIhure II, PI. 17. • IbitI., Ph,. 28 awJ :n.
r·jln:d., PI. 2ll anll p. 102. , Ibid., 1'1. 1.
, Ibid" PI. :l. 6 ibid., Pis, Hi, 4(\. ·1.
• Ibid., Pis. :35 and illJ. 10 Ibitl., PI. J Il.

·1,7

FIG. 5. Gods with Captive Foreigners
'i/3nU/'N(lIf'1: nf 111l' HI'!;I/\ (~/ Hoynl Il/Orllwry 'I'I'IJI/JI/''\
illg rll:;h. 1 Tle is the li\Ting CCLlISC of acLiviLy in Lhe ::led resLivo.1 t~lId ill
the scene whcre the gold of honour is disLributct12 (it should !>(\ lIoLul
that in the Old Kingdom the rece'iving of the gold of honoul', <L!) H his­
torical moment in a courtier's career, was not depicted in the pl'ivat..
tombs), and in the scene of an overseas expedition. 3 In eOUl't proces­
sions he appears in conjunction with officials and is depicted in it
curious static stride. 4
The last four instances undoubtedly refer to acts and situations
that occurred in his lifetime, though one hesitates to call them
historical because they are mostly typical and r~current events except,
perhaps, in the case of the expedition and where Libyan captives are
mentioned by name with numbers of the captured animals. s The fact
that courtiers are mentioned by name need not be explained as an effort
to stress the temporal character of the event, for this may, as in the
case of private tombs, be a concession to officials, who were thereby
allowed to share lastingly the benefit of Pharaoh's proximity. Yet in
view of an occasional link with actuality, it is striking that battle
scenes are absent. Triumphant majesty was not rendered as a warrior's
historic achievement, but as a state of being, aloof, self-centred; even
Narmer's symbolic gesture has in some cases been superseded by an
ideogram: the king in the form of a griffin or winged lion trampling on
his enemies. 6
The private tomb and the royal funerary temple both contain
slaughter and tribute scenes, which have obvious magical import, but
generally speaking the difference between the decorative themes of
tomb and temple is very great. Whereas in the former the keynote of all
rendering of the owner is 'watching', passivity, it is evident that a
nostalgic confrontation of the dead king with the amenities of life was
considered incompatible with his divine character. Are then these
reliefs an ostentatious recording primarily aimed at the outside world;
are they, in contrast with the private tombs, a monument in the true
sense of the word? I believe they are not, although an element of
ostentation cannot be denied. The king was divine during his lifetime,
but the pyramid texts show that notwithstanding this dogma there
was room for fear (amounting almost to an obl;ession) of humiliatin
contingencies such as hunger and thirst in the Hereafter. The royal
tomb evidently fulfilled a double function: it guaranteed the king's
sustenance after death and it emphasized his superhuman stature. If
1lbid., PIs. 15 and 16. 2 Ib·id., PIs. 52 und 53.
~ibid., PIs. 11 and 12. • .Ibid., r'b. ~l:.l, 33, :14.
• ibid., Pl. 1. .Jequier, loco cit., II, ltL, point~ Ollt that the same rlf\mCR occur
with the J,ibyan capti ves of the Sixth Dyn(Lsty king.
• SILhme n, 1'1. 8.
o 01, II.~.M.
 'III' (J/d A1/Ip,r111111 '''-'UflS('Clldt:fU'(' ()
til(' 1ttlll'I' \\Ittll Ilc'hi"'Td by l"t'f'Cl'riJlg ttl his !.t'III))()I'''!ItClS, lllcsc acts
W('I'C' JlIll'!. unci plll'('eI of his diviue idclllily. The ccnLI'n.I, the implicit
pnrntlox was hen', so lo lipcak, the vcry opposite of monumcntality,
for what WOli llirncd al was not to stress the lasting significance oftrans­
icnt evcnt, but to show static perfection revealed in acts. This was the
reason why a divine king of the Fifth Dynasty reliefs could be shown
performing the ritual of the Sed festival, which was to ensure his
immortality, or in triumph over his enemies, but not winning battles,
for his victories were a foregone conclusion; why the aid of a goddess
was even allowed to rob his prowess in the hunting field of personal
and transient merit and why in connection with his subjects he was
depicted as the inactive cause of their activity, the source of their
well-being.
The remains of reliefs from later funerary temples are scanty, but
it appears that their character remains practically unchanged in
essentials up to the Amarna period. One should however notice two
significant exceptions, one occurring in a period of incipient decay, the
other marking the end of a period of political upheaval. In the temple
of Unas we find the unique instance of famine being depicted (PI.
XXIIb) and this must have entailed not only a most humane interest
on the part of the king in the lowest of his subjects but probably,
though perhaps in texts alone, the mention of historical and specific
benevolent acts, not the mere typical statement: 'I fed the hungry in
years of distress.' In the funerary temple of Mentuhotep at the begin­
ning of the Eleventh Dynasty wild and quite unorthodox battle scenes
must have existed, since their fragments have been found (see below).
But it should be noted that the famine (in any case a subsidiary scene)
never occurs again, while we have no evidence of battle scenes in
funerary temples till after the Amarna revolution.
Before we deal with the spatial character of the scenes, however,
we must consider the only reliefs of a non-funerary character which
we possess in the Old Kingdom, namely those found in the sun sanct­
uary of Ne-User-Re (PI. XXIa, b, C).l The surprising thing about these
reliefs is the complete resignation of the Egyptian in the face of
pictorial problems within the realms of religion. To speak of a lack of
imagination here is almost an understatement. The sun-god was only
represented in the symbol of the obelisk, and although vast brick sun­
boats have been found, which may have been used in ritual and point
to the importance attached to the mythical journey to the sun, no
representation of the latter occurs in thc sanctuary. In fact, the two
IF. W. von Hissing, D{J,~ Re-J[tdNgtu.rn dl's J(ol'lligq Ne-IVoscr-llc (Leipzig,
100G-1 112H), Vols, l II r.
50
/t//lnli/\' ffI
sides 01' Egyptiall lifc aud Lhollghlthat. seem pl'cclominuJlt thJ'()lIglli)\II.,
belief in the suprcme importancc of thc king, and a lovc-which hus
strong element of the purely aesthetic-for the manifestations of
life, are here again in evidence. In the central part of the open court­
yard the king's Sed festival is pictured in great detail, as if to stress the
potential renewal of his power in the face of the god, and in thc hall
leading up to it we find a tribute to nature as manifesting the sun-god's
glory: a representation of the seasons and of quiet scenes of agriculture,
fishing and wild life, animals and plants. There is in the whole of the
Near Eastern world no equivalent for so movingly direct and simple,
if unimaginative, an approach to the religious problem of the life­
giving sun. It is wholly incompatible with the warrior aspect of thc
triumphant sun-god, known from Mesopotamia and elsewhere, and is
again an undramatic conception, deeply rooted in Egyptian religiosity.
All later sun hymns breathe the same spirit and in the Amarna paint­
ings we shall find its artistic expression in a different but related manner.
D. THE TRANSCENDENCE OF ACTUALITY IN THE
ROYAL RELIEFS
In dealing with the problems of space and time in the royal reliefs
we may omit the tribute and slaughter scenes and even ritual or sym­
bolical ones such as the king holding a bunch of captives or a griffin
trampling on an enemy, since they are typical acts and offer no prob­
lems. But it is interesting to see what devices the artist used to render
what we calleel the king's static perfection as revealed in acts that have
some bearing on actuality. It is clear that in most cases the aid of gods
was summoned to banish all triviality from these acts: the Egyptian
pantheon makes its first known appearance here (Fig. 5).
For the student of ancient religion these gods must be disappointing,
for they are hardly 'numinous', nor even weird or monstrous; they are
pre-eminently dull. Their shape is usually identical with the classical
Egyptian canon for the human figure, their sizes vary, they may bc of
the same size, larger or smaller than the king. Occasionally an animal's
head is joined on to a human hody in such a matter-of-fact way that
the result is more like a pictogram than an uncanny superhuman
being. To use the word 'monsters' here means simply to ignore that
this term implies a significant incongruity, a disharmony of componcnt
parts. No such tension is implicd here; animal heads arc merely
fastencd on to human bodies. Thc potbcllicd Nile gods with pendulous
breasts ul'e eovcl'cd with :tig7.l1g ~tl'ircs Lo dcnote their cOllncclion with
wlltcr ond Lhey look, fol' nil the wodel, more Ii Ice hicr(lr~lyphs ill ,wl ion
iii
 ,1'1t t' Old Iww:d() III
1111.11 ('UIIVill('inM 1L'111ILLic ci'C'uLlll·,jS.l N(w iN the ('onLC'xL in which the
~ods n.ppe/l.r, the /lcts Lhcy perform, hc1pf"l in rnakin.g them seem
exalted 01' l'elOotc. Tht:y never reveal a superhuman nature or power,
as does, for instance, the Mesopotamian thunder-god driving his fear­
ful chariot (PI. IJXIIIa). The king's power and well-being alone are the
concern of these deities, the purpose of their acts; they serve and are
in turn served by him. But though their proximity is intended to
ensure and to enhance Pharaoh's glory, the meeting of equals is an
essentially static situation, remarkably devoid of dramatic tension. <:0
A comparison with, for instance, the scene on the Hammurabi stele ~
~

(PI. LXV) is instructive. This scene is a truly monumental work of art ""~ ~

in the sense that the superhuman implications of a historical event, ~ ""

01)
~
~
-.
namely, the codification of law and decrees, have found expression P-< ~

~
in confrontation of king and god. In the gesture of Shamash, addres­ f-o
'"-'
f-o
sing the king, a dynamic relation is revealed, a single and momentous 0
;:r: ~

act depicted; hence the extraordinary concreteness, the actuality of 0

::r:
~ p:;
the scene, its strong appeal to spatial as well as emotional imagination. f-o
P-< ""'0
~

But where kingship transcends the human situation as completely as

~ f-o
it does in Egypt, protective acts on the part of the gods are purely 0
symbolical, obeisance on the part of the king purely ritual; no divine P=i i
..... ~
~
command or divine protection can ever have so direct a bearing on '-'l
0 p::
f-o
actuality. The beneficial proximity of king and gods must therefore f-o
rf1
remain outside the realm of concrete imagination, must lack spatial as rS 0
Z
well as temporal definition. Hence the monotony of these dispassionate H Z
,.....
f-o
lay figures, divine as well as regal, neatly spread out on a depthless ::r: A
0,..... ~
background, a mere calligraphic arrangement of groups. It seems as if 0
~ ~
the bold concept of Egyptian kingship atrophied some mainspring of z ~
religious imagination (which elswhere has nearly always an element '-'l ,..l
~ f-o
of the dramatic) and equally atrophied its artistic expression, because Eo-<
f-o
~ -<
the dullness of all so-called 'religious' scenes is unrelieved throughout 0 u
Egyptian history: this art is senile at birth. p:l
p:;
~
The scenes in which the king and his courtiers appear together ~ X
~
stress his 'static perfection' by similar means; they are a mere matter ~
of grouping one large figure and a number of smaller ones, without the
slightest interest in spatial, let alone dynamic, relation. Sometimes
the poses of a number of squatting figures are varied, which might give
them a spurious air of being simultaneous, but they are too robot-like
to achieve the impression of a coherent group.2 In the so-called 'pro­
cession' scenc3 the king, though apparently striding, is not moving
purposefully, which might have given the background the quality of
dynamic space, III fact, there is no pictol'inl focus for his muvement,
I S[ll!un,; n. PI. ao. U lbid" T'l.liO. h 11)/"1" PIN lJ2,lJlJ, 31,
IJ\!
 l'mIlS/'I'"i/I'III'I' I~r hl/fll/II) fI/ 11", /(U) (II IlI'lft:1-'
and if tIle CTIll'lIdaLion of' thl) Ll'xL is corrcet, 'colniJ1/it n,nd goiug' i::; th'·
only nOJlcommital statcment aboot his mOVell'lClIt. 1
In thc scenc recording a naval expedition to Byblos there is no
trace left of the large royal figure which undoubtedly presided over
the departure and arrival of the fleet. We can only imagine it to have
been impassive. The fleet is arranged in two rows on strips of forma­
lized water. No locality is indicated and the rows of sailors on a separate
groundline above the ships need by no means be interpreted as forma­
tions running along the shore 2-in any case a most unlikely procedure
-they arc a mere filling and stress the number of men used in the
campaign. The large ship of state, executed with immense love of
detail, shows Pharaoh's throne empty, perhaps because the royal
figure could not loom large enough in such a detailed setting, more
likely because the act of sailing in itself (and a religious purpose can
in this context hardly be postulated) must have appeared too episodic.
The only scene which from our point of view is interesting is the
hunting scene (Fig. 4). This renders, as do most 'lively' scenes in
Egyptian tombs, a typical, not a single event. In Assyrian reliefs we
shall find that the king's gesture in slaying wild beasts is depicted as
simultaneous with the animal's behaviour. Here the shooting king
appears aloof from, or rather not immediately connected with the
agony of his prey; the animals are, as it were, the stage props for a
typical situation that is to demonstrate his power. Yet the animal
enclosure seems somehow conceived as more than a mere conceptual
unit; the orientation of the animals on the left fleeing from the king,
and on the right shying away from the beaters, gives the group an
almost dramatic coherence, as if it were the simultaneous behaviour
of penned-in animals. But spatial relation (so beautifully achieved two
thousand years later by an Assyrian relief which dispenses with local­
ity and yet binds in space; see Pl.LXXXI) is destroyed by the fact that
every animal has been fixed on a separate groundline in the shape of
a contour of hillock or stone. Potential dramatic unity disintegrates
together with spatial coherence and there remains the impression of
separate animals in various stages of flight and fear. Even the small
'genre' pictures of hedgehogs and jerboas, ready to slip into their holes
XX1A. THE DESERT, SUN TE1VrPLE O:F NE. USER RE
(pages 50, 54) which are inserted on separate groundlines above the main group, fail
to add much to the episodic transient character of the scene as a whole.
XXIB. SKIN N 1NG A NTELOPE, SUN TEMPLE "Ve shall see, however, that desert hunting scenes provide through­
(pages 50, 54) out Egyptian art most interesting experiments in the rendering of
xxrc. MEN Ii" BOAT, S('N TI':MI'I.J.: space. Here, if anywherc, some form of dramatic tension was difIicul··
(I}('/.U'S f>0, f>l,) l 'bid., PI. a211nd p. ]] l.
" Ibid., Pk \) and ]0 and p. :l'•.
[)II
 /1' (lid 1\ 11/(;111
til j~l'llII'C\ "dH:Jd, Il'IllpL l.hl.: 111'1 isL I~WHy
/1111'1 1'1'1)JfI
/I,lill1ullir~III'l~NOil t'I'IlW'\('lIls of skylj 111.:.
PI'pi II's flllll'I'lt!'y temple already is a case in point. Generally
spcnkill/.(', Lhe l'cli(J~~ 1'01' this temple arc unspeakably dull. Ritual and
l'elig,ious 'scenes' arc unrelieved by a single touch of originality. The
docile ligures of king, gods, and men are spread out on a relentless
surface that refuses ever to become significant; gestures are somehow
both stiff and limp, the expressionless gestures of robots. Only in the
hunting scene does artistic imagination run riot.I On a small scale
admittedly, for Sahure's elaborate and exquisitely carved scene has
here been reduced to a narrow strip, packed with known motifs. But
surmounting this strip and with forefeet planted on a boldly curved
line, a large animal must have faced the king alone. Although the
reconstruction by J equier seems unreliable in detail, there is no doubt
that this was a bold innovation, which may have remotely resembled
the scene of an Eighteenth-Dynasty hunter facing an ibex, which we
shall discuss later.
It is unfortunately impossible, as yet, to deal adequately with the
relief of the so-called 'Weltenkammer' from the sun sanctuary of Ne­
User-Re, for the simple reason that, although it was excavated in the
years between 1898-1901, no publication has appeared so far, and only
a few tantalizing fragments have been published by especially favoured
German scholars. These fragments are, however, of considerable
interest.
It appears that large symbolical figures, representing the seasons,
headed various scenes of nature. These scenes show man-in-nature
reaping the reward of the sun-god's life-giving power in agricultural,
fishing, and allied scenes, and also wild beasts and plants that were
simply to demonstrate his glory (PI. XXIa,b). To call the small scenes
in which these appear 'idyllic' means to sentimentalize them, unless the
word is used in the sense that nature is rendered here in no way subser­
vient to man's greed and power. But-and this is surely to the everlast­
ing credit of the early Egyptian-they do reveal the detachment of
aesthetic love; for these animals and plants are not part of a scene that
ultimately transcends their significance, they are neither requisites
nor symbols, they are merely a beautiful presence, significant in them­
selves. It is striking that though a hunter and dogs appear on the left
of what is usually called a desert scene, the dogs are neither on a leash
nor attacking, the wild animals seem undisturbed, and the hunter's
meal on the right with a dead antelope hanging in a trec (PI. XXIb),
is totally unconnected with the behaviour of either. There is, in fact,
1 JC/l'licr, luc, cit., PI. 4l.
"
"Uf//\('oJ/II'(lI',' I~/ II/Ilttllf) /II/III' lIuJfil Ill'ltt:/.,
l'l.:lIul'ring llJll'C],~tt' u. curious nil' of plln' lUlldS(\I~I)e l~h\)lI L Lhis Sf,;l"I(': Llu: 11~l'gc tr't'I'",
decortitively spaced uctWCCII the animoJs, serve no expliciI,tive purpose,
as the small plants of Fig. 1< do, llttmely, indicating desert soil. They
never appear exactly in this manner on any hunting scene in Egypt, and
seem a subtle way of linking the separate beasts spatially. This holds
good especially for the small area which we enlarged in PI. XXIa,
where the pawing antelope-the original shows a streak which indi­
cates the flying sand-plants, trees, and fawn appear to be a unit,
as of things seen together on the skyline; a space-time unit absent in
the Sahure relief.
This same air of pure landscape pervades two other remarkable
fragments. The two men in a small boat (PI. XXIc) are not firmly
planted on a harsh strip of zigzag water, with fishes and net clearly dis­
played as stage props. These self-contained little figures seem to float in
the midst of a stream, a more 'spacious' rendering of water than has
ever been achieved at any other time in Egypt. l The fishes on the left,
disporting themselves outside the net, thereby suddenly gain a scenic
independence, they do not appear a mere inventory of possible catches.
Equally remarkable from the point of view of spatial rendering is
the picture of a 'crocodile island' (PI. XXIIa), unique not only because
of its subject but, here again, because of the relation between self­
contained unit and surrounding. The island with its broad uneven
strip of mud-painted black in the original-its little shrine and sacred
image (for it is not a live animal that is intended) surmounted by an
expanse of formalized water which for once has been left quite bare,
does appeal to spatial imagination, invites the spectator to visualize a
definite, probably an actually existing, locality. In this it comes nearer
to the Scorpion macehead (PI. VIII), with its winding canal, than
almost any of the later, and quite infrequent, attempts at pure land­
scape, because there, more often than not, the setting is dominated by
the action. No human figures, however, appear on the crocodile island,
and in the desert and fishing scene they are subordinate.
It is significant that these remarkable fragments should all belong
to a decorative scheme that was different in intention from all contem­
porary art. These scenes were not primarily a potent presence, they
proclaimed the sun-god's glory. The form in which they did this was,
it is true, as undramatic as all Egyptian art, but it can hardly be acci­
dental that, freed from the bonds of funerary purposes, the artist was
tempted here and there to create a scene, as functionally related to the
observer as the skyline scene, to bind the figures in it (even if nO action
l Although in the New Kingdom in funerary scenes the boat il:J sometimes
plnced in the mitldlc oCtile pond; Wres:lingki, I, 3.
55

WII~ dc<plI' I nl) 11/1 i I' I hl:y W('I'(' IL I'lm,l'I' tilll' i 1/1' dc'pil'l. IUCIl]] Ly in IL wILy
whirh lltigh Lll'lllpl, thl' flpc'('tILLe)l' LellnoVe ill illlngiJl(u'y depLh.
W(, Illll~t fllllllly l'()Il~ide/' Lhe mORL remtl.l·kable fragment which the
funcrl1.ry Itmples of Lht Old Kingdom have yielded so far, namely, the
famine scene from the causeway of King Unas' temple (PI. XXIIb).
That these ghastly figures in various stages of emaciation and exhaus­
tion should appear at all in such a building is the more striking because
the texts, sculptured in the adjoining pyramid here as elsewhere, show
a gruesome preoccupation with the possibility of hunger and thirst in
the Hereafter: 'The abomination of Unas is hunger-he does not eat it.
The abomination of Unas is thirst-he does not drink it.' Also, within
the framework of divine kingship, a famine must somehow have marred
the illusion of infallible and beneficent regal power. We can therefore
explain the occurrence of the scene only on the basis of a tendency
observed in the temple of Sahure, namely, to refer to actuality in
however guarded or remote a form: Pharaoh's perfection did reveal
itself in acts. How this was done in connection with the famine scene
we have no way of knowing-the scene is unique in the history of art.
And though the emaciated figures in a Middle Kingdom tomb at NIeir
(PI. XXVa) may have been inspired by it, the horror of the original
scene was evidently here turned into a joke.
The rather poor finish of the famine relief might point to a minor
artist employed on a mere detail. But he must have been a man of
striking originality, for he has not only contrived a number of new and
intricate postures, he has achieved something very much like an im­
pressive scene. These are not typical acts; explicative gestures only;
here sympathy and despair, collapse and sUffering have the poignancy
of actuality, of single events. The figures are, it is true, added singly,
in twos and threes to form a frieze. Yet the impression of a true,
coherent scene prevails. And this illusion is so strong that it is almost
difficult not to conceive of these figures as leaning against a wall,
invariably the resting place of the beggarly and maimed in an oriental
scene. It is interesting-if paradoxical-that illusionistic rendering
may on occasion solidify a plain background instead of making it
diaphanous.
E. CONFUSION OF MEANING AND DISINTEGRATION OF
FORM IN THE LATE OLD KINGDOM AND FIRST INTER­
MEDIATE PERIOD
In summing up the main results of our analysis we find that origi­
nally both content and implicit meaning of the scenes .in private tombs
!)(i
/Ii'I"
lId fll1)0l'III'y 1,(·I.ll'lcii dirk,,; 'lll III(' PilI' 1\H11l1, W(' hnV(·lllll('I't· P/',"lI'I I I'\
of typical tlsPCCLs vI' (iJ'e fur I.1w IWI\l'III, of It gl.~lle'l·ldly p/I,ssiv\' I hl)lll~h
'liv-ing' owner and, on, the other, Lilt· Lillldcss perfecLiull vf IL divi, lU
king revealed in his acts. Y ct both co,n be acleqatcly expressed hy L!w
same type of spatial rendering, namely, oue whieh shuns iIlllsionisli"
and dramatic scenes. It is clear that this must have facilitatrd til
copying of motifs from royal temples for use in private tombs in sO fal'
as they did not trespass on royal prerogatives; and there must have
been considerable danger that the fundamental difference between tho
two might be lost sight of. For if, as we saw, the artist might already
be tempted to bridge the gap between the living and the dead, th
activity of the royal figures must have been an added stimulant in this
direction. It is an argument in favour of our assertion that it is possibl
to detect a different basic logic in each scheme, that the two were ncve
assimilated. The only motifs copied in the private tombs were fish iIIg
and fowling scenes, which become indeed a classical motif, a choice
which may as we saw (p. 35 f.) have been influenced by the prevailin
concern with food provision for the dead. The only new activities on th··
part of the tomb owner which appear in the Sixth Dynasty tombs ttl'
freakish innovations and remain practically isolated instances.
We shall now deal with these tombs and include those of the Firtit
Intermediate Period, both the tombs in the cemeteries situated in 1;111'
shadow of the royal pyramids and those which, from the late FifLb
Dynasty onward, begin to appear in the provinces and herald politicaJ
disintegration and a decline of Pharaonic power.
The most interesting tomb from the point of view of innovations is
that of Mereruka, which shows no less than four completely ncw
scenes, in all of which the dead is engaged in well-defined activity. They
are (I) Mereruka seated at an easel, painting figures representing th
seasons: 1 this scene may have had a magic or at any rate a propitions
connotation; (2) Mereruka standing supported by his son and a high
official (PI. XXIIIa), a unique variant of the manner in which th
dependence of the dead on the living was often expressed, ano on
which has a curious actuality and an emotional overtone; (3) Mercrllk
playing chess or draughts;2 (4) NIereruka seated on a couch with II,
woman who plays the harp (PI. XVIIIb): this scene is the climax of 0,
series which shows the preparation of the couch 3 and is, as we saw, th··
only one in the Old Kingdom where the confrontations of figures hns
erotic implications.
1Mereruka I, PIs. 6 and 7.
2 ibid., II, PI. 172. Kaiemankh is also shown playing this galliC: (IiZtl IV,
p. 36, l"ig. 9.
o liJ'itl., J, Pk O}, !l2 !lao
57

 It. r'('llllll'l,lIl1k t Illd ill 1111 IIII 'loll' t:('I'Ill'S I h"I'I' is 110 questioll
"Ol!/ ,""(111 '! \ 1/,(", II' ,'!
\
(f fI( I I) 1.\ /III u! ,., (II f '1/ II I "'II" If
ill 11111'11
l'l('hcnw w,~S dgidly adh,'J'('c1 Lo. \l, is 11'11 /', Ill/WI'V.'I', I h(ll. ill till' 11I,1('lll
of tl\(· 1,011111 flWllj'I' A'('l,till~ s\IITl'ptitiollsly hIV(Jlvl'd ill tht; l\C'livitics d
of Kingdo m lind First !lIl('I'rncdiult' tOlllb!l, ('spccilllly thosc' in tlw
dl~ily liru which he wMC'hcs, or of motifs copic(J frolil prov­
I'oyal temples. All inces, a numbc r of ccecntriuiLius OCClll·. L For iIlSln.IIU(', the 1,ltL!)01
thc sccnes, cspef'itLlIy thc last two, rcnder ephem eral activit ies; these 'lLk
picture of an actual mastub a bracke ling a numbe r of ritual Sf't'nes
o bcyond thc wcll-known preocc upatio n with food and proper ty,
but sugges ts a spatial link betwee n the groups , though it docs not achic'V
do not rcveal a monum ental intenti on either, for they do not /'
extol space- time unity by any means . 2 On variou s occasions groun.dlillcs
significant, they merely registe r pleasu rable acts. Weare , in
fact, though rarely regist ers- are omitte d, and some single figurcs arc
sudden ly faced here with a new develo pemen t which might lead I'" I.
to a above the ground line; the result, howev er, is never the suggl'stioJ\
comple te loss of the earlier restrai nt and dignity . Yet neithe r in of
this depth but merely an effect of slovenliness. 3
case nor in the Middle Kingd om when, as we shall see, we find for
the On the other hand, we find in some cases curiou s attitud es and
first time a record ing of histori cal achiev ement, have the potent ialities
lively accide ntal groupi ngs which may sugges t simult aneity of actioll
of these innova tions been graspe d. They remain isolate d and have momen tarines s;4fori nstanc e, in the mourn ing scene in Mereru ka's tomb
not
becom e the startin g point of further develo pment. Far from disprov where even one of the women collap ses-a rare instanc e of a fallin
ing
our thesis these except ional scenes seem to confirm it. It needed
the figure. Also in the scene of cattle fording a stream6 where the last
upheav al of the Amarn a period to discard even tempo rarily the funda­ calf
dives into the water- usuall y all animal s are picture d in the watcr
mental significance of the original scheme. ­
and where the uneven line of horns sugges ts to us recession, though
As regard s the bed scene, though no other instanc e is known , we
this may well be accide ntal.
find the motif of prepar ing a couch in one tomb, obviou sly a copy.l
Simila rly the horizo ntal figures in the boatin g scene? who arc prob­
In this case it brings about an insidious change in a well-known scene
ably meant to be swimm ing, not falling, figures; the comple x activil
namely , that of the dead watchi ng the harves t. Here a chair and Y
a in connec tion with the strand ed ship thereb y sugges t the rendcr
couch are being prepar ed for the tomb owner whose figure bracke in
ts of a single accide nt rather than a typica l inciden t.
the scenes, the chair behind him, the couch in a lower registe r.
This Even more remark able is the time aspect of a man runnin g dowlI
suggests actuali ty far greate r than in any scene where, e.g., the
dead the steps with an empty basket . 8 He does not perform an indispcn~flbl
is being carried in a sedan chair but does not appear in any
way act in a scene which represe nts the filling of a corn bin. And wherca
connec ted with surrou nding activit ies. The prepar ation of bed s,
and genera lly speaki ng, in the descrip tion of such scenes all attemp
chair so close to the watchi ng tomb owner seems to bear on his activit ts hy
y schola rs to introdu ce the time elemen t, by saying one figure does
and vaguel y sugges ts a rural scene, while the implic ation that thi
he is while anothe r does that, are not warran ted becaus e variou s figures
going to use them introdu ces an elemen t of narrati ve. It is probab
ly repres ent typica l stages of one comple x activit y; in this case
insidious change s such as these which made it possible that in it is
the indispe nsable . We may stress the fact also that this Leerla ufis the
Middle Kingdo m, in a tomb which is except ional from every point o)lly
of instanc e known in Egypt .
view, the change from timeless confro ntation to actuali ty was made
comple te; for there we find the record, in writing as well as illustra 1 See Smith, 0p. cit., pp. 223 sqq.
tion,
of an actual journe y made by the owner to his estate and for the • L. D. I1,35.
first S N. de Garis Davies, The Rocktombs
of DdT el Gebrawi I,
time he is said to receive the amoun t and to superv ise the counti
ng of third register ); PI. VIII, third register (squatti ng figure holding PI. VII (calf hi
cord); Wreszillsk:i,
his cattle. 2 We shall in due course deal with every instanc e of this Bencht (Halle a. s. 1927), PI. 53; Wreszin ski, Atlas, III, PI. 69, abb.
kind H; Wreszin ski,
Atlas, I, PI. 85; J. J. Tylor, The Tomb of Sebekh-makht, passim.
but want to stress here that they are few and far betwee n. A special case arises when the sculpto r of the tomb depicts himsdf
outsidl) til
What matter s here is that not in a single case was the spatial scene, as it were, and without groundl ine (Wreszi nski, Bench!, PI.
42) .
• See Hellmu th Miiller, in Mitteilungen des Deutschen lnst'itut
render ing affected. The flaccid style of the tombs of Mereru ka s, ](lIirll V 11
and (1937), III,Flg. 49.
Kagem ni shows no daring in this respec t; genera lly speaki ng, the <; Mel'eru ka II, PI. 130.
old • H. Kccs, Studien ZUT aegytischen pTovinzial Kunst, PI. n.
1 Wrcszin ski, III, pI. 13. The prepara 7 H. Kees, loco cit" PI. I; also in
tions of bed and chair is tllso shown in the Wreszin ski, Bericht, PI. 41. We find ill.I . .I.
tomb of KlIiema nkh: Giza IV, p. 40, Fig. 10. 'l'ylor, loco cit., }'I. Il, what looks like 0. very debased version of
the sClI1lC thOlllC,
S Sec "{'(ow, p. 7:1. but. here the l.lecidcntal Chllr:Lctcr is lost entirely .
~ Wrcs:r.inski, lot'. fil., ]'1. aGo
58
50
 'U) 1'111 t ltc' I1lf/HI 1I111'I'C':.1I1lg III'W 11101 if, IlOw\'v('r, We' lilld ill UPP\.:f
J\:~ypl,ld J)l'~hllljh('li (11'i/-{. 0). IfllLn oLhc.:nvi!<H· f'lll\ VCII LioJlld
!Lod ralher
lownly f'lLI'V\·d lllmb thc siege of a. lown is givcn in grcat detail. A
similar SC('IW O('(:lIrli in n Itlte Sixth Dynasty tomb in So.qqarah, obvi­
ously i'clated, bIll wiLh a number of different motifs (Pi. XXXIIb).
The appclLrance of this kind of scenes in tombs is something of a
mystery. They obviously do not fit into the general decorative scheme
and it is significant that the earlier of the two occurs in a southern
province, well away from the political and artistic centre and at the
end of the Fifth Dynasty, that is, when the zenith was passed.
The extraordinary character of these scenes can only be ignored if
contemporary Old Kingdom reliefs are treated as a child's picture­
book, for then they would mean merely a new invention, a new story.
The fact is that they are not only a new story told but the first story
ever told in relief since protohistoric times and-with one undramatic
exception in the Middle Kingdom-almost the last story told till, the
Amarna period. There is nothing typical about this Deshasheh scene,
it does not render phases of known and recurrent activities, it is dl'am­
atic and emotional in the extreme and has an unheard-of 'actuality'.
Within the limits of nonfunctional rendering, dramatic space has been
achieved, not only in the relation, for instance, between the mining
soldiers and the figures listening within the walls, but also between the
attackers and the besieged-it is extraordinary to see how the diagonal
of the scaling ladder adds to the tension as compared with the vertical
ladder in the later painting (Pi. XXIIlb). The use of registers barely
detracts from the sense of spatial unity which the scenes of despair
inside the town wall convey; the women killing their menfolk to save
their honour, the breaking of a bow, the passionate leave-taking, the
moving scene of the aged and infirm confronting the chief, who tears
his hair, Near the ladder, the figures of falling men riddled with arrows
add to the sense that there is some spatial link between events in and
outside the town wall. The latter are extremely vivid and full of
original detail but remain within the accepted scheme of closely knit
groups in registers which have been cut by the ladder. XXIJA. ISLAND WITH SHRINE OF CROCODILE, SUN TEM!'''!':
It is interesting to compare the Deshasheh and the Saqqarah (page 55)
scenes and to note how in the later version the truly dramatic space XXIIB. STARVING PE01'LE, PYRAMID OF Fl\.\:-­
has already vanished. The miner with his pick, at the top, and the (pages 50, 5())
listeners are no longer related nor are the fighting men inside the walls
and the attackers. The lively gymnastics of the figures on the ladder
are less threatening than the gesture of the one remaining f-igure facing
the ladder in the Deshasheh painting. The only original motif appears
in the Icfl-hand uottom corncr, where we sce an under!!round shelter
60
- .... -'.' .... :~.-
...:::....

....
...
z.
:::
/-.~
<t­
< '-""':
''''' ~
:= :.l- ::z t;:
~~ -
z
-­
~
<
 '{'III' 1\ lit/t/lt "if/,W/oll
fOlllld bllsic dirr('I'CI1C(' UcLWCCIl Lhe schemes of funerary
{'Xpl'('HSioll in u
JccoruLioll ill pri vutc tOlub alld myaJ temple. At no other time-cxcept
in the A Inn,rna l'rvolution-could the dangcr of an unwarranted ap­
proximation, a disregard of this difference, have been greater than in
the early Middle Kingdom, when princes emulated Pharaoh. And we
shall find indeed significant symptoms of such a trend in the tombs of
feudal lords; but we possess no royal reliefs sufficiently well preserved
that could, either in style or contcnt, reflect a significant change, some­
thing related maybe to the haunting humanity of extant royal portraits
in the round (PI. XXIV). Only a few small fragments might point in
this direction: among the remains of the earliest temple at Deir el Bahri
bits of relief have been found belonging to the reign of Mentuhotep Neb­
hepet-Re, the greatest king of the Eleventh Dynasty, but one whose
name was not sung by later poets as a bringer of peace and prosperity.
The fragments were part of wild battle scenes, infinitely closer in spirit
to the dramatic quality of the Deshasheh siege than the large formal
ones of post-Amarna date that appear in Karnak and Abydos. They
are, unfortunately, the only significant fragments we possess, barring
one conventional scene of Sesostris I performing the Sed dance before
the god Min.
We shall, then, have to focus entirely on the tombs ofnoblefamilies
which were hewn into the cliffs overlooking the river valley near vari­
ous centres of feudal power, at Meir, Beni Hasan, EI Bersheh, Thebes,
and Assiut. The style of the decoration, mostly executed in paint, is
fairly homogeneous, but both as regards content and what can best be
called mannerisms, the differences are great; this provincial art had evi­
dently all the self-assertiveness oflocal pride. Quite new is a preoccupa­
tion in several tombs with military matters. We find scenes of marching
soldiers,l the siege of towns,2 and the bringing of tribute. s These obvi­
ously reflect the temper of the times but immediately raise the quest~on
-more imperatively here than in the case of the two quite exceptional XXIV. HEAD OF A KING OF THE MIDDLE KINGDO 1\'1
Old Kingdom scenes we discussed-how such matters could fit into the (page 64)
original scheme we postulated.
The fact is that they do not and that we must see in them, as also
in a number of other scenes where the dead is involved in some activity
or other,4 a tentative development-doomed from the start and soon
1 Beni Hasan I, PI. XLVII.

21bid., PI. XIV; II, PIs. V and XV.

31bid., I, PI. XXX.

• This is particularly clear in the legends at EI Bersheh, e.g. EI Bersheh I,

PI. IX and p. 15: 'Canoeing in the papyrus beds. . . by . . . Djehutihetep';
PI. XII nud p. 28: 'Leading oxcn of the best of thc st:tIls beforc thc face of the
prince'; iIJ;rl.: 'Arrivin~ in PClLC(J, approaching the hall of Lite counting by th
prince DjchuLihuLcp.' On this scene S('(' Llt.'luw.
01,
p::
.....
~
~ ~
.....
e-­ h
<t:
2
l:l:l
,....
',..-,"'
0
if)
~
E-<
> 0
~ >:::: t­
O -<t: t-
p:: :r: to
"" if)
::::; '"
'I..
~ p:: ~)
~ ~
~
>-
Po-
;:..,.
~
if)
<t:
P P0­
p::
~
.,..
....
P:<
>
><
<t: ~
>
X
~
 'jUf,'ol'/I'r I!/ 11/1' /'/·,.wt!

~
II rill
1111111' ­
--.
~m~~ :} I frusLrnled ill this pluticuill./' Ncl,titl/-( 1IIllllrly, IL IlIC)VI' ill LIn: dir('\'LJ.Im
of mOJllHtlclI'l:ality. This D1ClVC is H,lJllmll, Ltl he- cxpootell aL

~.
-,., , ... , whcn for the first timc since thc Third UYllnsly secular power OWl'd fl
t:-'!i'"

.,~
lhe beginning of' the dynasty so little to royal favour, but had to {ll-;SI'
I and to proclaim itself, while at the same time the tradition of tVi
1-; decoration afforded an opportunity for ostentation. But ifconunCOlOfl).­
tive scenes of monumental import were aimed at, these could not easily
be incorporated in the old scheme. Monumentality entails, as we Saw
(p. 21-23),a reference to actuality, with emphasis either on its space-time
character or on its transcendent significance. The original scheme of
decoration in private tombs, however, was averse to actuality :11111
equally averse to anything transcending the concrete. The realism of
the scenes was the realism of typical occurrences, and in the cOnr1'Oll~
tation of the living dead and typical scenes of life there was no room for
acts that were pregnant with meaning; or for figures that might SUI?l!CS
a transcendent presence, hence we find no images of gods.
The resistance against an intrusion of commemorative and mUllU­
mental scenes must therefore have been very strong indeed. Thc result,
was that wherever fumbling attempts were made to introduce thr,;liI
with a view to enhancing the owner's prestige, they either appear iml()­
cent irrelevancies l or mere variations on a known theme,2 or, as in tht'
case of the transport of a colossal statue (Fig. 7), a flattened-out, dis­
membered rendering of a single historic event which, as we shall SCI'
effectively dodges all problems of space.
It is interesting to note that hardly any of these innovations wer"
ever repeated, and we shall find a strong indication of their htl.Vin
been considered alien intrusions by later generations. Monumentalit
was, for a time at least, defeated.
In dealing with the actual material we shall have to treatgeographi­
cal instead of chronological units; not only because the former are mol'
clearly distinguishable but because, even if all the known tombs eould
be dated and arranged in chronological order, we would be unable t
trace any kind of stylistic development except in a series of hunting
scenes at Meir. The execution of Middle Kingdom art is on the whol"
rather mechanical, even shoddy, with flashes of brilliant experimcr
in a direction where no development lay. There is, generally spcakin/,t,
something uninspired in this art, though the facile technique of dis­
temper painting encouraged spontaneity at times and it is curious
J Such as a visit by the tomb owner to his workshop instead of the 115UI\1 sec II
XXVTIA. ARli\TlCS, TOMB OF I\IINliMIIOTI':1' (If craftsmen at work. See below,
(/)(l/!'{' 7(;) • The usual tribute scene becomes a real inspection (sec above), and tho ('ln~ill~
of the bird net (Deni Uasnn J, Pl. XXXll) gains eVCll mow lldUlllity when in Ii;l
\:\:Vllit. \ :-Y' I' ),: I, ( ) I' I·: S ,\ N I) T" 1-: I H 1\ I': I·: " I': 1/ S. IlrrHhch 1, l'l~. XU sll«1.., servants pull willI 'l1lcir IIll1sll'r,
I'(I~II\ (II,' I\IINl1I\lIIOTJ';I' 05 "..... M.
{fIO,':':/' 77)
 '1/(1/'1/("0' I~/ II/I" "(r/Url
that ill thu fev.. rnully Jill(' !'I'lkl',; Wt' JlII'j~W!olH, 11IllJH.:ly, those' 111. IVII'i."
" '--l""" we should find CVul'l ;,L to\lch 1)1' l'yuil',,1 hllll)OIl1': thu c,;IIHI,cintctl BCJ.iI~
~ 4~~' herdsmen (Pl. XXVa),l though pCl'haps illspil"cd by the ftLlninc scellt' WI"
.~It'~ discussed, are rendered without compassion; they are a.s comic us th··
rather obese muscular little men (Pl. XX Vb) in neighbouring scenes.
The element of naIve faith and stoic restraint which gave the Old
Kingdom reliefs both dignity and charm seem to be lacking. Ji'f\,ith
must have been badly shaken and fear have entered the consciousness
f those who experienced or remembered the tale of complete social
disruption and cruel distress. Whoever knows the pessimistic litcratlln'
of the period, the sad brooding faces of some of the Twelfth Dynasty
rulers (PI. XXIV) or even the portrait of the young Amcnemhet lit.
(PI. XI), dignified but sensitive and vulnerable, must feel some dis­
." appointment that the tomb reliefs and paintings do not reflect ~t mon'

J mature humanity.
The reason may well be that the limitations of the original schcl!lC'
~
o
could also in this respect not be transcended without the breaking-up
of its inherent logic. For although more scenes bearing on fUIlCl'lIl
~
beliefs and practices were introduced, the element of wish fulfilnwnl.,
~ implied in the very confrontation of living dead and lively SCI'lIeS,
."

~ barred the road to greater emotional depth. The very preoccupation

oS with the terrifying aspects of death, so magnificently subdued ill till'
c3 grand assertion of life's lasting values, must have increased trCITIl'lId.
~
'C;>
ously in an age when funerary estates became a mockery and CV~'II
..., royal tombs proved not inviolate, but it could not find expression in C\,

o""
~
rigid scheme, the limitations of which were final. It did, however, filld
~
an outlet in a rather pathetic and childish way, the way of direct n>­
~
assurance. For the need was evidently felt for something more tan­
t:-= gible, something closer to magic practices, than the old abstract con­
frontation in mural art. Already in the late Old Kingdom plastic figures
~ of servants who, it was hoped, might fulfil the needs of their mastel'S,
began to be placed in the tombs, stiff little figures, sometimes wi'll
made but rather dull. This habit took on unheard-of proportions ,in tlw
Middle Kingdom; in fact, there is something embarrassing in findill~
hundreds of dainty toy figures, servants and workshops, stables, hent'lts
Hnd boats complete with crews-objects that would have delighted any
llursery-in the tombs (PI. XXVI); because the owners of these tornhs
must have known the sad and profound wisdom of contempOl'ury
lilcmture. 2

I Meir J, PI~. lX, X, XXV; Meir II, PIs, HT, VI, Xl, XIX.
~ A. El'IlIlLll, ']'hc L'iterlllnre oj the AlIci{'ul l';gypt'ill'lls, tl'anskltcd hy A. M. Blnd.­
11II1I\, PII. 7'" \10.
i7
 'l'hl' PI III I'll! \·I1II1'1'pl. lI1ldt"'lyllll:f Uhl h,llIgtltllll pioLorin.llLl't" naIve
11111. lIOI.w"\Il1y llllphihlHOplticld, ::;CCJ1lS Oil Lhe verge of disintegration
Itl. !'his point. I\.lId Lhcl"O llIust havc been, as at all times in Egypt, an
1L1nl'll\lJ1j:t Lcndcllf'Y ror significunt achievement to become, in due
ourse, n. pm'olly of itself. We may therefore well consider it symptom­
atic of a new development that in the early New Kingdom the elabor­
ate toy servants disappear or lead from now on a shadowy existence
as stereotyped shawabti figures, inscribed with a magic formula.

B. THE NEW TREND TOWARDS MONUMENTALITY

IN FUNERARY ART

We shall deal with the tombs in Meir first, because in workmanship

they are closer to those of the Old Kingdom ,than any others; though
interesting painting occurs in some of the tombs, the best work there
is still done in relief. It is surprising to find after the flabby kind of
drawing in the late Sixth Dynasty such astonishing vigour and freshness
as in the tombs B No.1 and B No.2, equally surprising that it should II
remain a completely isolated phenomenon in the Twelfth Dynasty,
the work of a single gifted family or group maybe. What distinguishes
these reliefs from the best work in the early Fourth Dynasty is mainly
.\\~ "'" I.h (;>.!l.,\~ U ),)., I >.loA. 'l, "'\l,\ ..... '*' /'
'>
~~J;:l~::~;9~~~ ,
)

FIG. 8. Cow Calving

68
u..
C ::
 I' l\i /I po, flu III
'hll gl'tlllpillJ.\'. whh'h il-! rill' kss Nllhfl.;/,vit'nL Lr> tt kind of rhyLhlltic pat­
'l,("'1\ (.hllll ill Lhl' O!th.H' ont's. I L is loose, ill r;lcl. J'ath<;;:r untiJy, sometimes
ovcrcrowucd, lIfHl:i,lIy with so much spaee between the figures that
thcy appeal: Jess enumerative, more important in themselves. Some of
the figures have a curious individuality, like the old man in PI. XXVb
on right, or the extraordinarily dynamic herdsman delivering a cow s...
.~
(Fig. 8). Very striking also is one figure in a slaughter scene (Fig. 9, bot­
~
tom right), for not only does the attitude come very close to func­
~
tional rendering but in this single case the slightly bent head covers part
of the shoulder. This gives a gratuitous and startling effect of three
dimensionality, far greater than in any case where limbs overlap, which t:I:!
is almost inevitable in the drawing of human figures. Figures are often
separated not by a neat formal hiatus but by a more or less significant
void. The men pulling the rope in Figure 10 appear realistically spaced; ~
they seem to need this distance for their work. This is not the case with
~
the men carrying papyrus bundles (PI. XXVb and Fig. 10), yet perhaps ~
because they seem so intent on their task and their physique and
posture are so convincing organically, it needs a little effort to realize
that we do not have here a 'scene' implying simultaneous action, per­
haps not even the mere notion of a papyrus harvest depicted as usual
in its various aspects (as the harvest is rendered in PI. XIXb, c, for
instance) but the staccato rendering of one single movement in suc­ ~
s...
cessive stages: a man rising with his bundle.
The group comprising two men separating aggressive bulls (Fig. 9)
has a tension totally lacking in the actual bullfight in the same register, o
..
i3

~
which is merely explicative; the taut vigour of the animal on the left
holds an implicit threat quite rare in Egyptian art and is more expres­
sive even than the gesture of the man on the right.
o.....
Still more remarkable from our point of view are the two extant
hunting scenes. It should be realized that though such scenes can and c
have been treated as typical events, there is a singleness in the situation ~
of each hunting experience which again and again has tempted artists
to stress their actuality, while pride in the hunter's prowess may tend
to give a certain monumentality to the scene, This frequently becomes
a reminder of a kind of reconstructed and composite actuality. The
older one in the tomb of Senbi (Fig. 11) shows the first deliberate
attempt to break through the rigidity of parallel registers. Not only
are contours of hilly and mountainous country given without a ground­ n
line (this would fix them on to the surface of the wall and thus vitiate
spatial imagination as it does in the temple of Sahure (Fig. 4)), but
here such contours, placed high and low on the wull, arc boldly joined
by diagonals and this inevita.bly forces one to sec the higher contours
70
 £'/1) 'j'rrf/ll,\ "' /r'/IIII'(tI

tLS more distant: some kind 01' I'CC'\'I>/JiWi iM lId.drvt:d. This fh'sL dfpl'L doe
Ilotcntircly succeed ill gi villg a 1IJ1ll1i'd IfiIl1tNt'l\pe hll t the ullilllalf/nplWII r
in a coherent space, not merely un difljoillted frugmc:nts of sky-lin..... 'fill'
liveliness of the scene is enhanced by the exaggeratedly transiellt nLli­
tude ofthe shooting figure, whose almost diagonal posture has never been
repeated in later times. We saw already that this is the first instance of'
a private tomb owner being depicted in such an act, the only othcr
known being in a royal funerary temple; the very boldness with which
actuality was stressed almost gives it the character of a challenge.
This challenge was not followed up in the tomb of Senbi's son m,h­
hotep (Fig. 12), where the figure is upright, the posture conventioJ)fd'

~J~Ffu
'.,.~
~ ~f!
~
,~~f1 A
'.,.
..c
~
~~ '" l~hi ,i,;:,rl,\-\b

FIG. 12. Ukhhotep Hunting

,...,...
on the other hand, a remarkable experiment in 'landscape' has becn
£ made, groundlines have been omitted altogether, even the fenced cu­
closure, so disturbing in Senbi's relief, has been dispensed with; 'l:h
animals are strewn over a blank surface. It is interesting to compu]"-'
the effect ofthis innovation with the Assyrian relief (PI. LXXIX). Th
latter does appeal to spatial imagination, for somehow these anitnH1N
form a dramatic unit moving together, one feels, in an indefinite plain.
In the former, tension is lacking, there is nothing to relate one smull
group to another, and the result is that though the placing vaguely
suggests recession, the scattered figures appear artistically nn'liJy
rather than spatially coherent. There can be no doubt that the ;),ttCllIpl.;
at rendering space is here deliberate, for the group at the bottom kf
would have neatly and easily fitted on to the groundline while thc Olll'
on the right was evidently wrenched away from it. We have pjetlU'cd
hcre only half of the actual relief, which peters oat in a misguidcd
attempt at an idyllic scene. For it cannot be doubted that t.he rathel'
senselessly scattered beasts l arc supposed to render wild lif't: Oil 'IJIH'
desert's edge away from the hunter's range. This remarkal.>lc dfort h{LS
! M"lr, 11', 1'1. VIT.
7
 /'/1) '/', l'lld'! III /"111/1'1 (II)

Ilt'VCl' 1.I~\Cn
l'(,pN\'Lcd, I.II(lllllllH'I·IlIl'~ hilt" lll/{ ~('I'J1(;S ill lk/lj Iln'HUt IIlId
Il;lH('rNheh Ilt(;k all iuLeresL ill IIIIIlh,(·It!ll'. 'I'lle OIl(' in (!;l BpI'sllch (Fi~~,
Ill) does dispense with grounJ Iinl:l'l, Lut Lht: wcDsts couped IIp ill 1\ fe'III'I'
t.haL acts like a picture frame arC i<Liflly al'l'angcd in registers alld eve II
a little liveliness of action in the stockade scene at the bottom d()c~ nul
I'clieve the dullness of sheer enumeration.
The work at EI Bersheh and especially at Beni Hasan is, gcnernUy
speaking, repetitive and uninspired, and efforts to introduce actuality
have not, for reasons we suggested above, given new life to pictorial
imagination. By far the most interesting example of such an effort i1)
found in the tomb of Djehutihotep at EI Bersheh (Fig. 7).1 Here we
have combined in one large scene three kinds of activity on the parI. 0/'
the dead, one exceptional and single and two typical events. In the
'",
~ lower register on the left we find the tomb owner pulling the cord ~if
~ the bird net; the drawing is quite conventional except for the fact that
~ he is seated in a chair, a concession to his status and that servants hc(p
....<:>~ him pulling. On the right, facing and bracketing a number of the usual
~
'", scenes, surmounted by a picture of several boats, he is stated explicitly
] to have made a journey in order to inspect the collection of rcv\;uu"
."-'
q' (see p. 58 above). The scene at the top, however, is the most int.-I"
csting one. Here the tomb owner is seen walking behind a co]osi<1\1
~
M statue, apparently his own effigy, which is being transported to a chapd
Cl
.... or tomb. A lengthy text comments on the exceptional nature of thiN
~
event. This scene is on the face of it a biographical event, the first oj'
its kind, and is not only important in itself but affects the neighbolJl'in
~~A~Q1£1£ L:: ~_~~t(~~Oo~~Do scenes. For it is the contiguity of this unique picture with some 01' the
/!J(~;~ilJ"G Do 't€ JUf)~ ~l:tJ stock-in-trade motifs like fowling or watching cattle or crops which
~.- ~
t=~1[6~m-v~HJ~~;}
'~ht,-, iL& O~CC:;rl'I ~
r-,\[
r~ \\ gives the latter an air of actuality normally lacking. Now, even withou
the accompanying text, it would be difficult to connect the boats merel
,. ~~=c "--~CG~ul~i with funerary usage, or to see in the rather elaborate booth round th
.~~ ~m~:lr~J' figure of a watching man anything but a concrete situation. Where
,;,<;:~o..f!O~flO L"f"\p/1 ~ traces of conventional motifs appear in the biographical scene they
~ V'I'OU .J.eJ~\f 0 '---\", also and quite naturally acquire a new significance. We saw that the
empty sedan chair in other scenes merely forms partoftribute-bringing
scenes. Here (in the upper left-hand corner) it is part of the COl'tcg
with servants, soldiers, and police, and has a definite function. 'I'll"
striding figure of the tomb owner appears in this case to be movir'l-;.
together with the colossus, in a definite direction, namely, towards 'lite
chapel or tomb on the right. But these spatial implications have no\'
been expressed in tcrms of dynamic space; the tcnsion which might lillY
>xisted between thc central group and the figures moving LoWUJ'fls it
1 EJ ncrshch r, PIR. X n sq".
7(,
 /'11t' II/idr/le '\II/SciUlli
frlllll Lbu j'hupcl ho.~ hccII crrcr,tivoly J'.rnslro.tcu uy three bo.l"~ of hiero-
Iyphs which separate them. Even the milliner in which the transport
has been pictured is static-none of the figures holding the ropes is
actually pulling-and shows no attempt to grapple with the spatial
relation between the different groups that do the hauling. Therefore,
however ambitious the 'conception of this monumental scene, the
rendering lacks actuality, and since the achievement of the transport
did not have symbolical dignity either, the result is, from the monu­
mental point of view, an artistic failure.
We know of nothing quite so ambitious in the tombs ofBeni Hasan;
the only historical and even dated,l event is the bringing of kohl by the
Aamu tribe in the tomb of Khnumhotep (PI. XXVIIa). This is merely
shoved into a row of registers, all of them containing typical scenes
~
confronting the dead. This context robs the rather charming and lively .::l
picture of the actuality it would have had if its dramatic potentialities ........
~

had been fully exploited and the arrival at the place where the gift or o
merchandise was received had been depicted. The rest of the Beni E'
Hasan paintings are on the whole very dull indeed. We said before that ~
Middle Kingdom art shows strong local idiosyncrasies. Beni Hasan ...~
t.al
artists seem to have been obsessed by the notion of analysing complex ~
movement rather than activities of daily life. This movement they cut
up in its various phases much as did the artist of the papyrus harvest ~
scenes: the acts of dancers and wrestlers appear in consecutive series --:
of snap-shot like drawings. 2 These, however, do not represent the '/)
~
choice of a pregnant moment of action; the result is therefore, as often t.al
as not, frozen and lifeless gestures or, in the case of the wrestlers, an ... (.0.
endless number of variations on the theme of two intertwined figures (.0.

which neither in themselves nor in the mass clearly suggest factual ::l

movement. ~
Though one might recognise in these efforts at least a new pre­ ~
,
occupation with the problem of transience, they had no effect on the
rendering of space, and the same holds good of other minor attempts
to venture beyond the old scheme, namely, to make some typical scenes
appear more single and concrete, to stress their definite spatial char­
acter. One of the means by which this was done is by simply indicating
locality even where such indication adds nothing to the clarity of the
action depicted. We find over and over again architectural features­

1 The fact that the scene has been given a date is.an unheard-of occurrence in
the old scheme; Beni Hasan I, PIs. XXX and XXXVIII,and p. 69. Another pro­
bably historical scenc, namely, the acceptance of un olive bnUJch hllnded by a
deputation, is too badly drawn and too obscure to he oC ~rf'at intcrest except
as an example of a eommcmomtivc scenc; El Bersheh n, 1'1. XVTT.
'lloni Ullsnn 1, PIs. XlV, XV, XV]; nell; Uusun 11, Pk lV, V, X I[ r, XV.
70
 (' II) I'r" /Ills If I /1'/11/ (' to 1'.)' 1,'/
pillar/i, NOr bCfLm~, doors' wl.i.'1i HI't'lll lJLl<'rly g"fltrriLtlll!{ hill wllic,1t
in every case emphasize that tbe nellon, cvc'n if it was It rCCIII"'('lIl WII(',
took place in a certain settiJlg and that therefore a concrete, rather
than a typical, event was intended. These local indications are extrcruc­
ly vague and avoid the problem of three-dimensional space altogcthcr;
there is no instance of even the narrowest stage space.
Another step in the direction of the concrete has been taken in two
instances where the figure of the tomb owner has not merely been
brought closer to but entirely engulfed by scenes of daily life. 2 Here the
0;- C.
00 oc dead-in a notably passive attitude-forms part of the scene of crafts­
'l;) S; men at work and thereby gives it a new actuality, namely, the event
~ ~
~ " of a visit. The rendering of space has not been affected in this cas
R,--'::­
either.
-;~
~ X Only in one painting has a gratuitous effort at suggesting depth
"-'
,.... X been made; in PI. XXVIIb beasts and figures overlap in a way which
~ J
z ~ differs from the normal enumerative rows of overlapping figures. Th
~ r::.. feet of the man standing behind the oryx could not have reached th
o 0
r:q -.J
groundline by any stretch of imagination; he stands somewhere in
~ ~ space.

o f-.
Eo< ~ 1 Beni Hasan I, PIs. XIII and XXIX (top); Beni Hasan II,Ph, XVI and Xx.:{;
if)~ P EI Bersheh I, PIs. XII sqq.; EI Bersheh II, PI. XV; N. de Garis Davies, 1'he 1'omb
>:tl 00 of Antefoker (London, 1920), PIs. VIII and IX,
Z ~ 2 Beni Hasan I, PI. XXIX.
~ >.::<
u H
if)
.P,
H ,-­
~
~ ~.
~ P
Eo< %
H
~
...,

U ~

,.... ~

~ c:;

o ~

~, ""
r:q
~
X xe3
~
x xx

77

CHAPTER IV
The New Kingdom
A. THE INTRUSION OF NEW CONCEPTS IN THE
CLASSICAL SCHEME OF DECORATION
I n the tomb of the vizier Antefoker, the only remaining Middle
Kingdom tomb in Thebes, we find traces of a hitherto unknown
scene, namely the tomb owner in adoration before the king
whom he served in his lifetime. 1 Its appearance in a Middle Kingdom
tomb remains puzzling. One may allow for the fact that it was a
high official and not a local prince who chose to have it depicted, a
vizier who ruled in Thebes, the very region from which the royal family
originated. But it appears alien both to the classical scheme and the
new trend towards greater actuality; the act depicted is neither a
significant historical event nor quite a symbolical gesture; the con-
frontation implies neither the mere beneficent presence of Pharaoh
for the deceased, nor an actual situation which was to demonstrate
the latter's status, and yet the scene appears to contain elements of
all of these.
I have not mentioned the scene before partly because the remains
are fragmentary and the mode of rendering apparently conventional,
but also because it is the first of a new type of scenes which occurs very
frequently in the New Kingdom. 2 From now on Pharaoh often appears
in the tombs of his subjects, so that the case of Antefoker seems a pre-
lude to coming changes. These changes, however, are more important
than the mere introduction of new motifs; they actually signify a
momentous shift in attitude towards the very purpose of tomb decora-
tion. Generally speaking, the shift is from an exclusive preoccupation
with the lasting significance of life in death which we found in the Old
Kingdom and from abortive attempts in the direction ofmonumentality
IN. cle Garis Davies, The Tomb of Antefolrer (London, 11):.lO), 1'1. XVI.
• Max Wegl1l'l', MfiteiltLU~e1/, des Deutsclten l'11sliUtll1, f{rll:ro, IV, 55 ,51>, has
listed the O{'C"UIT('IlCeK of the king in the privllte wlIIbK of lhe Nnw ICingdorn.
78
IIlI rIlS/IJI/ {~/ N'llJ ( "Olin'll/ii
or the Middl.e Kingdom paint,I'I'H, li.\vlIl'dH H II/'W C()JH:"fd, fir Lin!l'kil.
:xistcncc, morc individual thlln Ill\' f'JI'lIIel', less ehaHengillg Lhnn lohl'
latter. Not the typical aspeclfl of' lil\; hound Ill' with man's mf~L~rjlLl
wealth, not man's single and h.isl;ol·ieal aehicvement, but his pol'itic(
function became the focus of interest, namely, his public activities in
what had become a powerful empire and still remained a hierarchic
state. To see in this shift of interest a mere sign of ostentatious worldli-
ness, incompatible with funerary art, means to ignore the fact that i It
a state where the concept of kingship was ultimately a religious one,
political function could, in the face of death, have a transcend en l
quality; it could mean participation in a divine order, sharing in divin
grace. The old time-honoured formula, 'an offering which the kiug
gives,' was more than a polite pretence; it connected all bounty with
its ultimate source; the new confrontation of king and servant in the
latter's tomb insisted on man's individual status and at the same tilJl
lastingly linked him with his divine ruler.
The change we postulate here is not a mere surmise based on til"
appearance of the king's image in private tombs; it is reflected in lL
number of innovations and adaptations of old themes. The interest ill
scenes of daily life, for instance, dwindles and where these occur thl,'.
are more often than not used for the purpose of illustrating thc tomb
owner's official function! as supervisor of works,2 as collector of trilmt"
or revenue,3 etc. New scenes are introduced with the same purpose,
e.g. the measuring of a field 4 or the holding of a law court. 5 In all thes'"
the owner can be said to be represented as he was in his lifetime-
though frequently the term m" persists-yet the term 'biographical
scene' should be avoided here, or at any rate qualified, because even
l We find, e.g. in the tomb of the vizier Rekhmire, all the familiar scenes but
the tomb owner is not their beneficiary: the bread is baked for an offering to Arnall
(Rekhmire, II, PI. XLVIII); storehouses are depicted as 'storehouses of Amon'
(ibid., PIs. II and L); masons labour to build 'the storehouses of Amon' (-ibid.,
PI. LVIII).
2 E.g. a high-priest of Amon is shown 'watching the workshop of the temple of
Amon and the activities of the craftsmen' (Davies, The Tomb of Menkhel?erra-
sonb, Amenmose and another (London, 1933), PIs. XI, XII, XXI, and p. 11):
so also Amenhotpe-se-se, second priest of Amon (Tombs of Two Officials, P1K. V II,
VIII, X).
3 E.g. Amenmose, 'Eyes of the King in the two lands of the Retcnu,' is shown
presenting Syrian tribute to the king (Wreszinski, I, 88); Amenmose, 'stewa... l in
the southern city,' is shown returning to his town after having collected t:lXe~ ill
Nubia (Wreszinski, I, 284-).
• E.g. Menna, 'scribe of the fields of the Lord of the Two Lands of Upper nnd
Lowcr Egypt,' is shown supervising the measuring of the HeldK (Wl'cs'Iinski, I,
232) ; Khaemhat, shown in the same action ('ib-id" 191), was 'ove'!'lieel' or Lilt'
granaries of Upper ancl Lower Egypt' and Zcscrk;.I,rcsonl), shown KilllilHl'ly
occupied, wa~; 'eon.ntcr orthc granary of Divine OJfcrings or Alllun' (ibid,. II).
~ 'lCldl11d'fC, 1I,1'l.XXV.
7,
 ,
//' IV,'II' 1\lI/W llllll
I "I ('''.'11111 I!/ /\ 11/1 ( 'WIl'('IJ I"
w1l('I'(' ill I'/In' i 1\~l.lllW(·:'I the' S<':QII('~ apply I,f) IL ~illgl<.:
('Vellt, I such as an llCI\.r the tomb (ulthl)lI~h it, i...
1I1111l11 .g ll mltlc' t I Ill\; lhc!'lr HII\/\IIc1 IllLV('
inslll.lln,tioll 01' lhe receiving of lhe gold of honour , they merely aim
at "urviv ed n.ny length of time .111 tlll'l'id ('\jrr~). III tl.ny CllSt;, both lhl'St'
elabor ating functio n and status of the dead. Dates or time referen
ces, llnd their images in the tomb!' lTVI'll.! lhl\l. f'mgra nt shade ~"nd moistu
if they appear at all, have practic ally no bearin g on the scenes them- re
had becom e objects of no~talgie Jove as much as the 'thOll!'alltls
selves. 2 of
The peculia r way in which the old scheme contin ues bears out our hrcad, thousa nds of beer' of the traditi onal formul a.
The preocc upatio n with the ]Jer-det, the funera l estate, has dis-
assum ption indirec tly. For this scheme, with its elemen t of wish fulfil-
nppeared.1 The gods themse lves, especially Amon, though someti
ment, was by no means redund ant yet. The pleasu rable aspect s of mes
life Nut, are stated to be the source of susten ance for the dead and
still matter ed to the dead, the only difference being that the fullnes the
s same formul a is used here as appear s on the statues of private people
of life which confro nted the Old Kingd om tomb owner had lost
some in the god's temple , a formul a which was to guaran tee a share in
of its simplic ity and radianc e. The theme of the dead behind his offerin th
g offerings. Bouqu ets, food, and sistrum s from the temple are offered
table receiving the gifts of his relativ es is elabor ated and becom es or
that at least shown to the dead and in one case Amon guaran tees a passag
of the tomb owner and his family facing banqu ets with garlan "
ded across to Karna k, to provid e food every day.2 Funera l and ritual scenes
guests, foods, perfum es, wine, and dancer s. 3 These solemn feasts
have abound ; in a few instanc es Osiris or a minor deity occurs in ritua.l
gained a new sensuo us quality comple tely lacking in the old canoni or
c adorat ion scenes. 3 All in all, it appear s that a new preocc upatio n
figure drawin g which was chaste, if rather jejune. with
transc endent power has disturb ed the balanc e, the self-co ntained
Anoth er curious feature in the reperto ire of these tombs is that ness
certain funera l rites show a new pre-oc cupatio n with localit y, of the old scheme .
with The change in spirit then seems very great and the logical incon-
garden s and ponds, someti mes chapels, even houses (PI. XXVI
II). sistenc y of depicti ng the tomb owner (a) as deceas ed but living
This can, I think, partly be explain ed by the fact that the mainly and
rural passive ly watchi ng the amenit ies of life, (b) as he acted in his ofncial
'scenes of daily life' were consid ered less appeal ing in a sophis ticated
function, (c) as deceas ed and underg oing funera l rites, is more strikin
age of predom inant town life, while moreo ver such scenes were g
now than ever. Yet this incons istency is less naIve than those moder
used to demon strate the scope of an official's functio n. We do know n
schola rs assume who first force an interpr etation along the lines
that the crossing of water and probab ly the plantin g of trees was of
part 'genre' paintin g and then are baffled by lack of pictori al or logical
of the funera l rites from the Old Kingd om on, and it is concei vable
coherence. In order to avoid this one distinc tion should be kept
that small planta tions, perhap s even miniat ure ponds, were later made in
mind: in the banqu et scene the tomb owner was, as of old, represe
nted
1 E.g. the installa tion of the tomb owner
as vizier (M.M.B . II, Dec. 1926, ufter death passive ly sharin g the pleasu res of the living. If, therefo
Fg. 5); the tomb owner as vizier asking for a coadjut or (ibid., Figs. re
Garis Davies 'The Tomb of Puimrc at Thebes (New York, 1922-23 2 and 3) (N. de
on the same wall as the posthu mous banqu et but unconn ected
, PI. XXXV III); with
the transfer of standar d and warran t to the tomb owner Nebam it, we see the owner depicte d in his functio n as head of the police,
un on the
of his receivin g a commis sion as Chief of Police (Tombs of Two Officials occasio n or
riding his chario t as if to stress the import ance of his status
and p, 35); the inductio n of the tomb owner as second priest of Amon , PI. XXVI while
(Davies , ibid., among the living, it is quite unwar ranted to connec t the latter
Pis. XIII-X IV); the tomb owner, the physicia n Nebaml ID giving with
medicin e to a
Syrian prince (Wreszi nski, I, 115). The unique and rather absurd lhe former and the danger of letting one's imagin ation run riot is
note the backgro und dotted with irreleva nt flowers --of a man little scene- very
facing a hyaena in great.4 Nor is there justific ation in speaki ng of 'pleasu re trips' on ponds
the tomb of Amenem heb (Wreszi nski, I, 21) may refer to an
actual experien ce,
but in that case it is striking that the tomb owner is not identifie tLnd lakes when these scenes, as we shall see, are nearly always connec
d. -
• In the case of Menkhe perraso nb (Davies , The Tomb of Menkhe
Amenmo se and another (London , 1933), p. 3) the scene is said to refer perrasonb, ted with funera l rites and clearly belong to the third catego ry. Interp
to the New re-
Year's festival , but this was a current event and no date was
given. Dates do I Menkhe pcrraso nb (vide supra) merely
occur but never related to the scenes, e.g. the date of the retirem mention s that offering s are brough t
ent from office of from his estates in the north and in the south of Egypt, PI. XXIV,
Nebam un (Tombs of Two OfJic'ials, p. 35), while the referenc e to p. 21.
the Sed Festiva l of tN. de Garis Davies, The Tomb of Nakht at Thebes (New York,
Amenh otep III in a scene which records the reward of officials on 11)17), PI. IX,
the recomm enda- p. 1J,8;seealso The Tomb of Mcnkheperrasonb, Amcnrrwse andarwthcr
tion of the tomb owner Khaem hat (Wreszi nski, 1., 203) merely (Londo n 10a3),
stresss the import- I'l. XXIV, p. 21; N. de Garis Davies, l/'ive 'l'heban 1'omb:;
tance ofhis function . (Londo n, 1013), 'PI.
a Thc latter are a curious case in point, for in the Old and
Middle Kingdo m they xxv 11, p. 25 (Londo n, 1013).
only appcnr in connect ion with fUllcral rites; in 'the New Kingdo • Zcscrko.rc:;onb, olTil'i(LI ill the grnnul'y of Amon, ofrenl to BrnllLc
m mostly, though t, the aroin-
by no JlIelLIlS c"e1usiv ely, in bnnqlll' tsccllcs . clddrHs.
• 7~1II1111j o('J'r.vo 1cial.v (London , 102:». 1'J. V r, p.lS; PI. XXI, p. 2\).
")
~l ",".M
.'
 It' 1\ ( II' /\1 /It, dUIII
11IIlOllfl (,I' lI,iN kJlld 11,'\' t~"'ll,lIil,(lWdy It·j,,jJol lilld IliisH the CUlltl'l\l con-
('('pI. whicll giVt'fl I hest' 1ICI,"'\:$ I.hd]' 1Il1iLy; tbey 1J\i.~\'i tile JIIctaphysical
problem thnL luy uL LlJe "out of aU l!.:gyptiall fUJiI'HI,ry <I,rt: the problem
of the l'elatio'1l. between life and death. Seen in the light of this problem
the different types of scenes are merely various approaches, varying
answers, but all imply the same assertion-that death is a mere phase
of life, that the significance of life is as timeless as death. These scenes
are quite literally concerned with eternal values; namely, the immanent
values of life such as power, wealth, and abundance seen sub specie
telernitatis. There is nothing illogical in the choice of motifs of New
Kingdom funerary art, nor as we shall see, in their mode of rendering.
The essential value of political power was expressed in the relation be-
tween the high official and the divine head of state; wealth implied in
the first place the subtle beauty of conviviality with music, poetry, and
dance, and abundance meant throughout not only possessions and a
surfeit of food, but a joyful awareness of earth's fecundity, of beasts
and plants and the infinite variety of man's labour. These scenes con-
tain an implicit but emphatic denial that death should be a tragic and
violent negation of life; on the contrary, they attempt a harmonious
approximation, a mutual interpenetration of life and death on a scale
never equalled by any other people. It is true that Death, the unknown,
claimed ever-present awareness and unceasing service on the part of the
living, but this was not merely the price at which doubt and terror could
be kept at bay, but also a tribute paid to the phenomena of life which,
when pictured in a funerary setting, became unassailable even by death.
All attempts to make the strangeness of this very mature art less
alien by 'reading' it like a story are attempts to rob it of its dignity and
its truly religious character. And this is all the more deplorable because
the paradox of the oneness of life and death is balanced on a knife's
edge between childish and wish-bound thought and profound resig-
nation, between the hope that life's pleasures might last and the recog-
nition that life is eternal only through death. The faith which these
pictures reveal seems more delicately poised and more self-conscious
than in either the Old or Middle Kingdom. Not only do traces of sad-
ness occur in the scenes, even a hint of the tragic (apart from the
official and acknowledged behaviour of the wailing women which
occurs throughout, even in the Old Kingdom), but the uncontrollable
terror of death was fully articulate at this time even if it only led an
underground existence, as it were.
Magical formulae which reveal such terrors appea.r already during
the Old Kingdom i.nside some of the later. pyramids; during the Middle
Kingdom, fragments of these formulae wcrc inscribcd on the cofI1ns of
2
S/"H'(' '1/11/1' 11I//l!I('u!Il//I\ I~/ /';(11'1) Nt'll \ 1\I'1Ip'/ltJlII 1,./
p,'iVlLLC lH'lIplc. HuL ill till,; N!-\\, h III/{dclIlI tl", Ihtl" 11/; dCIII\lIlN Hlld or
lcrri\.lle cOlltjngeHcic~ ane!" dl'lLtlJ f""l1d l'xpl'('ssi<JII in Clal.>Ol'ntC' SYfl-
ms of threat tl,nd magic counLermove, which wcre codi'ned in the 'Hook
of the Dead', 'The Book of Wbat ts i.ll the Netherworld' and 'The Boo
f Gates'. The walls of royal tombs were now covered with the clrcary
phantoms which made up their content, and the coffins or burial shafts
f private people often contained them in the form of papyrus book~.
B. THE SPACE-TIME IMPLICATIONS OF EARLY
NEW KINGDOM ART
The reliefs and paintings of early New Kingdom tombs, mostly con-
centrated in the vast necropolis of Thebes and covering a period of tw
centuries, are both more homogeneous and more subject to stylistic
changes than Middle Kingdom art. Yet we shall not treat the matcrinl
chronologically throughout, for such developments as can be traced
mainly affect the rendering of the single figure and the compQsitio11 of
conventional groups and these are less significant for our particul·..·
problem than, for instance, the introduction of entirely new scenes Or-
of new versions of old themes, changes which cannot be forced into {L
sequence but appear sporadically, unconnected.
On the other hand the gradually modified rendering of the singl
figure does reflect very clearly the pre-occupation and mood of the New
Kingdom as well as its reverence for traditional values. We need not
give an extensive formal analysis here, since Dr. Wegner has already
done so in a careful study.! He has shown that in painting the simple
method of filling in an outline with a plain wash of colour was gradu-
ally superseded by a true painter's technique in surface treatment. Dr.
Wegner's use of the term malerisch, however-as opposed to plastic-
entirely hides the fact that what the Egyptian painter achieved here
was usually only an approximation of painting to relief: the figures
become more plastic because outlines are sometimes omitted, and
sometimes act as shadows; and the lines of elaborate pleated garments
reveal, instead of hide, rounded forms. And this same anachronistic
Lerm malerisch also obscures the fact that these painters were almost
exclusively concerned with tactile values, with the soft texture of semi-
Lransparent material, the stiffness of starched loincloths, with the
smoothness of wigs saturated with oil, the wiriness of animtlls' hnir
"' See p. 78, n. 2. Unfortunately the terminology is quite anachronistic for
Wegner is eompletely under the spell ofWoclfliu. Thi,~ is particularly nuticctLbl
ill his I'lTort to systemati".e tIle development 01' New King-dom ad (lac. 61., 1(3).
Ill'rl' Lit" terms IJsed seem to Jose 0)1 bl'l.lTing (Ill the Egyptian nmtcriullLlld flppClLr
pure lfl'mgr,qp'inst.
iiI
 'ill' N 1'/1) ""1.~ d" /I(
(PI. xxxv JI). This sensllal inter(;st in L1w C{lIHliLy of surfucc Ileed. not
nhancc the illusionary corporeality of the .flgUJ·cs in a. spatial sense,
as purely colouristic painting would have done since this conjures up
the atmospheric play of light and shade. The Egyptian painter merely
emphasizes the 'haptic' quality of the figures, which are composed in
the traditional canonic way.
Now it cannot be denied that in some cases changes occur in the
actual drawing of single figures, which do affect their space-time £,
character, noticeably so in the case of dancers. Here the Old and o
0:,
Middle Kingdom attempts at analysing their complex motion in its <W
different stages have finally been supserseded. Not one single striking OJ
~
attitude has been chosen (which makes the figure, for all its contor- 3
tions, appear frozen and lifeless), but the quality of motion as such 1".
~
has been caught. It is one of the miracles of Egyptian art that such .....
delicate grace as we find in PI. XXIXa, b could be achieved within
--.~
p:;
the accepted scheme of rendering. The figures are, here also, 'spread f:I.1
1",
out' on the surface, yet every gesture is both plausible and organically
~
coherent, suggesting movement, yet conveying the stillness of re- o
straint. For these are not 'dynamic figures', they are caught in an p:;
....
~,
exquisitely harmonious pose. A small group of such figures may appear ':)
r-<
both natural and deliberately arranged; it may combine a certain lively
~
and transient quality with the static perfection of a pattern. In these tIl
E-<
few instances Egyptian artists did transcend the limitations of their ....
scheme without destroying it. --,':)
p.;
Extremely interesting also are the changes which occur in hunting I.Y
scenes; here we find fleeing or pursuing animals in violent motion with
~
four feet off the ground, attackers and attacked in a variety of contor- t';
tions (Fig. 14). We shall not deal with the vexed question of the f.l.1
u
'flying gallop' or the flying leap in detail, since it has been convincingly
shown-with a wealth of circumstantial evidence--that this motif H
.....
was developed under Aegean influence.! It is remarkable that although 1'1
t1
a number of variations and experiments occur, especially in the earlier
part of the Eighteenth Dynasty in the tombs of Puymre, User, and
Rekhmire, the 'flying gallop' did not become a standard motif in
Egyptian art and that there is no question of a gradual development
toward greater freedom of movement within the New Kingdom hunt-
ing scenes. On the contrary, already in the tomb of Rekhmire (Fig. 14)
1 Helene J. Kantor, The Aegean and the Ancient Near East (Bloomington,
Indiana, 1947), 62 sqq. Miss Kantor has also disposed of the theory upheld by
Edgerton and others that sinee cinematography has revealed what the naked eye
does not detect, namely, that for it split second the foul' Icgi'l of a ~aIloping animal
are in faot ofT: tho ground, this fnet would in itself aCCOllnt for tht; j<;~yptian 'flyillg-
gIlUop·. '!'IIP nrgnolcnt is JIIJL only lo,gicnlly Llhsnrd hilL simply nnlvc frorn an art
',rIUClLI poinL of view.
8~1,
 ,'/)((('{' If/I IIt/J!t"(I'/IJII,\ I~J /1'011 (It' 1\ /lUJ..rlUIlt II'I
L' '"

CQ
c:
'l..
~.
>::..
'--

e:;
i=':
.,..
,....
;J:
~
I-;;
~

~
c
~

c""
~

"""
c:
f,t;

....~ ,a:-;"
-< I.
~
~
~ FIG. 14. Hunting in the Desert, Tomb of Rekhmire
1-
Z
~ the artist is on the whole at pains to fix his 'flying beasts' on to wild
o and scattered groundlines, while the painter of the slightly later tomb
....z of Kenamun (Fig. 15) has lost interest in the motif altogether.
~
p:<
Changes in the composition of more traditional groups, such as
I7J
~ wailing women at funerals, we shall consider later, and we shall now
....
c: deal with those new scenes which centre around the activities of th
<r,
~ tomb owner in his official function, for here, if anywhere, one might
...,
....
expect a less formalized rendering. Curiously enough, such scenes
.... show a greater variety of activity by implication only and avoid with
~
~ remarkable consistency depicting historical or dramatic actuality. '1'hi~
;x
(utter can only be expressed pictorially by a dynamic relation between
I he figures or-if a material setting is indicated-by an integration of'
I he spatial and temporal aspects of the event, We find, however, gcrwl'-
lilly speaking, the very reverse: thc situations in which official functions
llJ'(' shown lack concreteness, their typical c1ml':l.ctcr only is slressed

lIud tltc C'lr\ssi':/L) device of a huge fig-ure brackdillf! LL 11111llbcl' of unCOil-

S5
 "pO('I' '1';'/11' 1111/1/"'1111/)/1,\ r~/ 1r;(I/~) N('(ll 1\lIIp,tlul/J /1'1
if! w~cd 1.0 ifldicuk It conceptual, l'utlll,;I' t.JlfUl It sjlll.t ilLl
llC'cLcl1 SC('OCfl
I,t'lntion betwecn them.
This is the morc remarkable because sometimes both spatial and
temporal considerations did playa part here. Not only typical acts but
single great events such as the installation of a vizier (though admit-
tedly this may be considered part of his function) were given; and in
the rendering some local setting-a temple, royal dais, or kiosk-was
used for the sake of clarity. But what was gained by this was clarity of
statement, not pictorial actuality. For never was dramatic space!
fl.chieved or even aimed at. We may see the royal cortege moving
towards the temple for the installation of the vizier, and his bodyguard
striding in opposite directions after the event;2 but no effort is made
to give the movement of these bland figures space-time actuality beyond
the mere indication that a temple played a part in the event. Even the
rather abortive attempt in the Middle Kingdom at creating a spatial
....~ tension between the group transporting the colossus and its place of
destination, namely, by showing figures moving from the chapel
~
~ towards the group (p. 75 above), was not repeated before the Amarna
period. The restraint shown in such scenes which fit effortlessly among
I the spatially indefinite, temporally indifferent classical scenes, will be
more evident when we compare it with analogous representation in
~ Amarna art, where every effort is made to achieve a maximum of

~
....~ actuality. This entailed a complete subversion of former aims, a fact
which must be recognised even though the majority of Amarna draw-
...c£
~ ings still remain within the bonds of a powerful tradition. We shall,
when dealing with Amarna, refer back to the earlier scenes in question;
the reluctance to depict historic actuality will then appear even more
striking, The relation between monarch and functionary, for instance,
is kept entirely within the range of a formal confrontation which,
through the hieratic immobility of the king, is quite devoid of human
tension. Even in the case of the ancient vizier who faces the king with
., a request for a coadjutor, the gesture is formal, and the signs of old
age are explicative rather than expressive,s while there is nothing in
(:-:;,\\ the formalized figure of the king to suggest that the dialogue, which
J ••••• J .
accompanies the scene, should refer to an actual event. Not in a single
..- ,.'

.,~
instance before the Amarna period is a gesture of the king recorded,
~ither of exhortation or command; he embodies merely a divine pres-
ence, not a dynamic personality.
J See pp. SSf.
3 SeeM.M.B. II, Deco 1926, Fig. 5.
, In the tomb of Amcnuser (::;ee No de Garis Davies, MoM.B. II, Dec. 1926,
p. 9, J1'igo Ii).
87
 / 'It I' NI'lI' 1\1 IIP/IUIII
Vt'l'y Iltrildn~ niNo ill til" c1loi.·c of SITII('N r~'pr~~scnliJlg various
functions in eascs where the c1assicn,l Scencs of daily life could not be
used to illustrate them. For instance, at a time of great military expa:n-
sion, the only concern of generals seems to be drill and catering, 1
(PI. XXX), the unvarying, the typical tasks of a military career, but
battle scenes are conspicuously absent. In the tomb of General Amen-
mose, who took part in Syrian campaigns, no reference to these occurs
except the fa9ade of a Syrian castle and the suggestion of a wooded
setting for it. 2 But the fa9ade itself remains entirely unconnected, in a
dramatic sense, with the tribute bearers. There is no scenic integration
such as we find at least attempted on several occasions at Amarna and
achieved in the Assyrian relief (PI. LXXVIII) where the figures are
clearly moving away from the building in the background. Even in the
case of the vizier Rekhmire, presiding over his court of justice, some-
thing similar occurs. 3 The hall of justice is given in great detail and
spread out in plan-an importat innovation which we shall discuss
later-so that though the action is typical, the acting figures are clearly
related to it or confined within its boundaries. But the figure of the
vizier is separated from this definite spatial unit by a double line which,
even if it should represent a column of the same building, removes his
large, probably enthroned, figure from mere contiguity, let alone par-
ticipation in an active scene.
In this connection, the presentation of foreign tribute is an inter-
esting case in point. The king who was the recipient of these gifts was
hardly ever pictured jointly with the long rows of foreign representa-
tives. All that mattered in privatt tombs was to show the function of the
vizier, who collected tribute for his monarch. This function was, how-
ever, rendered with complete indifference to the circumstances of what
must have been a recurring but rather spectacular event. The figure of
the vizier mayor may not bracket the purely enumerative rows of
tribute bearers, but no indication of the locality where the presentation
took place occurs. Here a comparison with the most lively and dram-
atic picture of the complete event with detailed indication of the local
setting in a tomb at Amarna will prove the most revealing (see pp.105f.).
Some interesting changes in the rendering of space, however, do
occur in connection with the new attempt at picturing garden plots
and small artificial lakes (PI. XXVIII). These presented a new problem
for artists in the habit of reducing everything to the one plane dictated
1 In the tombs of Thanuny (Wreszinski, I, 231, 230), Pehsueher (ibid., 279,
280), Nebamun (ibid., 287), Amenemheb (ibid. I, 94).
S Wreszinski, I, 168.
oN. de Garis Duvies, 1'he Tomb of Reklmt'ire at 1'hebl's (New York, l{)1,3), II,
l~I.x..XIV.
88
SIUI('(:-'J'/ll/l' ///IIJlil·rtlluIIS I~/ I(:",.~)· NI'II) 1\ Itlp/dow 1,.1
hy the ""gistcl' gr'oundlinc. A 1'1,)1 01' gn'lIlld ~'()lIld lw liS (,'HHily /'i1'1"'/ld
out. On :to vcrtical wall us 11 sheet of IVtLkr !1ILt! b(;~11 proviollsly;J ),111, tlt/·
objects it contained WCl'C orien talec] ttl right I1nglcs with it. The ~()lll Lion
WI1S as a rule to disregard this diffcrellce in orientation and to place the
projected objects within the confines of the plot with the maximum vI'
descriptive clarity in almost any dircction. 2 But this procedure had it
remarkable consequence, for now the interest in a definite plot of
ground, even if it was as yet treated paratactically, led to a new 'gel)-
raphic' interest. The rigid groundline already abandoned in earlier
hunting scenes was, in a few instances, altered in agricultmal scenes
where not only the figures in action but the terrain itself becomcs a
fl'ature. 3 The 'landscape', or at any rate the topographical description
which results (PI. XXXla), is highly remarkable in that it shows
detachment from the classical scheme: here man's food-producin
labours were all that mattered, not their contingent setting.
The tendency to give gratuitous actuality to typical scenes can also
be observed in cases where trees are scattered-sometimes above til..
goundline-among the figures, 4 a trick which is extremely effccti \Ie ill
the barber scene (PI. XXXIb).
Far more remarkable, however, are experiments in topographi.'111
description in the hunting scenes, for here the vertical projectioll of' tI
plot of ground conflicted with the older scheme of showing anillll\ls
in motion on the contours of hills which act as groundlines. In till'
tomb of Rekhmire (Fig. 14) these contours are, as we saw, a device I'M
providing a foothold for animals in a variety of postures-though evell
here they still form a rough division into registers. But the lines havl'
been thickened into narrow strips and though they have been left
blank, and are not solidified in any way, they are no longer unsub-
stantial but suggest-if rather timidly-a projection of the ground Oil
which the animals are moving. The effect of the contour lines is thereby
seriously impaired, while on the other hand the attempt to solidify th"
background by scattering pebbles here and there robs the strips of any
topographical meaning they might otherwise have had. This was evi-
dently realized by the remarkable artist of the tomb of Kenamull (Fig.
1 In one case the zigzags indicating water are put vertically as an aceolode for u
IIshing scene (Wreszinski, 1,250).
• Not only may trees adhere to the four sides of a garden plot in such a way tIm'\,
they point in four difierent directions, but even animals tied up for slaughter llIoy
be disposed that way (N. de Garis Davies, Five Theban Tombs (Londoll lUW),
PI.XXI).
I N. de Garis Davies, The 1'omb of N"kllt at :J'hcbes (New York, ]OJ7), 1'1.
XXI; J(cfUl1ntm, PI. XI.NIlI; Wresziuski, I, O.
• "Vrc's'l.inski, I, 231-Btl,; N. de G. Davies, M.M.U., ·11l~7. p. 14, I"ij.[. JI,
WrCHzinski,l, IfWnnd'187.
H!I
 1'III' Nt'II' /\ 1I/!:tllJl/I
If) /till! 1'1. XXX VII), who be/Idly Hltcl',ilk\"d 111" old /lnLllln IJf('ulltour
Jines a.ltogether unu by widclling, solidify,illg, Ulld IIl1iJ'ying what wei'
still fragmentary strips of soil in the tomb 01' Hcklllllil'c, aimed at pro-
ducing the effect of a coherent projection of the desert, in which the
expedient of hillocks in profile could be dispensed with. He solved the
problem of depicting the animals in this setting by surrounding each
creature--resting on, in some cases slightly overlapping, the wide
pebbly strips-by a plain coloured surface, which needless to say acts
in contrast as space. It is true that the weird uneven network which
results does not clearly suggest receding soil and that the plants and
trees adhering to the strips in a variety of orientation are spatially con-
fusing. But it cannot be denied that this unique experiment in going
beyond the mere abstraction of a skyline is the nearest approach to
topographical coherence in pre-Amarna Egypt-it is, in fact, a typical
true painter's experiment-and that it has the remarkable effect of
both binding and isolating the animals in space,
We can hardly expect that the liberties taken in hunting scenes
would also occur in cases where the tomb owner was involved. There
are, however, actually two cases where, again according to interpreters,
the tomb owner is seen sitting in his garden, a situation so totally
different from the prevailing tendency to avoid the single and concrete
that it is worth studying these pictures somewhat closer. Now in the
case of Enene, 1 the owner is placed outside the garden plot in a separate
register. Here the intention may not have differep from the old con-
frontation between the dead and a delectable scene oflife. In the case of
Sebekhotep (PI. XXVIII) and his wife, who are placed within the
confines of the garden plot,2 it is significant that the scene is explicitly
stated to take place after death and is far removed from the spirit of
'genre' painting through the presence of the sycamore goddess-half
tree, half human figure-whose comforting speech appears like a magic
formula on either side of the lake. This scene differs from all the con-
temporary ones which depict funeral rites within the local setting of
lake and garden, and might be considered a forerunner of those, usually
called 'Elysian fields', which in the Nineteenth Dynasty shows the dead
himself busily tilling fields and harvesting in the Hereafter. The latter
are a late and rather ludicrous corruption of the classical scheme which
will be better understood as an aftermath of the Amarna period. The
Sebekhotep painting, which seems to hover on the brink of a new devel-
opment, remains an isolated instance in the early New Kingdom, and
its apparent concreteness, belied by the mythological figure in the tree
and the texts, should not be uscd as an argumcllt to f~xplain complex
1 Wrcl>:r.inski, I, (lOa, • Wff;s:r.iJl~ki, 1, 22~.
no
':'/)(/('1,.'1'/111/' 111'/)/1/'(11111//,\ (!! I«I"~) N"II I I\lIlp,r1 I J11I 1"
IIld pllzzling 80('IW8 lik(: 1'1. .xx x J I ill IC'I'IIIH III' l~ ('lIl1el'ck Hit.llld,i q ll.
'1'0 Fitly that NclJamun is sitting ill t'rp"L or hi!ol "(lllse· is Ii nlh'I'Opl't:SPlllll,·
tiOIl, because owner and house (ill right-hand ('ol'ncl') nre not cvell Oil
the same groundlinc; and to insist tlllLt 0,11 the scenes given in 'lit
d ifCerent registers represent the events of one 'day offeasting'2 is H1C rl'ly
l'n.ncifuI. Why the house should be depicted at all is admittedly not clel\r;
it would almost seem as if the detailed rendering of the vine bower and
the small chapel, together with the contemporary tendency to depict,
detailed plots of ground, tempted to introduce yet another item. If so,
then the restraint shown elsewhere is all the more striking, for there is
no question of an indiscriminate rendering of all the features which
might be connected with the layout of the pond and garden yet, no
discursive rendering of the dead man's estate such as we find in the
Amarna period and after. The nostalgic love of cool moisture alld
fragrance, or the part these played in funeral rites, did not ent:Lil t\
mere record of actual possessions. This we only find when the intcl'est
shifts from the essentially static older scheme to dynamic actuality.
Generally speaking, we might say then that, barring the new intn-
cst in terrain, the space-time implications of the older scheme pr('-
vailed. But significant changes will appear when we consider details in
both the main and the subsidiary scenes. We do not refer hcre to
noticeable increase in 'genre' incidents, which aim at rendering a sillglc
occurrence at a definite place. Similar incidents have through 0 I I t
delighted artists on rare occasions without affecting the general chame-
ter of funerary art at all. The incident is usually marked by some form
of irrelevancy, like the conversation scene in Ti's tomb. In the New
IGngdom a guest is seen sick at a solemn banquet;3 in the middle "
harvest activities a girl has fallen or hurt herself and is helped by a
I'riend;« on a wall covered with military display (PI. XXX) we not only
see a barber in action, but soldiers lounging around in various attitudes
of boredom. s Obviously such 'genre' painting has a kind of actuality,
though in a limited sense, for it pictures events that may occur any-
where at any time; even the bull tossing his enemy looks, for all his
quasi-violence, like any bull tossing any other. 6 Only detailed attend-
ing circumstances may accentuate the here-and-now character of such
scenes, as is shown by the remarkable picture (Fig. 16) of the catcrin
1 Tombs of Two Officials, PIs. XXXIII-IV. 2 Ibid., p, 32.
• WTeszinski, I, 179; other references are given by N. de Garis Davics, ')'11"
Tomb of'1'wo SculptOTIi at Thebes (NewYol'k, 1925) p. 56, n. 3.
• Wreszinski, 1, 231. • N. dc Garis Davies, M..M.B., 19:.l7, p,14,I·'ig.] I,
" Wres:f,inski, I, 15. The posture of the lmH is unconvillcing- both us rc:glll'\JH tll(:
c')ojJ;lIte u horiZOllt:"\llJack nne] thc sto.l\ce of the lcg8; it dues not conve'y conC(\I\·
I.l'lIwd force.
 'III' Nt'lL) A/ll
nrl/)!II
soldiers; it is ljot so much tile intricaLe gnllll'ilJ/; {LillI overlapping, til
general air of contiugency, but the ono ~()ldicr disuppearing into a
porch which unmistakably turns a typical into i\ unique moment. In
this case, setting and action have been integrated in a way which to my
knowledge is without parallel in pre-Amarna art. 1
.~

r-----'<? 5CS' ,

~
I
I
I

,,
I

,, ,
,

FIG. 16. 111en entering Magazine

The significant changes to which we have referred are more subtle.

They are of two kinds: the spectator may be unexpectedly drawn into
the orbit of an otherwise quite conventional scene by the functional
rendering of figures and groups (the former being extremely rare); sec-
ondly, he may share the suspense of a mood when either pyschological
differentiation makes him feel face to face with a human presence rather XXXIVA. iVlUSICIANS ANn DANCERS
than a typical figure, or when a truly dramatic situation is expressed,
in however restrained a manner. In an these cases, we witnessed XXXIVB. HAHPrST AND GOESTS, TOlViB OF i'\i\I\IIT

an emancipation by single gifted artists from the bonds of tradition. (II((/If' 03)
The banquet scene in the tomb of Rekhmire 2 shows a distinct effort
at functional rendering (PI. XXXIII). It occurs in a large scene which,
1 Wreszinski, I, 246. It is obvious that this incident cannot bc compared with
the typical situation of a man in hiding-that is, half covcrcd by lL papyrus bush-
which occurs somctimcs in fowling scenes.
• I?ckh7lliTI', rls. LXIV-V. A single instance of [l ll)usi(:inll c1mwll ill full back
view hilS lJl.:CIl recorded loy UavieR, M.M .H.• lOZI.l. Fill. I).
!I')
 8p((('I~.'I'ill/!' 11I11,lit'fllilJl1S t~/ 1';((f!J' Nno 1\/IIp,'(/U/iI Irl
lIthough !.he work iN CXc(lplionally 1I!'li('ILLr, 1l,PPCIU'N nt /lrsL quilL' ('Oil
vcntional. Cucsts aud serving girlH 111'1,} HllI'C'nd out OV('1' H nllllllwl' (If
."0gistcrs; the grouping shows thc usual duplication of ugllrcsilltclukJ.
to brea.k up the monotony of rows 01' guest:;. Only in onc case-nno
very unobtrusively--does duplication apl'(~IJJ' :.lP arrangement in J.epth
through the appa.rently so simple but never-repeated device of Jetting
I he serving girl stretch out both hands simultaneously to each of the
overlapping figures (top right). In this otherwise smooth scene, how-
('ver~ the trois quarts back view of one of the girls (top left) is very
startling indeed and seems quite incongruous; seen from a definit
ungle, she has-in contrast with all other figures-'corporcality',
appears in fact in space. It is as if the artist was frightened by his own
holdness, for he drew the feet adhering to the groundline in the tradi-
tional, and in this case absurd, old way.
Equally remarkable is the fact that around this time a few experi-
ments at full-face rendering were also made. The extraordinary effect
of a row of guests confronting the dead suddenly becoming a semicircl
facing the spectator (PI. XXXIVa) may have shocked rather than
stimulated, for it was hardly ever repeated. l It should be noted that
here, as in the earlier tomb of Nakht (PI. XXXIVb), the incidental
character of the scene is enhanced not only by gestures or intricat
grouping alone, but by more subtle means: a slight shift of axis in th··
ligures, a tilting of the head.
In connection with functional rendering, we should also mention
here two rather abortive attempts at showing groups of agricultural
workers receding in space (PI. XXXVa);2 but these remain quit
isolated.
The second type of change we mentioned, namely, the effort to
represent actuality as a pregnant moment rather than as a mere con-
tingency or as a more concrete variant of an abstract scheme, is partic-
ularly significant because it foreshadows the 'emotionalism' of Amama
art and its aftermath. It is not surprising that this change occurred in
XXXVA, 1\1E:" FJl.Lr:"G GRA?-iAR\', TOMB OF i':EBAMU1'
the context of mourning scenes. It should not be forgotten that th,-.
(page 93)
representation of funeral rites had so far lacked an emotional overtone;
XXVB, LAST n ITES BEFOR F. TH E TOM Fl, TOMB OF TWO SCULPTORS for even the behaviour of mourning women-and their gestures of
(rage 95) despair can already in some Old Kingdom instances be called exccssiv
-was formally prescribed and therefore typical behaviour. It is, of
1 Wreszinski, I, 91, has collected nll the avaiInule evidcnee-mOl'tly undated,
xccpt for one figure in Tombs oj 'J.'WQ OjJicials, 1"'1. XXIII. It conRists all in nil of
Umlc sitting fignres, one dancer; O:lRo onc standing malc figlll'e ill rclicfwhich IllILy be
post-AnUlTnll.
Ii 'Vr.es~.illfll<i, f,yl. (1:1. ~J'he t!col'ct\sillg' Hi~,(l of I1ftllrCIl ill 'p.robr~lJly (!lIC to Cf)O-
'on'lI'lILloU 01' 111""'lZlmLIL! 11Ill:' 11f hcuriR comhmcd WILh Lho T1t;IIIl{ lull' uf lhl' f,,('L.
~.I:l
 1i((cc-TiIJl1' illlp/il'Oliol/,' I~lll;(/,.~) Nt'lV Ail/{J.rI/l1JI 1,.,
<.'oursc, possiulc that thl: lLl IlUU II I, (If Npill't" Ililutll,;d t.l 1~IJcI till' ill!lIgil\lt-
I.ive skill ~pcnt on such scenes may n.:tl(;ct the l)1t''lOJ of" all artist (II' t}1('
temper of his time. But as part of the I'.ituu.l they were clltirely fVI'Ji'lnl
in intention.'
The change we mean, and which occurred just before the Amarna
revolution in at least one remarkable tomb, is significant because it
insidiously undermines the purely ritual character of the mourning
scene. As if to stress the isolation of individual suffering, the widow is
detached from the group of mourning women, her action separated
from the formal rites: we see her (Fig. 17), a lonely figure, standing in
front of the catafalque; we see her, more poignant still, stroking the
feet of the harsh grotesque mummy case in a final gesture of farewell
(PI. XXXVb). This leave-taking probably occurred in the immediate
vicinity of the tomb, for the scene forms the last stage of a succession
of rites and comes to a fateful halt in the rendering-half realistic,
..,.c~ half symbolical-of the tomb itself. For the first time the formal
~ sequence of the funerary ritual culminates in the simple rendering of
~ actual human grief.
c
~ This particular scene was apparently never copied in the early Ncw
~ Kingdom (though similar ones occur in post-Amarna tombs), but
henceforth the widow of the deceased was frequently separated from
~ the group of wailing women. We shall not deal here with the increitsing
~ complexity and the differentiation of the figures within these groups,
;"}!
·:.
c.:
...-I which have been studied in detail by Dr. Wegner. It is true that the
grouping of figures overlapping in depth may appear as transient as
.'
;! ".....
~ the emotion expressed by the distorted faces (PI. XXXVI), but no-
where, except in the case of the widow, has the sense of a single dram-
:.:, atic moment been conveyed so convincingly and by such simple means.
.
.:
'.:'
There is one other instance of a tense moment depicted which artisti-
'. cally surpasses the ones we mentioned. It pictures again a situation in
::
which inexorable death is faced, but one which does not contain a
Ii
trace of poignancy, and in its setting not a hint of hope-we mean the
n ibex-hunting scene in the tomb of Kenamun which we discussed hefon;
(Fig. 15 and PI. XXXVII). It is one ofthe most impressive scenes in all
the history of Egyptian funerary art, perhaps the only deeply stLrrillg
one, and it is significant that such dignity in the face of inevitable
disaster could only be expressed in animal form and in the relation of
hunter and prey. The very immobility of the ibex facing his mm'derer
has the tension of a tragic situation realised and accepted. It is ell-
hanced with great subtlety by the unusual postnre which :mgg~:st
imminent collapse yet ernphasizcs the prolld beal'i/lg of head tllld
sholll<lcrl> llJ1rl n.lso hy Lhe IIl1expc(:t..;d bchrwioul' td' the IH)IIll(1 wh("
05
 'hi' N('II' !\I/IBUIJIII
lying down with f<'lI'cpaws ('I'oSljcd, looks tip ItS if in awe IUlIJ wouder'.
'he restraint of this scene, thc quality of stoic n:servc, lift it above the
level of terrible suffering and injured animal pride which the Assyrian
artist expressed so superbly; beauty and pride are left inviolate here
in one supreme moment of accepted fate.
C. THE AMARNA REVOLUTION 1
It seems justified to call the mural paintings and reliefs of the
Amarna period revolutionary even though one may disagree with
Professor Schaefer's insistence on the originality of Amarna artists.
In reaction to his view several attempts have been made to discover
traces of similar unconventionality in previous work but at~empts of
this kind are apt to overshoot their mark,2 and on the whole Frank-
fort's careful analysis 3 of significant changes in the Amarna period
still holds good. Such an analysis, however, although it touches on
matters of space in several points, must of necessity ignore the core of
our problem: it may elucidate stylistic trends, but it cannot be an
attempt to correlate their space-time aspect with cultural changes in
the widest sense.
Admittedly our approach to the problem of Amarna art, though it
will justify the use of the word 'revolutionary', is one-sided and has to
by-pass a number of data which would point to continuity rather than
abrupt changes. It is, for instance, possible to trace in the earlier New
Kingdom a stylistic development which in a way leads up to Amarna:
one will find a more pictorial use of paint, delicate brush work which
aims at plastic values;4 a new interest in and a very sensuous treatment
of surface texture, a tendency to greater 'realism' through softer, more
voluptuous contours, slightly less rigid postures. Such development
was only touched upon previously because it did not coincide with
important changes in the rendering of space; if we may ignore it now
for the same reason we may appear to overstress the element of dis-
continuity, but this cannot be avoided.
To those who considered funerary art up to this period as mainly
narrative in intention-a display of the tomb owner disporting him-
self-some of the new scenes would merely appear a more lively story
better told. The fact that in this story the heretic king himself played
1 For the history and appreciation of the Amarna period sec J. H. Breasted.
History of l!.gypt, Chapter XVIII; J. D. S. Pendlebll1:y, Tell cl Amarna (London,
1935).
2 WCI-(ncr, loe. cit., 15.:l,:-;qq.
, It. Frankfort, The ft1.uml Pa'intil1/-11i oJ Tl'lt f'l A'III(lT/Ui (London, W:.lO).
• H(·I,; Ilhovc, p. sa.
O(J
'/'///' 1/11(/1'//(( "I' OOlfil ion
equally lively role would tlu.':11 SCUIII 110 leI'S strange than thu.L hL
1m
physical peculiarities should have been faithf'ully J·ccordcd. Nl this
('ould be considered part of u general trend toward mOrc llatmn.l HIlU
Ll'uthfu1 rendering. But since we rejected this fiction of a cheerfully
und naIvely garrulous funerary art in Egypt and found that its very
restraint on the narrative side is highly significant, we must consider
such scenes as, for instance, a royal tour of inspection to fortified polic
posts, or the decoration of officials with the gold of honour, which focus
on the king's actual appearance and elaborate the local setting of thcsc
vents, as insidiously subversive. For such scenes mean an attack 011
those basic conceptions which, both philosophically and artistically,
had dominated Egyptian art, had given it its dignity and set its
limitations. Whatever may have been the inconsistencies in earlier
Lombs-the experimental liberties taken, even the jokes made--ill
g-eneral the pre-occupation with various aspects of life had always
meant a transmutation of the ephemeral into the typical and essenti-
ally timeless; it had generally ignored space-time definition' sillce
actuality was irrelevant in the face of death. Precisely at this poillt
Amarna artists broke away from old bonds and struck out on a !H'W
course. It will be helpful for the appreciation of both the daring [I lid
the impotence of Amarna art to see it, first, against the foil of its uni(! \I
historical setting.
In the strangely artificial town, built, after the religious and politi-
:0.1 schism, on clean desert soil, communal life was not only cut off from
the burden of tradition, but also from its perennial values. It was, ill
all appearances, a gay uprooted irresponsible existence to which only
the religious awareness of the beauty of life, expressed and fostered by
t.he king, gave a kind of frail dignity and grace. This surely was the
strangest effort ever made to live by the affirmation of joy and beauty
alone, an artificial holiday which, if it was not to end in a kind of
aesthetic dissipation, was bound to end in disaster. There is actually
some evidence that it did both before it faded out, leaving few trace::;
in a period of renewed acceptance of traditional values.
The lack of solemnity in some of the scenes then, their softness,
their gaiety, may indeed be said to reflect an altered style of life, bu
the most important innovations are rooted in the revolutionary charac-
ter of the movement itself, and the pivot of this revolution was un-
doubtedly the king. I do not mean by this that it is possible as yct t
define the part Akhcnaten played ill it, though it may wcU have heell
nsidel'able, but that the new ductrinc implicd a chfLngc in the very
('()J)ccption of kingship, Hnd that t.hi~ must huvc vel"! decply l\rr(~ctcd
the tjf'(~ of the Amarno. conlffiunity !tile! L!w tift. of t.he Jj('l'iod. UH ill(l\l
c; fl7 ",1\ M,
 I II/' Nt'II' 1\ IfIWltl11l
:IICCS ()1I nl'L limy luwo Iwotl pllrtly illdin.:l'I, u!ld lilt' I'OllllUllir noli Oil vf
a young king p(,!'::lorul.lIy inspiring artists lIc('(l nul be tl\ken too seri-
ously, though we may assume that some definite royal instructions
p..
account for certain innovations. Even the written evidence on this ~
score l should be treated with due reserve, while the eagerness with ~
0
which modern critics have pounced on the term Maat-usually ;:Il
~
translated by 'Truth' and often recurring in statements attributed to ~
1.0<
Akhenaten-seems unwarranted. For the concept Maat has cosmi(~ ~
connotations and is far too complex, far too much bound up with I';
traditional religious notions, to permit its translation by 'Truth' in 1.0<
0
our sense. 2 Let us, therefore, consider some practical and philosophical >q
....
implications of Akhenaten's heresy. 1",
0
The theology of kingship, developed but essentially unchanged ~

through millennia, had linked the function of royalty both with celest- ~
P::
ial and with chthonie powers, the latter with a stronger emphasis on ~

death and revival. The king was son of Rc but he was also Horus, ~
avenger and successor of his deceased father Osiris. Now the doctrine of
the Aten worship monopolised the celestial, ignored the chthonic ";xi

>q
~
•
..
aspect of creation, and suppressed the Osirid affiliation. In fact, it is :--;x:
significant that in the titulature of Akhenaten the Horus name is re- t5"/1
~
corded very rarely and only in the early years of his reign. 3 The king ;xi
~
retained the name of Son of Re, but he was, theologically speaking, Yo
first and foremost the prophet of the sun-disk, the living Aten, and in t..I
1.0<
that function became a separate, distinct, articulate power rather than i',
the traditionalfons et origo of national unity and well-being. The very 0
emphasis on the king's religious teaching meant a shift from the sym- /"
~
bolical and representative character of divine kingship towards its act- ;::;:
~
uality. One probably has to see the earliest and most extreme efforts ;:;
to render the king's physical peculiarities in this light. The colossal "j
caricatures 4 (PI. XXXVIII) in the Karnak temple dating from the first ...H
Yo
years of Akhenaten's reign, that is, before the capital was removed to ....
~
Tell el Amarna, seem the work of artists baffled and confused by an
~
unusual royal command and may be more symptomatic of the king's
desire to stress his singleness, his individuality, than of an artistic bias t::
:-1
or an aesthetic creed. But through this emphasis on Akhenaten's :-1
prophetic role and his direct relationship with the Aten, the mystery Y<

1 Von Bissing, Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Aka.dernie der Wissenschajten,

1914, Abh. 3.
2 H. Frankfort, Ancient Egyptian Religion; An Interpretation, (New York,
1(47).
3 In the tomb of Ay (Amarna, VI, PI. XXXII); Oil one of the bonndary stele!>
(ib'idem. V, 28 sqq.) and once in the quarries of SibiJch (llcnri Gauthier, Le Livre
drs T01:S d'l!:I1.!Jpte, TT (Cairo, 11110), ~Ho6).
j,Amllllc6' tJu S('rvirc de,~ A,tliqm:lh lit; l'l,'I!:!Jplf, 1l):l1), 'llJ:30, ] I):J) .
OS
 /'//t' 'If{(/I'fld II (' PO/III i"iI
f killgship, kept nnd Sllfq~lIurdcd ill cItLbul'(LLv Y'iks 01' ~\J(:n:ssic}ll Illle!
of renewal of power, was dragged into the light of tiny and cut uff frnIlI
IL whole complex of human emotions. The king had been the {\,vcngil\~
son, whose office was sanctioned by his deceased father, who wa~ pru-,
Lccted by goddesses acting as his mother; the king was guarantor of
justice, destroyer of enemies. Akhenaten's teaching stripped Pharaoh
of most of his mythical qualities; since he had become a mouthpiece
for the revelation of the 'living Aten', he was single, human, yet almost
unaccountably divine. It is clear that this change posed a number of
problems to artists who had to conceive new forms in which to express
it. It must have been helpful that the setting of the royal reliefs at

-)C':

~
c:::;
,...,
Amarna differed completely from previous ones. Akhenaten did llIJt.
build a funerary temple, for this institution was bound up with notions
which he either rejected or ignored, such as the relation between king
'-' and pantheon and the transcendent significance of military and politi-
,..
.....
cal acts. Moreover, the iconoclasm of the new creed would not tolerate
,.. any symbol in the Aten temple except the sun-disk and its life-giving
c
..... rays, so that the old confrontation of officiating king and gods could
.....
~ not be maintained. In fact, all the old repertoire of royal scenes had to
E-< l~
~ be scrapped, and instead of repeating the classical robot figUl'es which
~
. b,
.. though dull, had at least the dignity of beings engaged in symbolical
~ ~ acts or confronting deities on a footing of equality, artists were now
--< ~

>t< commanded to depict the king as a single person in relation with a

E-<
~
divine power which transcended human or animal form. This was don
><
by the simple device of showing the orb above and the life-giving rays
~ stretching toward the royal figure. But since the new significance of
....>t< the king exclusively centred in his relation with the Aten, the reper-
.....
""""' toire was extremely limited. Little is known about the decoration of
~
>< the almost completely destroyed sun-temple;1 the fragments found,
>< however, make one suspect that there the same device was repeated
><
ad nauseam. It even recurred in the tombs and houses of private pcoplc
-for since the images of other gods were forbidden small stelae with
pictures of the royal family were set up in garden chapels.
The intrusion of the king's actuality in the tombs and homes of his
subjects was symptomatic of incisive changes which the new reli~ion
brought into people's lives. Above all, that side was affected which from
time immemorial had been directed toward the provision of a 'h,nus
of eternity'. Those who either enthusiastically or doubtfully accepted
the ncw doctrine found themscl Yes, by order, cut O'lT as it W(,l'C from
thc ni~ht-side of existence. The exclusive crnph:18i,-; on ,-;01:1,1' POWCI' I\nd
glory nlll,<!C tlw pn,:occllpatioll with the JIt:l'ca['tcr, wiLh I,]w rdnlioll
I .r. I I. S. 1"'lldkltllI'y, .1JC/'L XJX (10313) 1111 ft.; XX (11/1\.1.) I ~IIIT.
00
 "lte Nl'Iu 1\ illp. ,10/1/ /"/11' III Iff! I/n Ii I'/l/dll llllll
f
betwec n life and dcalh (of such SII["'Oo\(' i rnpOl·tnncc throug h millcn
nia) strcss a hl"cn.k wilh till' paRt; ill till" 1\01'1,11("1'11 gl'('lIlJ til(' (HVIII'I' hilll'l!,l
almost irrelev ant. Thc t:rudition of sculptl lred l'OCle tombs was indeed is again depicte d thcrc. On thc l)'l,hcr halld, Lhc l'C'III'I'loirc in the f()I"IJI\:I'
tomb
kept up; their decora tive scheme had throug hout suLlieiently
paid still revea ls-at lcast in one tomb -a consid cruulc interes t ill til<'
a biograp hical inscl'ip -
tribute to life so that it could be made to harmo nize with the new owner' s activit ies (here also we find in onc caSe
y
tion, which is elsewhere omitte d), though the empha sis is entirel
011
be sacrific ed.
creed. But the old balanc ed concep t of life-in- death had to ned
and since the light-s ide of existen ce was now all-imp ortant, the whole the royal family. The northe rn tombs are almost exclusi vely concer
- with this latter subjec t. We find in the southe rn tombs a wealth of
tenor of the decora tion had to be secularized. In this process of secular careful ly mould ed
filled: a mere record of the archite ctural feature s, elabor ate papyru s column s,
ization some religious vacuum had to be flush
glory and the gaiety of life in a funera ry setting must have appear
ed cavett o cornices, in strikin g contra st with Theba n tombs and their
th
rather senseless even to the most ferven t Atenit e. It has often been
held walls and simple square pillars. Such details are less exuber ant in
pre- northe rn tombs though worked column s are used throug hout. It would
agains t the tomb owners of Arnarn a that they were so exclus ively
occupi ed with their monar ch or so obsequ iously obeyed an imperi ous then appear that this curiou s stress on archite ctural detail, which makcs
,I
order that the royal figure was to domin ate the scene. Actual ly there the southe rn tombs 'almos t reach', in the words of de Garis Davie~
fact
is someth ing almost pathet ic in the way they had to cling to the
one 'the dignity of rock temple s', was either a compe nsation for the
had had to be discard ed, or that it was
traditio nal feature in an existen ce where so many old values that so many of the old motifs
charac ter of the tombs alto-
becom e meaningless: the king still retaine d his suprem e and benefic ial sympt omatic of an attemp t to alter the
functio n; the king, though provoc atively human , was still divine. gether . The work done on the southe rn side shows signs of alm()~t
s
Since it was, however, his actual ity in word and deed that matter
ed frantic haste, so that if we find finished and careful ly mould ed capital
may
most now, the old abstra ct confro ntation of a formalized royal figure on shafts of pillars that have not yet becn cut out of the rock, we
part of a deliber ate schemc .
and his functio nary had to be supers eded: the tomb owner depicte
d in assume that such archite ctural frills were
the realm of the It is difficult, owing to the unfinis hed state of most of the tombs, to
relatio n with his master was drawn inevita bly into wa~
latter's actuali ty. In this case that meant not only the very limited judge with absolu te certain ty to what extent the old reperto ire
abando ned, but we may safely assume that funera ry scenes were abseil t.
actual ity of Akhen aten's reduce d politic al and religious life, his visits shall discuss later,
Barrin g a unique scene in the royal tomb which we
to the temple , his public appear ances, etc., but-a nd artists fairly ional
revelled in this-t he petty details of his human existen ce. This
un- there is only one single instanc e known at Amarn a in an except
wb
doubte dly comple ted the process of secular ization ; life, the core of the tomb, namely , the tomb of HUY,2 superi ntende nt of the harem,
from Thebes rather late in the reign
Atcn religion, was in the acts of his prophe t brough t down to the
level came in the retinue of Queen Ty
with
of liveliness, and liveliness had appare ntly come to mean the purely of Akhen aten. His tomb, the only one which was comple ted
such as agri-
trivial. Y ct it must not be forgott en that even the cloying natura lness burial chamb er, shows severa l Theba n reminiscences
evi-
of hugging, eating, and family scenes 1 meant for the commo n man
a cultura l scenes, craftsm en, and even a slaugh ter scene, which he
n. All of these are conspi cuousl y
manife station of divine life, and this lifts them above sheer frivolit
y. dently was not prepar ed to abando
scenes of life were omitte d,
Before we discuss the details of the reperto ire, the followi ng facts absent at Amarn a, and if the traditi onal
were:
are worth noticing: and even the banque ts with their posthu mous connot ation
wa~
The dating of the Amarn a tombs presen ts a numbe r of proble ms, extrcm ely rare,3 wc can bc sure that the preocc upatio n with death
but we ean deal with them in roughl y chronological order, for the group barred altoget her. Actual ly what we call the process of secular ization
which is situate d in the southe rn part of the bay was started earlier
and sets in exactly where we might expect it: in the relatio n of the tomb
of'
work there was abando ned sudden ly and withou t appare nt reason in owner with his king and-a t least in one instan ce-in the render ing
the eighth or ninth year of Akhen aten's reign in favour of a northe rn the former 's official functio n, a subjec t which in the earlier New King-
dom camc alread y danger ously near upsetti ng the old sehcme. In
Ollt'
site. The southe rn tombs have one feature in commo n: they all show
2

jf to • Amarna , ITT, rl~. xxn andXX ITJ.

the royal family adorin g the Aten in the entran ce of the tomb, as 1 Ibid. lII"!I'''''''',
Arrwrul l, IT, PI. XX 111', where the owner and his wi
1'0 liT(' CUlll'd
B 1:In:il., V, Pis. XXI, XX II
1 ,llIIlIrllf l, H, PI. XXXII ; UI, Pis.
IV; VI; XXXI I; V I,l'l. XXIX. '(If hJeMse,:d 1l1l'lllor y'; nl80 on some slIlIIII private stdcs,
a IlIIflTl/II, I V fl. . ,XXIII.
100 10J
 /1/,,· .110/(/,.1/(( lit','uillon
of the Ct\l'lj(;~t soul.ItC',"/) LUlllbs, Llllll. l)f MlIbll, I (·hiet' 01' p.,ji(·(·, IIIi
::=~~==:::::=I aspect was sci'/,ed upun with l1vidity Ulld trPlt'Lfd I'I'llHkly with Il vkw
---'--_._-,~

~K~l
~C-:fj "--~
'-\.b·~~
to space-time actuality and true narrative (Figs. ll::\-l!)). The rCfllllt iN
that here we are suddenly face to face with the life and character 01'
a single person, in a way never equalled in Egyptian art bcforc or afU'J'.
~~b We see a small man, vigorous, alert (probably rather snub-'IIo::wd),
:1
'-J\.~~~/
-)~
in every conceivable attitude and mood: eagerly running in front of till'
royal chariot (Fig. 18, middle register, extreme right), deferentially

~
\
'C
listening to his refined and rather decadent superior (Fig. 19, facing

~~
~'-' ~,~eJ.s
~ ~,~~ ~ right), commanding a subaltern (id., facing left), excitedly telJing a
story while his chief listens with tired amusement (PI. x..'XXIXa). We
~}:~/;bA G!~'-C
l
e
"~~~~ ~
v .. also see the great events of his life: the king and queen lcaning ovcr th..
'lL] balustrade of the Window of Appearance in the palace, rewarding hilll;
the king inspecting his security measures on the outskirts ofthe newly

~~-<3 ~(fi;:~ I ~
built capital, police posts, chain fences, and blockhouse. We see hilll

!lO~~I.o ~l
~ pi....,

\r:;.',
v

II
I
~ accompanying the king on a visit to the temple. And the brilliant!
gifted artist who gave us these slices of Mahu's life never once sueCl/fIl-

~~
!. '-
bed to the temptation of pomposity by overstressing his employr'r'li
~
'10 1\;
<><D
VI) r-v
c, i!;
JI ,I
-=>r;iF3;!',I

N~n~=o~~~~~
.• _ i ~V1 .~
importance, but with a kind of humorous detachment, made hilll
'"' Der P • I'

~,,~,
~',\~~/ ~~
D appear small, officious, likeable. In short, this artist did achicve whu
~\
q . . t ' l.v0 (?
-Y'''''/
..P'
," r was virtually a complete reversal of all the characteristics of :E.gyptill.lI

...-..~~,,~~ , ."
II ....
~r funerary art. 1;'01' there is no question here of a kind of timid plnyful
/? '''''
'1' /-",' !-.

~
~/1\\~ ~III ~

'genre' in subordinate scenes; the tomb owner nowhere appem's as

'living dead' or caught in the amber of his glorified function, but as II..

\11"
Ug ~' '",~I..'i'~~i"
~~..." ~ l'l~H; o~ 0 p ~
was and acted, individual, alive.
_ "'"'::'__ .::: iJ
'V,
\C;m'
re:1.
~L,~f
\~ I ~~
\Ve can observe a similar shift towards the singular and concrete ill

D""~dIDl ~ ;i1l1~=~
_ _
67[0
c:.1; '. - ' ' --; ----"'",. tombs where the owner's activities are not the main preoccupation-
in this Mahu's tomb is quite unique-but where all interest is focused
~~ I:EIDh::u
v<><
"
'"
,-~ ~)7-l-I~";-
~"5i=-- ~
:!i
-:. ( '--{ )\ -:>1 ,.;
on the royal family. In typical events like offering to the Aten, visits to

_~_ 4' .",

the temple, the awarding of the gold of honour, we see an effort to
-
.:.:.,.! s ill I'
~-fj.:.":=~=-· ~
<tL-----, •
_,<'
Q J .*===
:.:U:(;:

DII'@!1Ol~
UIIJij
@;"-,!C,,llf!
~!~r,--' '= --=,,1
1
>

'" - -
[

1
characterize the royal participants as individuals, and each scene as a
single definite event. Where differentiation of mood was not insisted
,"~"'." upon-the king and queen maintain a rather bland dispassionatelless
o'-=- «-
"",=,111'i
LJ
r===ID
"'lJ ,=-
r -
- -'jlI = ,]'"
throughout-physical peculiarities are stressed, contingent acts and
D
D1"<t[@J~ cP-'T==n=
~~ be -~ L -= .:II ,~--~I gestures introduced. 2
~L:::::::;:J ;~~; It is irrelevant for our problem whether these changes are quaLifil-d
-~=---~ I
---"""A-
p=::JJJL - '
'''= - -~=~~
as 'naturalism' or 'expressionism' and explained by a new interest. in
and observation of the natural world, or by an increascd cmotiumtl
scnsitivity. 3 The truth of either explanation pertains to the psychology
J Am,o,rna, IV. t Ibid., IV, PI.XXU, VI, PI. XXIX.
:j ::icc C()lltl'OV(;r,~y bClwcclI J<"I'<lllkfol't (The 1I1'lIwll'o'i11IhI4s I~r 1'ell el A/li f r/'lla.
liP. 1 au) o lid II. Sd':lc(cr, %/J,<", LXX (L0:\4), 1 fro
lOB
 1'III' ,III /(f/ //(/ 11 l'Ol dll1 1111/
J' urt. Fur II~ the ))Pi nt c)f illLi'I'l'~L
ill I,!li!'l rxpn '!'lli iv\' 11IL l,\II'/ l1isll l
its spa cc-t imc cha rac tcr. Her e rho lies III
ngc s u.n' slIh tle 1'i\Lhcl' tha ll ljhV jl)I"
for on thc whole the use of gl'Oundl
illc~, lUlU ()I'tcn of rC/jistcrl'l, has IJL~\'l1
mai nta ine d so tha t the scenes still
cling to the wall sUl'fl1cej yet. 111\'
are unm ista kab le.
The 'wa tch ing ' dea d, aloo f from
spa ce-t ime con side rati ons , lIn,Vf'
~-::. ... ~ disa ppe ared ; tho se pers ons who
aw \ l\:::: rela tion ship whi ch stresses the sing
are not acti ve arc sho wn in som
ular ity of the situ atio n-c onv ers
f'
tion scenes abo und . 1 We saw alre a-
~ ady tha t the exp lica tive gcstUl'C
o!'
~ acti ve per son s hav e ofte n bee n sup
erse ded by emo tion al or pur ely COIl
...
~ ting ent ones, but eve n mor e sign ific
ant is the fac t tha t the sev erc callC
-

~ of par atac tic ren der ing has bee HI

n slac ken edj con tou rs are soft cr,
ture s less rigid, so tha t the se flab pos-
~
by bod ies gai n-t hou gh at the cost
of stru ctu ral cla rity -a new org anic .
I~ coherence. The ir gestUl'CS app<::1 r
pro mp ted from wit hin and con seq
~
uen tly the y seem to act in a vng
amo rph ous spa ce tha t is not clea lw
~ from the pro blem atic spa ce of
rly thre e-d ime nsio nal yet diffc'rs
stri ctly par atac tic ren der ing . Wh
~ sma ller self -co ntai ned groupS are cn'
<,,~
con cern ed, like the fam ily SCC1
(PI. XX XIX b), intr icat e arra nge 1\'
~
men t of ove rlap pin g figul'cS alld
the ir inte rac tion add s to the sug ges
tion of an eve nt in spa ce as wclllLs

......~
to its eph eme ral cha rac ter. In sho
rt the self -con tain edn ess, the frigidit
;:) of the classical figures hav e van ishe y
~
d; the spe ctat or wat che s wit h
diff eren t, mor e hum an, inte rest the II
ind ivid ual ant ics of thes e ges ticlI
] lati ng crea ture s whi ch seem to mo
ve in an alm ost- fam ilia r voi d. 2
-
com par ison , 'hap tic' figures from III
....~ the pre cee din g reig n, like Ram ose
.~ <u
(PI. XL ), see m for all the ir clear,
firm , sen sitiv e mod elli ng to belo ng
<,;) l.
~ a diff eren t world.
;;l Thi s is not sUl'prising; for now tha
t the last trac e of the original
~ signifiCance of the scenes has van
~ ishe d, a diff eren t atti tud e of tb"
arti st tow ard his sub ject , a new
rela tion ship betw een scene and
spec-
....Ol tato r, bec ome s possible. The arti
st's amb itio n is now to con jure
C!:l coh eren t eve nt in a defi nite spa tial lip
sett ing .
~ We said befo re tha t the cha nge
s we are con side ring are suu tl"
rath er tha n bold; in con nec tion wit
h the larg er scenes it is less theil' Sllli
tota l tha n the ir inte rrel atio n whi l
ch is significant. Ver y stl'iking,
inst anc e, are the atte mp ts at ren for
der ing bui ldin gs in suc h a way tha
C the y can no long er be con side red
a sch ema tic out line , plan , or flt9o
t
r of a hou se or tem ple but tha t, thro .c1r
ugh an elab ora te and qui te spccifi"
com bin atio n of lay out and fron t asp
ect, the y rep rese nt the Ate n teJl) I'll'.
1N. de GtLris Dtwics, AmfLTna, I,
I Slrik inl!; ly 1';0 in the man y casePl. X; IV, }>1. VII I; VJ, I'\. x.:'<, XX XV ).
s wllc rc the king iH lccUliul{ lSidew
Win dvw of Al'pl':I\TanCc rC'n dere d ill l\YIS olll t!lCI
froa t vic''W, e.g . .-lma r1l1l , 11,1'1.
XX XI V,
10
 '[ 'hI' IVI'IIJ AIII(;duI/I
and starT), 111.1'
lIw pHlnce (CUIIlf)h,:tc Wil'l 'llll'PIII, dlllll'ktTPl'l"l-- I:lLc "lOll
h\lJ of FOI'cign Tribute, which we Cllli id~l\tjf')
II til" l"uins of tuday.'
The rendering is admittedly discursive, nonl'uocLlulHtI, but the intell-
tion of depicting a single existing building must imply a desire for :1
fixed point in space to which action could be allocated. The larger
scenes might then begin to represent a coherent spatial unit (Fig. 20).
~ ,r B'(" rNr.' "'" 4' """=,.~"
FIG. 20. Palace and Temple Gate
We can observe two changes which point in this direction: (a) for the
first time registers are ignored in such a way that superimposed figures
may be part of the same scene; (b) the horror vacui had diminished to
an unprecedented degree; we find large empty spaces in a number of
scenes where the distance between figures is significant.
Now these innovations are merely tentative; scenic dramatic space,
in the sense of a complete integration of the spatial and temporal
aspects of an event, does not occur and superimposed figures are still
apt to cling to fragments of groundline which preclude an illusionary
relation in depth. On the other hand, there is at least one highly re-
markable attempt in this direction; in Figure 21, river and garden are
treated not only conceptually but pictorially as foreground. Recession
is achieved by the bold expedient of two diagonal paths leading from
1 For a description of the Hall of Foreign Triuute Sec Ii'l'l\lIk fOI't,
"p,20U 10.
"IO{)
'['Ill' .I"NI/lf({ 'kl'olll!1II1I
"~~
FIG. 21. The Quay at El Amarna
the river to the palace and intersecting quay and gardens. These diag-
onals have a different slant which can only be explained as determined
by the observer's viewpoint, the farther one appearing more horizontal.
This is in actual fact the nearest approach to true perspective which
the Egyptians ever achieved.!
The experiments with empty space with the purpose of stressing the
actual distance between the where-from and the where-to of dramatic
action (Fig.lS) are clearly seen in most of the larger scenes. 2 In the case
of Mahu's conversation with the vizier (PI. XXXIXa), the tensional
distance has been reduced by a line of hieroglyphs, but in the tomb of
Ahmes (Fig. 22) (one might expect it to be of the hand of Mahu's
artist)3 the lonely figure of a trumpeter, flanked by two rows of soldiers
whom he summons, suggests the spaciousness of his loud call by facill
a completely empty register.
Perhaps the most interesting attempt at surreptitiously sl1ggcstin
a space-time unit, and that notwithstanding the usual division of th~
l N. de G. Davies, V, PI. V. The remnants of landscape in loco cit., lU, j'ls. VLI
and VIII, do not seem to differ from similar scenes in the tomb of NakbL. s.,
:tbove.
in JEA, ) 927, " Note the significtLllt distance in the case of the forerunners ill loco r-il., II, 1'1.
X Ill, 1I,nd the groups of' nw(~ting pcopl,~, VI, PI. XX.
I 'Ol',til., III. PI. XXXI.
l07
 '/'/,,' IlIlflll/(/ H,'/ll/11I11I1I1

scene tn rcgisLcl'S, WIlS Illade ill Lit(" lund! of' Ay. III 1111" 1111'1;" lil'l'llI' ot'
J'cward l the top rcgi:;tcr shows f'OI.H sLUJ\dn...d-bcurt'l'i) wlLitill
guardhouses in conversation with some sll1aller boys. 5J)!)'.. !. 'tcx ".
accompany the scenes, but these do not contain. thc tlSlItti Sityillgs
appropriate to a typical situation; they explain the lively acts or tlJ
boys by referring explicitly to the scene below and run as follows: til
sentry asks: 'For whom is this rejoicing being made, my boy?' and tlt"
answer is: 'The rejoicing is being made for Ay . . . along with Ty.
They.have been made people of gold.' Another sentry says: 'Hasten
go see the loud rejoicing; I mean who it is; and come back at a run.'
The boy replies: 'I will do it. Behold me.'2 Thus they intend to relate ill
a space-time sense the different registers: the guards, within earshot of
the festive event, are unable to see what is going on.
~
In reviewing the changes in Amarna scenes one is, however, struck
,~ by their artistic limitations. An exclusive preoccupation with narrativ
~
apparently held a danger for artists who drew their inspirations from a
~
new love of life, but for whom, humanly speaking, this love of life laeko.1
1 depth. We might sum up the actual changes in one word: the SCCJH)s
~ were dramatized. But this dramatization was not coincident with i~
change of subject in the direction of historically pregnant or humanl
~ significant event. This had been the case in the late Old Kingdom torn"
£ at Deshasheh (Fig. 6) where a unique battle scene also reprcsented lL
i:'l unique effort at true pictorial narrative and in the case of the famin
i:'l
scene in the pyramid of Unas (PI. XXIIb). Similarly, some early Now
....C) Kingdom artists achieved what the Deshasheh artist aimed at ill
~
potentially tragic scenes like mourning and hunting; for they did 011
one or two occassions as we saw (p. 95) render a pregnant moment a
well as a concrete situation in a way which implies an imaginativ
recognition of the threat of death.
Amarna artists, on the other hand, though they were sensitive to
mood, ignored the importance of secular achievement (such as milital'
conquest), as well as the darker aspects of existence. In fact, only in
one unpretentious little scene in a royal tomb-the king and queen
standing near the bier of their daughter-has the subject of death bcen
touched upon. a The form of dramatization at Amarna appear:; therd
correlated with the character of the revolutionary movement itself,
which discarded the austere implications of an ideal of timelessness nJld
focused on life as a joyous actuality. Thc very limitations of the ,'cligi-
ous and political scope of the Amarna movement arc those of lIw
artist's repertoire. Once the promising line of development in t.1l
I ,'[,oc, cil., VI, PI. X:>C.'X, I T,oc, cU" V r, p. 2U.
:I L"gmiu, C1t11,' tf',fWuou.. Pis, VI XIII.
10[/
 I'll(' Nt'lI l 1\ /l1p,r/O/ll
dircclhm of I'I'('sh JlIkreNL ill "llIlIall Chlll'/Ll'l,el' ;w I'tlriking in til('
IL
plasLic porLraits of the pcriod-wl,l,s nbfl,Jl(Jonnl 1'01' the !lake of royal
portraiture, thc chosen course proved a sterile one. 1"or the king, in the
role of divine prophet, barred the road to monuJJlental art as effectively
as his predecessors' static perfection had done. The artists who decor-
ated the hybrid cave structures-neither quite tomb nor temple-in
his honour, had to fall back on festive celebrations and small events.
No wonder the narrative side of Amarna art becomes repetitive and
the representation then as dull as its liveliness is shallow. It is undeni-
able that, for all their revolutionary efforts, Amarna artists never pro-
duced a single relief or painting of the same quality as the monumental
figure of the ibex in the tomb of Kenamun.

D. TRACES OF AMARNA INFLUENCE IN THE (

PERIOD OF REACTION

The Amarna movement, sustained at first by the superlative bold-

ness of an attack on creeds and values which were most deeply
rooted in Egyptian life, became too soon the fulfilment of a dream, the
dream of a new life. In its new order the king alone, sale link with a
transcendent cosmic power, was the justification of a strangely reduced
political and social existence which oscillated between high-minded-
ness and hedonism and which, once the initial battle had been won,
became rather anaemic, The religious movement of the Aten worship
died with Akhenaten; the political revolution was soon undone; only
in art can its influence be traced for two centuries. It is, of course,
possible that once the town had been deserted, Amarna artists were
employed even by those who disapproved of what Amarna stood for,
and that they simply worked as craftsmen executing orders. But it is
certainly paradoxical that when the mannerisms of Amarna art were
discarded and the repertoire of tomb decorations was once more focused
on the time-honoured problem of life-in-death, what must be called
the few really great masterpieces in the Amarna style were produced.
It may not be accidental that they nearly all occur in the tomb of
Haremhab, Akhenaten's general, who finally took over the burden
of kingship and restored political order, but who may not have shared
the fanatic hatred of the priesthood of Amon for the 'criminal of Akhen-
aten'.l However, the influence of Amarna was more far-reaching than
these few reliefs might suggest, which seem the belated fulfilment of an
earlier promise, Amarna art, bound up as it was with a movement
1 .Jean Capart, 'The Memphitc Tomb of King IJaremhdJ,' in ,Jj':A, VII (192J),
31·84.
lJO
l'(}1.()~S \1, H'1'j\'I'IJI~ ill" ,\I(I/I':N \'!'I~N
XXXVIII,
 ·jl/l(tll1'( II~JIIII'II('(' III 11,/' I'NIO",d ",'(/f'tttlll

which shook the very J'o\lIlLIILI,j\IIH; of' rl'li/.{ilollN fllith /llld pr'/wl i/'.'f
and all their social implications -Cl'Cl1tcl1 II, confusion fur IlIvn' Illsidi-
ous than the introduction of incongruous or hctetic moLif... whieh could
be ignored in their entirety. The blatant humanity of some of th"
Akhenaten scenes, was, as we shall see, considered blasphemous, thl'
secular character of the tombs probably both frivolous and sensell'SS,
but the new interest in space-time actuality was too vital to be sup-
pressed, even though it was in conflict with the very significance of 1111
previous tomb decoration. The artists of post-Amarna reliefs und
paintings re-emphasize their funerary character, but in two ways
pervert the old scheme by submitting to or developing AmtLrlllL
notions: they either dramatize or concretize older motifs. In funcl'uJ
rites the emphasis is now more frequently than ever on the personal
grief of single near relatives (PI. XLla); the motif of the widow
taking leave of the coffin occurs again. l On the other hand, posthu-
mous existence is made concrete in more ways than one: the climax
of a funeral may be a scene inside the tomb (which is realistictdly
rendered) of the goddess receiving the dead in person,2 while classienl
scenes of daily life, which used to be the object of the tomb owner':;
'watching', are now transferred with him to the Hereafter; we sec
the dead busily cultivating Elysian fields (PI. XLIb)3 or fishing Elysiflll
ponds.
We find an equally blatant disregard for former meaning in cas('s
where, as in the early New Kingdom, the political function of the dead
has been stressed. Generally speaking, this function is no longer related
to the contemporary ruler and we find instead the formalized immobik
figure of a king long since deceased as the focus of an adoratioll
scene.
The only exception is in the tomb ofHuy, Viceroy of Nubia, who Ii vel I
in the reign of Tutankhamun, that is, immediately after Akhenatcn.
Here the king again presides over Huy's nomination, but the viceregal
function has been turned into a biographical account with stress on til
moment ofdeparture and the actual return with tribute from the South.~
Only in two cases has the Amarna motif of the award of gold by the kill,:r
from the 'Window of Appearance' been maintaincd. s It is abo typic'HI
for this period that in another tomb a royal scribe chose to be depi<:Lcd
1 N. de Garis Davies, The Tomb of Nejerhotep at Thebes (New York, lfHlB).

PI. XXIV; Wreszinski, Atlas, I, PI. Ull.

2 Ibid., Pl. XX.
XxxrXA. MARl' HEI'OHTJNC To '/'1/1: \'/ZII<I( "N. de Garis Davies, Two HamesS'ide Tomlls lit Thebes, (New YII1'le, 1027),
(I }((,[!,(' 10H) PI. XXX.
, N. de Guis Davies, '/'he :l'umlJ oj'Jln!J (London, J 02(1) J'I. Xl sq(J.
X A X I X I\. "\ 1\ 1/ I'; i\ \ '1'1': N ..\ i\ J) III ,,", I \ ,\ II I \ o LI)I'. cit., 1'1. XXVJT; N. de Garis Davies, '/'11" ,/,,,,,11) IIf N('/I'r/III/I']1 lit 'l'I/1·IIt,~.

(I'll."" I (I.', I IX,XV.

111
 " '//1' Nt' 1/' 1\ 1fI,~ rI() III
pti'tntui intI'/" 1){t?·cs, 1.lusily wriLinu with his St'erl'tlll'ies in Lh(' hall "I'
{\S
Lhe 'foreign ofllee'.l
We saw that Amarna artists delighted in the rendering of specifi('
buildings. In the Nineteenth Dynasty, this theme is mostly restricted
to temples and is then elaborated with a description of the surrounding
terrain, especially the approach from the Nile. In the case of Nefer­
hotep the detailed outlay seems almost out of proportion with tht·
importance of the event: the tomb owner is seen receiving a bouquet
from the priests which he hands to his wife (Fig. 23). Not- so when a
religious festival is depicted in its setting, such as the procession of the
statue of the deified King Amenophis I leaving the temple. 2 The love
of topographical precision is evidently persistent, for it also invades
funeral scenes: the situation of the tomb on a sloping hill is more than
once indicated. 3 I

But even if the 'triumph of actuality' did leave some traces in these
scenes-as it did also in a certain liveliness of gestures and grouping
here and there-a new type of formality and abstraction soon en­
croached. It is, in fact, paradoxical that the attempt to concretize the
Hereafter led to introducing a number of abstract vignettes from the
Book of the Dead; the tomb owner was now brought face to face with
the deities that were supposed to playa part in his post-mortem
struggle for existence. This not only removed the figures from such
space-time considerations as had asked for a solution-a negative
solution, admittedly-in the classical scheme; it dealt the death blow
to this scheme itself. A new religious preoccupation slowly drained the
old love of life which was the mainspring of Egyptian funerary art. It
survived longest in the rendering of trees and plants, which are often
delicately, lovingly drawn: we see the dead now surrounded by a
wealth of foliage, and formalized trees serve as a background in those
scenes where the tree-goddess refreshes the dead with libations. But by
the end of the Nineteenth Dynasty the last trace of vitality seems to
have ebbed from the art of the private tombs.
And yet, concurrent with this slow decay, one of the most remark­
able developments in the history of Egyptian art took place. In the,
royal reliefs alone did the revolutionary spirit of Amarna and the new XL. MEN BEARING FLOWERS, TOlVIB OF RAMOSE
acceptance of traditional values find a superb synthesis. (page 105)
1 See Borchardt in ZAS, 44 (1907), 59-61.

2 Wreszinski, Atlas, I, 118, 129. 3 Lac. cit., 11 4,127.

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 XLIII. USERHET HUNTIN G IN THE DESERT (page lIS)

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~~

_1

~, .. ~ ,....;.,:,'

FIG. 23. Temple, Garden and Ships

:>
:l:
 I /1('111 'ht, /( I Hc!1i 1.\
l'll 1/
bea utif lll scb eme of her llm :c
l'1.,ill
lIat she psu l. 'the astu Jlls hing ly hud ('om c' t
eatc d, but one rcu lurc
OF 'I'111~ IlOVA1~ 11I': LlEF
S AND olo nna dcd tcrr acc s was nev er rep y Mid dl..
I':. '1'111-: UJ:: VEI ,OPM ENT cefo rth sep ara ted . The onl
ENT AL S'l'A 'l''P. MEN T stay : tom b and tem ple wer e hen onl y
Til r,; 'J'llf UM I'll OJ:' MO NUM ri belo ngi ng to Me ntu hot ep- the
Kin gdo m tem ple at DeiI' el Bah mp le
m to aba ndo n the pyr ami d-te
tem plc is a uni que phe nom eno ll Pha rao h of the Mid dle Kin gdo era ry
TIl(': first Ncw Kil lgd om fun era ry but for the sarc oph agi and fun
; it was bui lt by Hat she psu t, thc
onl y wom an who sch em e-c ont ain s a tom b sha ft; plac es wer e
III ";gy pt inll hist ory erei gns elab ora te hid ing
the wor d 'usu rpc d' deli ber atel
y trea sure s of New Kin gdo m sov ls of
llslIrpcd thc thro ne, lVe use of the Val ley of the Kin gs. The wal
('\ ('r
acts of the per son age s inv olv ed,
the will s and bur row ed in the form idab le cliffs ered
IWc '/lllS e wha tevc r the pas sag es app roa chin g it wer e cov
this tant aliz ing ly obs cur e epis ode , ther e can b the tom b cha mb er and the long of the sou l-
J Ilt-;-;illllS tha t sha ped pos thu mo us pro cess ion
in the suc cess ion of div ine kin gsh
ip wit h the dre ary stat ion s of the utte rly
Jll) dOli/It tha t som ethi ng sac red lack of dra mat ic force and are
tic rela tion betw een fath er and
son , Osi ris and pain ting s whi ch sho w a sing ular e
\\IlS vjo latc d; the mys and rep rese ntat ion . The tom b onc
e pre tenc e. dev oid of clim ax bot h in con cep tion
1101'1Is, had bccflluc a mcr e doo r link ed the my ster y of the sou
l's
she put 's fun era ry tem ple at DeiI' use d was sea led and not eve n a fals ples
Nnw iJl cflrllparing the reliefs of Hat ring and ritu al; the fun era ry tem
k, it wou ld be eas y to see in the ext
ra- mag ic circ uit wit h the plac e of offe
t'11l/lhl'i wit h earl ier and late r wor r the edg e of the cult ivat ion . Thi s new
div ine con cep tion and birt h of th wer e bui lt far awa y, usu ally nea n
lll'dillilry pl'c oce upa tion wit h the ed as a ma tter of exp edie ncy or eve
her act, and in the sere ne wor ldli
nes s arra nge men t ma y par tly be exp lain tha n
IItH'l'1I a myt hica l just ific atio n of ext rav aga nt and eas ier to gua rd
ora ted a form of fem inin e com plac
enc y. eco nom y-r ock tom bs are less effe ct on the
"I' SOIl 1,' of the eve nts com mem e had an uns oug ht-f or
scen es as frea ks, we mis s som ethi ng pyr am ids -bu t it ma y well hav the ir orig inal
nllt. if we cxp lain thes e new ant thro ugh out hen cefo rth isol ated tem ples , for,
tho ugh thes e nev er lost
nge s whi ch are sign ific mor e easi ly bec ome wh at they
had
('-:scllt;,d, 1'01' the y do her ald cha
is und oub ted ly a stro ng elem ent
of per son al cha rac ter qui te, the y mig ht now wit h
I h,' Nt'w Kin gdo m. The re ent in the cha llen gin g sen se,
suc h as the exp edit ion to Pun t
or the nev er bee n prim aril y: a mo num , the
!ll'idl' ill the cho ice of sub ject s, asp ect of Pha rao h's glo ry. In fact
lisk s,l but it is bala nce d by a new
hum ility ; stro ng emp has is on the sec ular wou ld alm ost
t 1'llIlsport. or the gre at obe of the New Kin gdo m
the fulf ilm ent of a roy al com man d, new pol itic al and reli giou s tren ds al
1',", I hl'St, C'Vl'lIts al'e not mer ely s con figu rati on of The bes . The
actu
erea s in the Old Kin gdo m the exp edit ion app ear sym bol ized in the cur iou of
'1I(' y 111'/' :I(,ts or dcv otio n. Wh rtal ity of the 'goo d god ', are out
of Sah ure set out from and retu
rne d to its roy al tom bs, rem ind ers of the mo the
III lIy" "'s ill t.llc tem ple des ert cliffs, whi le the roy al and
t to Pun t orig inat ed in an exp lici t des irc sigh t, hid den and gua rde d by the Nile .
ruin . I Ill' 'III(' Ilat sltc psu t sen in equ al sple ndo ur acro ss
le rev eale d his will to the que en;2 and div ine tem ples face eac h oth er al pow er
lit' I Ill' g'CIIJ i\f1lon, who ill an orac gsh ip was uns hak en, yet roy
is ther efo re not the rece ptio n of
the par tici - Evi den tly the dog ma of div ine kin
1111 ('IIII IIlX ur I he eve nt
que en, but the pre sen tati on of all
trea sure s had fou nd a pot ent ial riva l.
p:lld 'l 11111 II hl' spe ech by the reliefs at DeiI' el Bah ri we find no
Now it is rem ark abl e tha t in the and
III A111 011.
h actu al ach iev eme nt or the new
eria l, imp ossi ble to jud ge in sign tha t the pre occ upa tion wit
II '-:, 1'1lJ'tunatcly, thro ugh lack of mat god (wh ich bot h the my th of the roy al
mor e dyn ami c rela tion wit h the
II II
one han d and
fI('( llil wlll ,the r lbc new
elem ent of self -ass erti on on the god to sen d an exp edit ion to
Pun t
imp orta nce of the kin g and god
on the oth er birt h and the inju ncti on of the y,
I Ill' shif t ill the rda tivc der ing in any way . On the con trar
up to the Am arn a peri od, Bu t the
re imp ly) infl uen ced the typ e of ren y be,
wus IlIniJill.l.illCd in the latc l' reliefs actu alit y as the y cou ld pos sibl
in a gen eral way poi nts in the sam
e the scen es are as rem ote from tho se
i... ('II'C'lllllstall tial cvid cn(' c whi ch as if wit h the utm ost rest rain t
lll scen e of the god s lcad ing der eatc d ene mie s seei ng the sub ject ma tter . It is ome sub -
fI IrI,(, r inll. Thl ' Old Kin gdo ch mig ht, and late r did , bec
cnt in bot h TJatsh('pslI t',-; tem ple and in tend enc ies wer e kep t in che ck whi tter
1/1'1'(,1'(' I hI' king (Fig . ;j) is nus the sign ific anc e of tran sien t ma
gdo m, bllt we do scc' Thn lhnl ('s
HI and his vers ive, nam ely, an emp has is on d in
t hn"'l' 1If' Illi' lUlL ' New Kin ativ e: tim eles s per fect ion rev eale
and spo il to I hl' god ill (h(' I.C'III pic
of Am on. inst ead of the true roy al pre rog pict ogr ams ;l
llt'/'c 'sS,) /'S (,rr.."j 1Ig' (';1 pii ves es are mer e exp lica tive
I he l(',n plc, whi ch WIIS ilillllgllT':\tcd hy acts . Thc su-c alle d my thic al scen st avo ids
Sil!lIdi('llrll nl.,o is tile layulIL (If spo rt of thc obe lisk s the arti
II,I. XI; \; \ l,c'L II' /\'.
in tbo se whi ch dea l wit h thc tran f!.
Kl\l I\iII ,'.IJ rirt' lll olullf,III, 1/,( /(',c il"n ,Pls . XV IIs
t
rlll UI'/'l irdv. ~H.',
1III'lI",t,,,. flll'l
115
11 ~
 ,Itt' H tI /le/I
I'll/ I' /lJ !\lIl:.U I() III
J
dcpirl Illj.:t t!l('il' trL'CllUlI,whit'h would JII~Vl' ('!lI uiletl "Ollie intrr'('sL in t.h
pM.'C··t i lilt' IlSpC'ct or Ihis c veil L, lJll Ll'onCC1H mit' Oil t Ill' 1('l'S ddini te cpi-
Node orthcshippillg t) 10lle.ln the Puntcxpcdit ion (VI. X LIb), it is tru~,
he l'ellucl'ing of locality has not been shirked; we sec even the con-
frOllllLtion of the expedition leader with the exotic-looking rulers, th
lllLlivc how;es, the beasts and plants, the loading 01 treasure. 1 And yet,
mt isLically speaking, the whole event, cut up in small static groups, is
ltlk,",y devoid of dramatic actuality; logical sequence and even direc-
t ion of figures and objects has been observed but nowhere are thes
:;pnticdly rclated even within the group: there is not a gesture made by
lilly ()f the drarnatis personae which would suggest a scene in the
1'l'\'glllLllt sensc of the word.
WI.: do not, unfortunately, possess a single fragment from the sadly
dilapidated funcrary temple of Thothmes III-a dynamic person if ever
Ilwl'C was onc-which might suggest whether or not the same attitud
I,nwa rds the time-honoured ideal of static abstraction was adhered to.
The' gl:eat founder of the Egyptian empire may for all we know never
have been immortalized in true battle scenes; in fact, a strong argu-
IlIc'nt against the assumption that these might havc existed but weI"
.h:stl'Uyed lics in the fact that the famous annals of his campaign on
IIH' walls of thc Amon temple in Karnak (not in the funerary temple)
"I'e tl.ll claboratc document in script, while all we possess pictorially of
t he Syrian campaign described there is a catalogue of trees, shrubs,
1111/1 plants brought from the Levant (PI. XLIIb).2 In fact, the only

pidorinl refcrence to the battle known to us occurs in a purely sym-

hi ,I iC'ul scenc of the king holding a bunch of captives, where place names
3
Hl'l' gi \,('11. An argumentum ex silentio is admittedly dangerous, and th
rlll't l'l'lIlaiJlS that thcre is a complete gap in our knowledge concerning
I'oylll I'l.:lid's from JIatshepsut's reign up to Amarna. But there exists
Oil!' pic·ture of Pharaoh's military exploits which does in a sense fill in
I h\' lacuna: on the chariot of Thothmes IV we find what is usually
('rd1l'd iL battle sccne. 4 Thc term is misleading, for it is simply an elabo-
mUon o/' thc pictogram of the victorious king which we know from an
l'lIrly dfLte. As a matter of fact, the well-known scene (which we find
"V('II ill Uatshcpsut's temple) of the king as griffin trampling on his
('IH'mil's is still given on the inside of the chariot, and it is iIlteresting to
IIllll' I hut in Fig. 2 /1, the same hand which in the canonic rcpresenta-
I ions u~IHLLly grasps it bunch of prisoners by the hail' hcre holds an
'Illply bow (tile kll hand incongl'uously swings II. baltic' axe) as wcll as
., it.• vr, l'I/oI.CLlll I V. I \Vr('szirll'lki. Jlt/o.y. IT. I'ls. \!6
S"(· Il'rankforl, J\ illJl8flip (It"lt!lr (:u",~, 1"ij.{.(S.
• I lowlIrliClIrl.'t'. 'l'hr '1'IImllllj7'II,mtll/o.,r,', {V,I'I. I~.
1I
FIG. 24. Thothmes IV in Battle
the locks of two prisoners who-with a new touch of realism-stand
in a fleeing chariot. Where the king is actually shooting! the goddess
Nekhbet steadies his aim. 1 The so-called battle turmoil in both scenes,
however, is no more than a decorative foil for the dominating figure of
the king, so much so that it looks as if transfer patterns of horses-one
can hardly call them teams-were grouped rather haphazardly around
the royal chariot while the bodies of gaudily dressed aliens, in every
conceivable twisted posture, were made to fit the empty spaces, over-
lapping where need be. It is remarkable how high-handed the artist
was in his use of enemy bodies, especially dead or dying. For, although
as we saw, full face rendering is nearly always avoided, it here occurs in
aa, the case of cncmies and occurs throughout in later battles scenes, not
I Wrcszinski, Atlas, 11, I'Ll.
11
 'h,' N"II) Ali/til/Pili
hy lllly Illl'UWI bl'('(LllIW IhiN would ('Ilhllll('., ,hI' dl'lllllldi(, 1'I','III!" 1111'1
with A. view to the RP(·('!.ll!.O[· but I)CCILUH(: lL e1t'lIt! IlInll WlIl'l 1111 1I1'l' I I

which could be r('ndered in front or side vi"wj 11Il' g'l'illl\illl' 11111 I

which seem to l')tnl'C out of the pictw.'c arc 110 IOUI!I'I' UWIl(1 III' 1111111(11\
beings.
We may, however, wcll ask why the curiously ullno.tul'ld cllliWlIl't1
posture of the horses-something between a pnLTlCC :~nd a gulllJ!, WII
chosen. This occurs previously only in a chariot hunting S('('lIf' (It
XLIII) in the tomb of Userhet, where the arrangement 0(' I,ll(' '1"1111 t'
roughly resembles that of the enemies on the chariot 01' Thl)llallll'~ 1\
which we discussed. Although the tomb antedates this, I.lal' 1,1'1 II,
may well have been copied from a similar objeet. l For it 'is sll tldll
that elsewhere in the New Kingdom work in private tombs IllId HI
Amarna the movement of the horses was more level throughlllll, '1'1"
reason for the diagonal stance in the case of Pharaoh and his 1')111111 II
may well have been that here the emphasis was less on spl'l'd 1111111
on phenomenal power. Mere movement on the level could lilt! 11/1\"-'
expressed the static self-sufficiency which the royal victory as u:-.y 1111., d
demanded. The strange posture may therefore have bC1'1I (,1.11'01 'i
intuitively for decorative as well as symbolical reasons UI'('alllil .,
represented both a violent and a halted movement. A group Pi' 1'/111111
bodies arranged vertically in front of the chariot' and hOl"izlJlIllIlI)
under the horses' bellies would fulfil the double function or lllolit 1
plaining and checking its impetus, which would be caught up, SII"'p, "
ded in a more or less ornamental framework. This would result "lid
both the miniatures of Tutankhamun (PI. XLIVa,b) and tlal- NIH;
teenth Dynasty royal reliefs will bear out our assumption-ill iL 1'1('11'
graphic 'motif' which is more dynamic than the classical oIle in wl'lI "
the king grasps his enemies by the hair or tramples them unckrl',,,.1
but one which through a curious decorative equipoise sccrll:-/ 'III" I
remote from actuality and does not deserve the term 'battle SCCII\,I II' II
dramatic sense.
It is, of course, quite conceivable that this motif appcnl't'd 1111 III!
walls of the funerary temples before it was used on thc charip!. il~, II
but there is no reason whatever to assume that actuo.'l balt.Jto:{ ". II
. 1 The fact that this scene occurs Only once (scc "ltlos, I, :,wa) p\)inIH III II
having been a royal prerogative, perhaps a standard featul'e of fllncl'll!',}' It"""I,
Both the sureness of the touch in the rendering and tile faCl 'lhlll lhn 'UllIlil'" '" I
ness' contrasts with the extremely realistic movemcnt of LIlI' wild flllillulirl IIII'Y I"
explained that way. At Amarna the by now provably lmdil illliltl dillgOllioi 1Il'~lll";
does occur but the tendency is to rendc\' a 111/)1'(; Ill\Lunti gull (HI'" UUI' 11'1",. I H 111101
Amarna, III, Pi. XXXII, and V, Pl. 2(.,'CI I). j\ very JllJrl1lnl "'wi ~HII"II HI ,II
occurs in the caTly Nineteenth Dynasly lOOib of Ndl'rboll'p (N. dc (~lIdH 1)11 \ 10
'j'he Tomb oj NejcrltOk}1 (It 'I'ltelJrlJ, (New York, HJ:llI) "J. XVI).
11 H •
 I )rl't'!PJJIJI, "I .
III 1111' !fuul! 1l,'!I1!,\
1IlI'llll'l'lI 1ll"f'e 11'1 wdlj ill /'11,\" I 11,111"11111: Ill'/.lllll ... fll liWdll/il, I hill /l",'1UlliJl
Hon is Ihn.l, WI' find 'iO I'dh'l'lillll ,01' /-1II·h fl('('nl:~ ill JI"iVHII' 1,(111111".
MIII'I'OVC;', ill the f('igll ur'flll.ll.l\"hl1l1illll. Wl"'llthe :trList 01' t.he rpslom,­
lion look" Jl old themes lI,g'ai ". 11\/ pl'llpCl' hullle, but unly Lhe royal
!'lllLriol motif with its foil or (;lItrHirs (01' in the hunting scenc::>, of
Iwltsls) wu,::; chosen. Only ill the reliefs of his successor Haremhab
I'/lther timid traces of real battle appear-as far as we know--for the
Ilrsl time. Early New Kingdom art was, as we saw, in the main con­
\'rvntivc, the royal reliefs probably more so; we therefore need not
postulate more adventurousness than the available material, however
("LIlty, reveals.
If we compare the royal scenes at Amarna with the mock actuality
III' the chariot scene of Thothmes IV, the originality of the former
Iftncls out even more clearly, but it is only seen against the restraint of
Ihc one, the excesses of the other, that the work of Nineteenth Dynasty
futists can be fully appreciated.
Artists of the restoration faced a twofold task; Akhenaten had not
lilly spurned the gods of old, but, by stressing the more trivial aspects
or his humanity, he had insulted the very concept of kingship. Both
,'viIs had to be undone. Tutankhamun, who returned to the fold of the
Ill'ic::>thood of Amon, appears mainly preoccupied with the first problem:
(,/1C religious scenes from his reign commemorate in the traditional way
t.he so-called festival of Opet when the god Amon visited his harem at
Luxor. l The far more subtle problem of how to represent the king in a
1I11lnner which did not ignore his actuality and yet preserved his dig­
nity was, as far as we know, never tackled on a large scale. 'We do
possess, however, four miniatures,2 two hunting and two so-called'
ImUle scenes on a casket found in his tomb which are significant. The
('('ntral motif in everyone is that of the king shooting from his chariot,
III1U in each case the diagonal movement of the prancing horses has

Il,'cn arrested by a more or less solid pattern of bodies. Least satisfac­

'ory is the scene with the gazelles whieh repeat the horses' movement
lind carry the eye away from the main theme, upsetting the balanc~.
In l.he so-called battle scenes (PI. XLIVa) the same device is uscd as in
I hI' chariot of Thothmes IV bllt with far greater subtlety and skill. 1'h
IiUIl hunt (PI. XLIVb) is, a,tis tically flpcaking, by faT the Jinc:- t nchicvc­
lIwnt, because through a conl.rl1,punta] grouping of the victim::;, th"
d(·"j~n remains both tensc alII] hormoliious, Hnd in a Cllrious WHy sLut,i".
W(, must stress that t)1('1'(' is hCl'C 110 qucstion of IIlILLurnlisti- '
1",'lLl'llen l. u,nd terms like clLvali(,," l>Cl'Sp('(~ti vc here, us ill l.hc C/lSC of th"
1 WHII \'1' Wulr, I)f/,V .vrhtJIlt' 1"I'.vllJlIlI Opl'I, Ldl'7,i~. 111:1 I,
I luwurol ('urll'r ILnd A.C, MILr(', '/,111' 'j'Il/llI, /If 'J'1I1·A1t1rlt·A/I/I'/1 I, I'I~, I. 1.111.
1111
 1(' IVn/' I\I/lp,r/Olll
('hHrioL or Thol 11 1I1(',~1 V, /I n.\ Iii III ply III iN/I'll II i Ilg, 'I'll(' II hHI'Il('C Coj U' 1111' It I
lincs docs !lot lI('ccNsflrily meUH Lhl1L the v iel i illS 111'(' 1'llIll't,j VI'I! ill 1111'" It
ulate Space; thc whole ftrrangemcJlt I1p}lI'ltr'N dif'lltlcd I>y <lcl'P/HI."
necessity in so far as the symbol of a victorious kill~ dl'IIm"tI, d II
balanced group. The smaJl plants which appear indisl'l'irtli'lItl,l'ly II
mere filling among beasts and slain humans (dikc show thnL tlll'I., II II
no serious intention of indicating actual terrain. III fact, fOr 1111 11., I'
liveliness, these elaborate 'vignettes' have a curious air of 11/11'111111.1.
while the figure of the young king has a self-contaiJlt'dn,.s~•• '"'
unquestionable perfection which already shows a rcaction 1I1~/l11l I
Amarna.
It is in the reign of Haremhab that the first trace of HilI'" <1"
influence occurs. This former general, who, as we saw, served 111101"
Akhenaten and whose non-royal past must have made him j'lI hiN 111\ II
eyes and in those of his subjects a makeshift Pharaoh, has bcc/I n. f I I
ordinarily unassuming in his pictorial ambitions. In the royal 1'/11 ""1"
1
at Silsileh we see him a small figure far from dominating tlle SCI'n,', "'I"
very fragmentary battle scene there shows him not only shootillg '"
enemies but shooting them in an actual setting. 2This suddenly """11/-1'
the by now fairly elaborate pictogram into an actual SCeJIC, f,", II,.
king is obviously taking part in a definite event in space a.nd ti,y,(" 'I'll.
link with Amarna is unmistakable~we saw that Hare~hab n/:-;p I'll" hi!
tomb used Amarna artists (PI. XLIa)-although the innovalilll! 1', 'I'.
a modest scale, but the import of it can only be gauged in the /'('i'~'1 III
Seti I, for then the shift from symbol to actuality led to a most J"(~1lI11' I
able development. In the royal reliefs of Seti I at Karnak we filld III'
first truly monumental art in Egypt.
It is paradoxical that this great reactionary king should have 1'1111
flrst time real battle scenes appear as part of a coherent narrative.
doned a type of scene almost as revolutionary as those of the 'IWI'i'llt,
It is true that in most scenes which we shall treat as separate uniLs
of Akhetaten'. This is too easily forgotten because both his :;UCee~'lclI
Ihe basic pattern we analyzed is clearly recognisable; time mid again
Ramses II and Ramses III, who covered acres of wall at KUI'III1I
we find the triangle formed by the king in his chariot and his prancing
Thebes, and Abu Simbel with scenes of carnage, never quite J'llllllJttl
horses balanced by an inverted triangular composition. Hut this
and generally speaking annulled the promise of a new devf'lvpllIl'ld,
decorative grouping has been turned in every case, as we shrLlI seC, inL(
perhaps because it was ultimately contrary to a basic cultural tmditi.l
ll
Unfortunately, only ritual reliefs remain of Seti's funefUl'y teJllpl,
it would be most interesting to know what type of ScellC j) n,l VII II. d
there, for the traditional and the revolutionary relicfs oJ' S(~Li)~ /'j"/{I'
OCcur in a completely different setting, namely, in the cenolaph 'ellllll
3
at Abydos and the Amon temple in Karnak, r'('spcCLivf'ly, H WIII"d
1Wreszinski, Atlas, II, 161--62.
2 Champollion, Monuments de l'E4ypte et de L(I Nubie,l, :lO I.
S H. Frankfort, l.'ne Cenotaph ,~r Bel'!: 1 (l.lmdOH, WIlli); 1\. M, ('"IWd)', "'h,
Temple o/Kl:ng Setlws 1 (It AbYdo,~(I. LOl1cJOll, llmQ; JI, /lIlIGj Ill, 1lI111i).
] ~O
J)/'PI'/OIJlIII'/I1 I~/ IIII' floJ
"I fld/(j,\
.J)pi'f1r ill k('i'jlint~ wi 1,11 III(' I yp" of' Jlll'ty wl'll'lI
S.·U I'I'VI'"IN, i l' "ll til·II'
1I1lllctLive fleCl":}! hlld b"ell n'l'!('rv.,1I rill' the wlr.','" IIIC'
AllI(J/' !,"!llllle
wc,,'n,' counLcnn.llccd ftS iL W('I'(' by ,h(' gUll t" wh(IJn 1,/\1' ITNIIIIN 01'
I hl~ vnriolls exploits were lkdit'lI,I.I'd. Lnl!. thiR rnu:-;L I'cHlui'1 It nll'/'I'
urmis('.
It is certain that nothing could be flll·ther removcd from pir't(winl
mlvcnturousness or personal pride than the reliefs ttt Abydos ","iell
occur in a building consisting of a temple mostly dedicated to the clil
ol'Osil'is and a vast underground cenotaph where the royal sarcophaglls
IVllR placed on an island surrounded by subsoil water, as if it were Lh·,
Jlrimeval hill of theological speculation. In architectural conccptil)l\ n
more complete reversal to the chthonic aspect of regal power secms
possible, and the style of the reliefs in the temple matches this archnizc­
illg trend. An air of frigid solemnity pervades the scenes ancl not even
the delicacy of the work can atone for its utter lifelessness. There is
hardly a break in the monotony of ritual acts and theological abslTIl('·
lions unless it were in one unique and direct reference (but ill a <'Olil­
plctely abstract way) to a dramatic mythical situation: we scC Jsis ill
Ihe shape of a bird hovering over the prostrate ithypha/lie lil!lIl'e of
Osiris who begot his son Horus after death.
Seti's reliefs on the outside of the pillared hall at Karnak, tJlI Lh"
ther hand, are not only startling by contrast with those of Auydos
bul because in a period when all traces of the Amarna revolution W('I'('
flnully wiped out, its greatest artistic contribution survived ill a [t)l'lll
1I11dreamt of even at Amarna: not only gently trivial or tt:euITing
I'vents Me given 'actuality' but the tensest episodes of history: for tlw
/I ('oncrete event while the units themselves are not mel'e :'IlIcccssiv"
luges of a complex happening, naIvely enumerated with lolnl dis­
"l'W\I'd of their spatial coherence, hut arc often joined in {l,1I ('pip wny.
We lind, for instance, that the nH)OIcnt of dcparturc hILS hl'Cll Hl.n'sHNI
when Lhc king, standing Ilt:HI' his ehnriut on thc poill t of I('I~ving 'II('
('('lie of battlc, turns rOIlIll! u:-; if ndd,I'I'flsing- thc c(JIH!uc,'cd jl{'(Jpll'; I 01'
wlr('n the ucLun.1 stnges of the myul route havc heel' iodil'lLl.ed: Ill('
Willis, t/w fOI'Lillen:tiolls whidl Wl'/'C' puss('d, t.Jl<' pli1('c Wlll'IT th.. I'r lltil')'
ll
WII'l ('I'ONfWlLM IJI t.hifl wny tIl(' fit'l'ne of vic.:lvfY Wfifo: fl)lnl.illily lillJwtlln '"
I Wrl'N7.hlHki, ~ll/tllI, I, 1'1. i~7, M Ibidi" PI. IlJ.
I~l
 'I '/It'
'''~''PIII
stn,('{'uto 11111111,1'/' willi 1111' S('/'n of he 'hOllll"'llllllllj,C, i.l~. lilt' 1111;"'':'11111
Lion of Pl'ioOllCrs I\lld houLy Lo til
If we now analyzc the actu::d changes ill tile' n'pn's('{) lid I"" II!" j I,
king and his acts we Rhalllind roughly two LYI'CR 0(' /WI'llllS: ill II" lIt i
the more or less heraldic figure of thc king und the cqllllll,v Ilf 1111111
horses with their 'pivoted' flying gallop face the I,urmtti I IIi' II iI/iii!
which has been made concrete by a maximum oftvpogrnl'/Iii'1I1 dr~lllil
In the other, the king himself is either violently active OJ' HI/lI'ib ; 'i
active but is in some way dramatically related to thc event.
To begin with the latter type, we do find several instD.t'\(',·~. ,01' I h!
king fighting in his chariot where every effort has been nmdr III ""d~1 co
~
his gestures fH the contingencies of battle without as a nil.· gil 111 ~

<u
up entirely the dignity of the original pose. One hand is abt",·.1 III
~
variably raised in the time-honoured gesture, the other may lilt" I 3
hold the bow or grasp an enemy by the beard, but in mun: 1111111 "I" ifJ
(.tl
instance the forward bend of the body, the straddled pose 'Will, '",,1 E-<
H
across the front of the chariot and resting on the pole, is lirdil.,' (1'1, 1',
XLV). In many cases where Pharaoh is shown in hand-to-ho,nd lIl{ld i
slaying an enemy on foot-tying up his own prisoners and cluf/pilll: /III
'1',"
-<;

-<i
armful of them while running toward his chariot 2-evcry I rill', .. I u
heraldic pose has been discarded. In chariot-battles the\ posture III" III ~
:r:
horses remains unchanged, but whenever the chariot is sttl.l)(lil\l~ "I'" b
either because the king is just alighting with one foot on the b011l d. 111 ifJ
t­
standing outside it holding the reins, or even inside but looking "111111.1 -<;
~
to survey the scene of battle, the horses are given a contractcl1, "",,1/,_ 8
~
posture as if they might break into a trot. 3 q
Some of these scenes show the disadvantages of Amama '"\1'1 willI H
......
a vengeance; the mock realism of the one in which the killg gl'/l''1' t­
~
armfuls of prisoners, for instance, fails to be impressive and 11I(IIII'IH! if)

to be downright ludicrous. In others, the intended actuality COllil'" Ii ,.....

;..­
grief because the figure of the king so dominates the scene Llalll II" ,.-l

notion of a real fight is destroyed. Only occasionally something Ilud

may be called true monumental art has been achieved. In J)1. >- I, \

bottom right, the wounded victim stands upright in a posturo, 11'/11-1"

and dignified, which repeats with subtle inversion the tri\1ll1plt." ..

gesture of the king. For once the victor does not touch tilt: vi('1 illl, "1101

though the unequal battle is a foregone concluijion, thr tCIII;io'l II"

been expressed of a single moment in which a hurrHin I)/'inj:f 1""'/"1 "

superhuman being and his fate. It is striking thnt in s\1ch 1')('('11,'1; 1111

1 Wreszinski, Atlas, PIs. 37,4,4,48,52.

2 Ibid" PI. BOa; in PI. 50 thc king i~ shown flct1H\lIy lIj.(hLilll( on foo.,

3 Ibid" Pis. a4, 30/1, IJ,O, 41, /1,7, 51, The king looldnf{ rUtlnd 1111 II' llddr"H/lllill lit.

'onquercd: PI. IW.

·I~·
 I Jt'I'(!/UIJIII/ /II /!/ lilt "til fli "t III)'
IlUI/N'1l1' Iho king hilS 1)('('11 ploytll/'Idly 1IJ1J1"O,iIlIHh'd I" 11,111 IIl'la
\'lI('lrly; L1H'I//:(h "Iighlly Ilu'g('J' /liid 111\11'\' powt·rj'ul. II{' IlItI'lily IW,'III'1 III
"cion/:( tv It rliffcl'cnt order ... r hl'l/ll~fl. 111111, whlLl. is n,urlo: ill'lilldllili.
I'COIf; to move i II the ~am(.; Ul'lllll,1 spucc.
Tn the topogr<l.phical lJatl!cs, 011 lhe other hn/ld, the (:Oll tms
l",tween victor and victims, the ideal dist,ulIce which scparatcFl tl'cl1I
i/'l usually so great, their actual spatial relationship left so vague that
otiC might hesitate to speak of a dramatic scene at aU wcrc it not that
/I tension between the two has been expressed in a variety of ways. W

find here that Seti's artists frequently resorted to a type of siege wllich
'ould most naturally furnish the poised design of inverted triangles
which we found in earlier work. In each case the apex of the triangl
which was to counterbalance the impetus of the royal group was a
fortified town crowning a hill top. Only in the case of the fight ltJ;uins
the Bedawi has the town been omitted, obviously because they wen'
lIomads of the plain, but even here the hill has been maillto.incd,
probably for the same decorative reasons. l
It is highly interesting to compare the following fom SCCIlI;S ill
((('lail and to see how the artist grappled with the problem of nc'tlJo,lil.y
ill n. battle that was at the same time to proclaim the king's illvincibility
in a symbolical form.
In the Canaanite battle scene (PI. XLVI) the bodies neuJ'est till'
(·hariot merely form an untidy mosaic in the accepted New Kingdnlll
manner, but the fight becomes tense and vigorous where the lI1'rigl1
victim looking back marks the transition to the vertically orienl:utcu
J'cl'tlistie scene on the left. The climbing figure with his elastic stride
(PI. XLVIIa) on the extreme left, offset against a plain baekgrolilld,
('pitomizes both the structure and the movement of the battle, while
Ihc dramatic actuality of his escape (intensified by touche:;; or J'cal
s('('nery) is counterbalanced by the despair of the wounded alld the
ILbjcet behaviour of the surrendering citizens, especially tho:'l(; who
('['own thc scene. With incredible subtlety does the limp POSI,IIJ'C of UW
v('rtical climber who is being helped by his friend stress Lhc hopclclls­
1l(>~S of the attempt, for in his case sWTender is a foregollc cOlldllSillll.
In this scene more than a decorative balance has becn n(·hi('v,·dj Ihrf
is an inner tension, a truc lI,l'l.istic cOlTelation betwecn Uw syrHholknJ
f1j:(lIre of the king and the actuality of battle which justili<'s tit(' 1.('1'111
Jrlonumental art, even t.hollgh in the centre part the d !'luuatic ('0111'1'1)11
IlLlion has been, in a sense, ('vH,ded by the lmil rl'UIi ion of I'll'nLLl'r('d
!ludicl'l which obscures Lho tietllnl ~po.tiHI rc!<tl.ion IwlwCCIl j,iIlg 'tllll
(.ri('nlY, LL is rJ'(J1l1 this point 01' vi('w ('sp(~('ia.J1y that Uw Cllpt1ll'C' 01' L11l'
}; I. V 11,\. f n: T 1\ I I. () 10" "I.. )\ I. V f
I 'lIid., 1'1. ,~~.
\ LV f II L f I ,': I: Il S ~ I 1\ ~
"'1,":1,:, 1"1: 1"1(1)111 '1'111':
I:U " 1"1' I \;-.. N; 1.1,. '1',\ I I I~:J
Clio" 1'1., }"I,V (1lIpl
(/Uf,.'!I' "'7)
 I )e'/wlt ,f, tI /(t'/t
IOWJ\O/,Vt'IIl/1UlI (Fig, ~r;) IN illll'I/''lllliJ(,II'llI'l 1'/('('11('1,'1 It 1I.l"IIl"1' lit' Ih~
I wo types which distinglliNll('d 1I1)I/VI' ill Hil 1'111'11101 tl".ldIlH iR /I,·llv!·1
w()

·nguged in hattle llllLl. yet 1,111' dl'vit'I' of' the ('IIRLlc ll.ntl hill hils be(·Jl
liNed. But here a lively allo UCLH.i!cd l)uWe illtcrfcres beLwl,;ell lIw "(IYI~1
lI~urc and thc roughly tr:i:lngulnr hill which ill thc previollFl example
{nvc the entire scene its more 01' Jess static lInity. Artistically spcnking,
the Yenoam battle may be called a failure, though it must be aJmitted
hat the problem of how to achieve a static equipoise in the renderillg
of a dynamic event was solved in a highly original manner. We may
Ildd that this particular solution was apparently never repeated,
whereas the previous one was copied again and again. The batt!
depicted is a chariot encounter, for it is obvious that when the king is
pictured as actively involved, the fight is more tense and the royal
victory more impressive when the king's team towering over shattered
§ 'hariots and fleeing horses of the enemy dominates the scene. 1 In this
c particular case the actual battle has been impressively rendered, bu.t it
;:
~ forms a rather confused dynamic centre part which spatially sepa,'MeN
the king and the besieged town and prevents a dramatic relatiun
i

§
between the two. The artistic function of the hill scene, which Wits
form a climax as well as a check to the impetus of the king's moverncll",
1"-1 was thereby lost and it could now only act as a full stop. The lIerd f(),'
.'" one can easily be recognised, for apart from the extremely lively llct,i l )l1
~ f the king, the movement of the entire group of fighting men ha~ Ut:('ll
>ci intensified by the rendering of the horses. Nowhere has what we cn.llcu
C'l
the transfer pattern of the royal team been repeated mechanically;
....C!:I
~ the posture of the wounded and collapsing horse has been equalled only
in PI. XLV, upper register; the flying gallop of the top left horse (th
"ider has for once a good forward seat) appears a tragic leap into space,
as counterpart to the surge of the royal team, while the runaway horscs
with their crouched rider are realistically galloping on the level as if to
diHerentiate their movement from the semi-static diagonnl p,.a.ncr.
Their impetus then comes to a sudden halt in the weird and ugly cumer
scene where underneath the town with its schematic and UncCll1virH·ill
indication of terrain, figures arc seen hiding or crouching :U!10Ilgsl, trees.
As if to stress a fatal check to the rider's course two fnlt-flll·t· mlLsks (of
the type nearly always associnted with dead enemies) peel' f"Ofll behind
thc trees and give this part of thcseelle a hor-ribJe kind of immobility.
The chariot battle in Fig, 26 may well bc tr'cntcc! here tdthollgllill
Hicge is dcpicted. The nltisl hu.s filled tl rough triun/.!Ie with Lhe well-
I In our Fij.{UIO 25 'the Ill)dy nnd (till' OIlLlltrl:'tchcu nrrn of the Iduj.{ "I/I/rlLr III I,ll
rlj.{ht-hl\nd Ill,por comoI'. '1'111' bvrly uf hiH olUlriot nnd tho hill<l Il'llH Illlrl. hl'u{(11 II
hl~ hurSCII uro IO/lt..
 I h"I'IUI)l/lf'" 111/ /(l1jl/l HI'I'I'"
kllown plll,l<"'lI 01' hurl'll.: L."lll'lfl '"'I'''lld,''' III I h,- 1'1,,'11,' 111"/"""111, II, Jill
done this rLtl.h('r nll'chf\nil'lllly (W\'IlI"'1 1·III·lll~llt.ll('C, IH'Il/w, luw,"d~ lltl
i/{ht, £1 sillgle horseman who!:lo lIit/U II I. 1111'/ bel'" /.(iVt;1l 1.11(· 1I'IIc1it.iolwl
eight legs of thc 'pattern'), hut Lhe "\II) LlllaLivt dfceL iH II IIi tc c1ylllLlllic',
rn this Cll.SC their movcment h'lS Iwen "hCI'kt:t! first of ull hy the gnl\lp
f the main victim, and not ollly by his gesture but by the static douh]
volute of the wounded team, one horse rearing and onc coll11,ps.ing,
This inf-initely strengthens the second device of counteracting thc
impetus: nearly every enemy in the scene is looking backward as if
mesmerized by the epiphany of the royal chariot, Here again th·_·
strange equipoise of a monumental situation has been achieved.
But perhaps the most interesting of all is the attempt in Pl. XLV,
top, where the mosaic of falling figures underneath the horses is less
Lbstraetly contrived than in PI. XLVI, so that the whole scene has more
'? unity; all figures seem to move in the same space. The figures are largcr,
~
absurdly large in fact for the building, but the relation between it and
~
~ the king has been given a dramatic emphasis by the new device of tL
I\) Hgure half emerging from a porch and stretching out his hands in an
'S
n,ntithetical movement, The hill on which the castle stands has been
~ indicated by several contours which underline the diagonal cornpo::;i­
~
~ lion, and has been left bare except for trees and shrubs. This throws
>-.; into relief what is perhaps the most vital part of the whole scene, th
.....
small figure in the right-hand corner (PI. XLV lIb ). Again the 1,I'j­
angular composition of the frantically striding cowherd, trying tu :j;LVC
his cattle, repeats the general movement, but the backward glancc and
lhe inimitable gesture of a terrified man trying to ward off disaster'
make him, dynamic and transfixed at the same time, the epitol
of the whole scene.
What makes these fragmentary scenes, which we have treated as
separate units, unique in the history of Egyptian art is that here the
the conflict between symbol and actuality, momentariness awl time­
lessness has been artistically solved, The Amarna revolutioll, with ils
I.rcnd toward actuality, stopped short of the very reqllisites (Jf Ullin II­
mental art. The action depicted, the representative momt'll t dlOS('II,
nevcr had the significance of a II nique and symbolically p,'cgrll1,Jll si 111/1_
liun. It is a moving thought that the same monarch who rt'sl.ored ttw
I nlnsecndent dignity and the (~ctlll;L1 power of killg-,~hiI' nl'Ll'l' i L h,~d
pnsscJ through the WOl'st morn.1 nncl political crisis in its history, WILH
I he one ill whose rcig'n the p~l.I'n.d(lx of mOlllllllcntnlily WIIN g'r'li!;ped ('or
Ihe first nlld last tirne. (Jlldtr tht' I'l'it:rll of his g'1"1\llIlsOII, 1JI(' IOllg-liv('U
tnd vninglol'iolls HtUllS(;S il, I h(' very f1,('l'eltgl' of tIl(' 1)1111,1(, n'li,.f's
I('NLillcl'l ttl It IOHI'l of qllnlil,y; I hI' innl'l' 1('lIsioll di,4/llllv,'1'l ill dilwlIl'Hiv"
127
 I 'It I , N('I(1 !\'IIW/PI/1
drfwrip(,ioll; IIlld WI' Illld llw I'ILlllb1il\g' illvl'/lliV!'IU"ii! oJ' Il"'isl'l pI'
upicd wit-I. ('ollt/'nL .dollc; symlNllIlld ill'l.ll/lIi! v III'l' 110 I0I11WI' (..,
rclnted.
It woul,l be LI'lHpling to view Lhe ltnnl/'ssill rcliefs 'i'1l1inly tiS II
parody on a prcposterous sc~\lc of thc i Ii tell ti~)lIs Ill1cI lwhicvcrnullts 01
Seti's artists. 1'hcrc is, as we shall see, c!lough muLCI'itd t-o jlll:>tify sue·h
a contention, yet it would be unjust, for it woul,l ignore tbc fact th!\t
the aims of Ramessid artists differed in olle respecL frorn all prcvjolls
ones in Egypt. Their true originality lay in a new ambition to giv,' II -------
0;,
faithful pictorial record of historical event. Artistically speaking, this co
....-I
proved disastrous, for it resulted in a type of loquacious journal whidl ~

lacked both unity of vision and a recognition of essentials. Only in Olll' 2f

single case has mere description been transcended in a manner whi('h
3
~

almost puts it on a level with true monumental art. But it is remark H

able that at the very end of a long development of singularly 'timcks,,' E-<
E-<
art we should find this emphasis on the temporal aspects of Pharaoh's ~
u
personal achievement, and it is ironical that this monarch's main dai/ll H
to celebrity lies in the length of his reign and in a remarkable aptitude' H
>-<
for usurping credit due to his predecessors. The type of blatant self ~
assertion which he insisted on lacked the very quality of metaphysica.l
conviction which lay at the root of previous restraint. It stimulated
"Z
>-<
E-<
I
artists and gave them a new scope but it did not really inspire them. Z
P
and their prolific output is merely a symptom of imminent decay. iI1
·We shall, then, deal first with those scenes which are most clearly >-<
>-<
>-<
copied from or inspired by the Seti reliefs, mainly scenes of assault OIl w
a hill crowned by a fortified town or castle. This was evidently con­ ~
w
~
sidered a temptingly decorative motif for it was endlessly repeated, ~
though its artistic possibilities were pitifully mishandled. In the Sct i -<
~
reliefs the dramatic tension between the symbolical and the realistic
>-<
part of such scenes depended, generally speaking, not only on the· >-<
>-<
respect with which both were treated but on the fact that neither th·, >
H
actual nor the ideal distance between the groups was lost sight of. Th(' ~

problem of their actual spatial relation, though often left vaguc, W:t:­
never ignored but solved in a subtle balance of movement and countcT<
movement, while the ideal distahce was stressed not only by thc cruu\:
method of enlarging the figure of the king but by the fact that he faced
the enemy in complete isolation. On all these points the arLi~ts of I:hl'
Ramc5sid reliefs failed completely. The lively t(lp(1~mphical dc,tails
of Scti's hill scenes are missing, 50 that milch i\.ctuo.lity ill 10sL; on tl..­
thcr hand, the king hardly cver fights alone buL is sUl'roundcd by hi/.
own mf'n (llld Lhis reduced Lhe royal f'taLul't' . .As fal' nil Llle': slJlLLilL1 rdlL
lioll bctwccn Lhe aronps i~ cft nc'l,t'llcd, we ('illwl' filld ('(lmpll'l;e indiffl'l'
128
 I ).'I,,·I/J/ill/i·/I/ I~/ /11t' lluJ(l1 Itt/It.}"
IH't' Iii 11('I,llIdily, ",~. WIIl'II )It11 ('\C'II llll'"ll\l~(' 1/1' /"0111,, I'H'plll'l\it''1 ,Ill'
(·hlil,jol nnd til(' city ulld II", h"I'NI~Il' I'l"'l, pm/'Ut'lIlIy 1(\11('11 (III' IOWII
willi, or /,V('11 worse, a cnlllpktd,Y Hp'Il'itlllH Idnn 01' l'i.:tlli~Hn, Wlll'll 111"
Idng himsc]{' liftf; one CllCIIIY (JIll, ctl' Ihe hesieged town (l"ig, 27). 'I'h

"
\ . ,>~

FIG. 27. Ramses II attacking the City of Mutir

IIbUeties of movement and countermovement are almost invariably

discarded in flabby design; in fact, the significance of countermovement
lIN a check to violent speed and as a means to intensify the dramatic
power of a scene has been missed altogether even where motifs were
Vl'I'y closely copied. It is interesting to compare the Ramessid cowherd
who simply moves out of the picture (Fig, 28) with the earlier one
(PI. XLVIIb), or the siege in Figure 29, where the diagonal arrange­
l\H'nL of the figures merely repeats the diagonal of the royal tcams in a
imilar upward movement, with PIs. XLVI, XLVII. Nor does it hclp
llilLtLCl'S if Ramessid artists add lively details to intrinsically bOl'in
('rllCS of carnage; it merely leads to overerowding. In Scti't> reliefs
XLIX. RAMESES III E:"TEnT:\ I i\ 1':1)
illluitancity of various acts and happenings appears implied through­
(!)(lgc 141)
Ollt, hilL their extreme here-[l.Ild-now character lIever eonOicts with thc
I',wl. 1I11~L thcy were at the SHrnc Lime to symholizc incxorablc dcfcnt in
II\(' ['flec 01' f111 evcr-viI;Lvrivu:-> l'!lfll'lloh. fn I>he 01lcS of the Hl\nl(...~sCIIlYl,
·1111 (,"I'\'d llS Llwy [ll'C wi I,h !wci(lf'f) tldi LiCH, vuriolls SLHgcs uf skgc nnd
111'I'('odl'l' lLPIWlIl' wi tit i II I lit' S('ISPC of olle si IIglc S('('I1C; d iSClll'sivt.: his [,ol'i-
I 1 ~I) 1',"',M,
 I'Pt'!U/JII/flll I~I "1 tI 'It" 1(: 1.\

~
~
~ I
:It ....J
!;:l -"'\,
, ...
~ } I

c::l FIG. 29. Syrians retreating to City

~
OC)
subject of these scenes was the one great military event in the rcign of
C'l llnmses II when the young king through his own bold initiativc tUl'JI{'d
...
~
~
lin almost inevitable and ignominious defeat into what hc would like
us to believe was ultimate victory. The written annals which thew·'
reliefs were to illustrate differ completely from the bald record of fact II
which Thothmes III gave in the Luxor temple or the ah~tl'fit:t I'orml\!
I"lllldiloquence of the poem in his praise which was rccordrd ()II 0. sl,('!t'
lhere. They also differ from the impersonal reticence of S<'I,j's shorl,
('nrtions which accompany the scenes we described. Thc text sol' HllIlHleS

'\'" rr insist with rather touching humanity on dangers 1'1111, dl'dsiollH

takcn, and brave acts performed by the king. They COil l,[1 ill ~l1H:" I't'mllrk.
IIhl<.: statements as: 'This m~tnlil'l' in which I am slalldilll~ IIlT(' /lUhLin
IIgninsL thc Hittite town such us Lhe piC'LlI re of l'hamoh shows, hm: Il'ItI
IWI'I\ Llll; Jllltnller of acting flf His MajesLy', 01' 'II is Majl'sLy hils Wllsjll'c1
his 11I'mOlll' Lo put it on after Ill: htLd I'uught lIL I,h(' (wad of his 1tl(,lIl1ll'd
troOJls lind his 1'0111, I,ruops fOl' tWII IWllr:; without W('llI'jlll-! lilt IlJ'lIlOllr.'d
I Tilt' 11111111'/1/11'1110' J'(,lid'IlIll"l' I'" hllNh"d hy W rn;:t.iIINld. ~ 1111/,~, II, PIN. I/O 1011,
rl,{II., I"N. /1:1 Mil. [0 /lJi/J., PIH. 1(Ill 71/, • lIii({,.I,',,' Hf 1'1. 711.
III
 'II/' Ntl/} 1\lllP/,U/II
'l'he young HU/ll/lCH J I, ill onkr Lo Lhrow illl... I'I'/i",. la", fllll'(.ly I WI" .. ,,1111
valour, emplmsizf'H illlplie'illy hi~ vulllcl'ul,ilil,y, rilid I h,· I'plidil, wllll'h
wcrc to comrnemon1.Lc Lhc vicissitlldc~ of lr1tLtI.'/I.lld Ihe king's i'llh,,!
dual acts, paradoxicully dcstroycd the Illy 1.11 or divinc kil\g~;I,il' ill I.
manner far morc insidious t.han the all too humnn bl:hnviolll' \)1' A 1-111'11
aten in some Amarna scenes, For the timeless aspccL of royul vi'" ,n.\
was sacrificed in favour of a pictorial epic.
Now epic rendering in representational art, unless it can Slllil "1'
complex event in one actual and pregnant moment, is 01' 'II CC'l'S: II I "
reduced to a sequence of pictorial statements. We saw a'lready thaI 1)1
the Seti reliefs, the sequence and the spatial coherence of thc dill"n'lIl
scenes had become a matter of concern, but that as yet no HU)I"(' \VII
achieved than a summing-up of consecutive events and places ill IIIl
time-honoured manner of arranging them in registcrs. The eITorl III
Amarna to break away from the ban of such registers by t.reatilll~ I,i l ,
tracts of wall as a vague spatial unit in which different ,stages III' 1111
event-such as a royal visit or a royal reward--could fillll 1 hl'll
natural allocation, was not followed up in Seti's time perhaps I)C('III1/<I'
the logical sequence of events was less clearly indicated in this IVII,\
Ramessid artists, driven by the necessity of depicting the cOliligllf'IL
tion of extremely complex battle tactics, were apparently Je~s ('011
cerned with chronological than with topographical clarity. Sinel' 1111
could only be achieved in a vertical as well as a horizontal arr:J.lIgc' II 11'11 I
offigures, they used the Amarna device with extraordinary b,)ld'II"!',
It must have been helpful that in the motif of the victorioll.s kill l ,
in his chariot groundlines had already been discarded, first for d""lIr
ative reasons and later in dramatic scenes, and also that the New Killg
dom interest in topography made the projection of groundp,loLs und
the use of curved groundlines less of a novelty. In the Seti reliefs l'I)('I".
and hills gave a plausible foothold, but the curve of winding rive!':) nllli
the awkward spatial relationship between these and human Jigul'l'
had been avoided rather anxiously. Ramessid artists, once embnl'kt'd
on their course, boldly plunged into the difficulties ofrcndcl'ing HCpll"'i,.
scenes. They had to, because both in the topography of the buU1c Ilnd
in the actual fighting the river Orontes played an important purL
I cannot give here a detailed analysis of the strategy 01' the QndtNl,
battle 1 but will mention the main points stated in I.he nnll[l,ls n,,,1
illustrated in the reliefs, not only because the I"Ucr ('ul1lH>L I,e IIl1dt".
I See J. H, Breasted, A History of E'gypt
2 (192'J), 4,27 :11'1; .'olln i\, W lIitl ," ,
'The Texts of the Battle of Kadcsh,' in Amen;can .101/,7'111/( /lj ....'/'InUIt' L/I/I~ltfl}//w (II/II
Likratues, XLIII (1927), 2(;6-83; Charles KlI C)lt:.l , Lo lJO(II;((C' d(' (iod/'rh, ('lIill',
1928. FOl'the site: MaUl'icc Pb:ard, Qadeslti M';II,~ioli (Il'c/l(lO(OP,llllu () ~l'ff/ Nelu' /11"11'.
Paris, 19.1'1..
132
, I 'I'his r"irkll.cr, ns yut unpllhlished, l\rlff 1>ccn kindly puL ILL Illy dl'lpo/wl II
I )/"'/'/IIIJIIWII( II /(' 1/111'11 IlII,
I.ool! willlpill Ih('111 'lid, III:-,!J lu 1,1",w 1111' 1.lllg~~I·"I"g IIIt\dly ttl' II"
n"'.i~LN' IIl1t!<,,II·Lttking. Till' \'V"III" \\ 1'1('11 I"d Ill' III III!' 111(1111"'('; 1IIIII'Ii>,I'
f the ellemy which hlrl:d II,,· killg' 111'.1 plll'l, ,)f Ids 111'111('\1 I'''I'('C''! illtu It
dt1.11gcrous positiun; the Vitil'hillg II lid i'III'ITogtd,ivH uy 1.11" ldJl{! ("J'LI'I'
rough haudling) of HitLitc spil-'~ who wwc away the CllI'IIIY'S I'l)l4itillll'
tLlld the i'>cnding of a rncsscngcl' by the king Lo SlllllnlOll )llu1'(' I roops.
Then follows the Hittite attack Oil the royal camp, RaoJses' fai I III'!' 'I"
break through the enemies' ranks, and his decision to make )'''Olil 1'(11'
himsclf by fighting his way towards the river and driving the cn('nl~'
into the water. The failure of the Hittite chariotry to drive houln 1,)1('
attack bccause the soldiers start plundering thc camp gives U:um;~"
time to establish his position with the aid ofunexpccted reinforce-nil' II I ::
and to await the arrival of another division which enables hilll I"
drive off the enemy, We may add that this, though a fille cnollgll
achievcment, barely deserves the epithet of victory, since thc nitll ill'
the expedition, the taking of Qadesh, was not achieved.
Now, it is obvious that the task of illustrating the annals, eveJi if ii,
were imposed on Ramessid artists by royal command, involved m(}l'\'
problems than could be faced, let alone solved, at once and III t1wir
entirety. The bold effort made in the Abu Simbel reliefs, of COl)IlJiliill"
all important anecdotal details in one huge picture, is in fact tllc clirllll)(
of a series of attempts and partial solutions. And it is intere~Ljlift II'
reconstruct the steps which led up to it, for we shall r,md tlmL L111'
artist's growing love for topographical description and the very noli,JII
of historical illustration mutually required and strcngthened C'lwh
other. Unfortunately, the dating of the various reliefs is still a IIlHLLn
of some uncertainty, but the available evidence nowherc cOll'traJicL1'l
and in one point strengthens our argument based on stylistic eritpl'i....
What was probably the earliest picture of the Qadesh hattie OCCIll'~
in the funerary temple, the so-called Ramesseum; it was obliLf'raLcd
by a later vcrsion (Fig. 31), but traces of it have come to light which
justify the assumption that it consisted of a traditional juxLap()siLioJl
of royal chariot and Hittite town, It is unfortunately noL (·Irll" if Lh"
pattern of a fortified town on a hill top was used and w)ldhcI' (11' 1I0t It
battle scene intervened between thc two. But it is signif'wHIII, lltlLl. Ih,·
design was considercd unsatisfactory. If we are right in HSSllIllililf thnt,
Lhc scene on the pylon of the Luxor temple (Fig. 30) was I.IIt' 1'1,"'011(1
vcn;ion, thc change would be indeed cOlJsiclcrn,blc, buL arlilool.i('lllly Ih~~
scene was still fuirly close to the Srt,i relief's. 'J'hu c'xLl'cll1c 1'00'llIlIllly of'
1.11<' desigll offset against a brocade-,like bn,ck!!Tfllllld llf' I)nlllill/1!\l!IlI'ell
Dr. ,/011111\. Wilson,
11m
 I ),'1'/'/11/111/' III tlj 1/11 1:'1\''; lil'/If'!'
'"id r('lil'VI'd II,)' (llily II Ih\ l'lIl1'lll'l "I' 11:,.111'1111 (~lll'" 11M 11,(' I""'h!' f ,ill"
i,)g' the /-(ltk III' the JIiuitl' 1I1t'1-./>('II/{('" lIJipl'lIIwllillj.l hi/{ l.ill/<~' lUll lOll'
Id'L) lllll,Y II/LYe beep ,,:I,rl.ly dil'llllt'd I,y Ihl' trigll II I it 1-",,,1,. pI' l"t, wtlJ'k;
"'lit i L('1I hances its syn, boli(,tal (·1111 r/iC' I t.:!', Till' ('on fusion of 1,lll' flll hl'lid ill I',)'
flgurcs throws :Pharaoh's solilury sp!<'ndolll' into "clid, LlIl' Hin11'lilh:d
outline of the city walls make it i\,jlpl'a.' u Ll'lI.p ill which t11(: f1CI';lIg ('11('1)'"IY
must inexorable be caught, alld Lhe two groups thus subtly cOlTclnlt;d
form a fine 'balance of movement and fatal immobility, only S\u'lxLSSt·d
by some of the Seti reliefs.
It is t.ruc that the actual defeat of the town is not depicted, bu t i tH
implicit fate must have appeared to those who knew events n, IlH)1III­
mental hoax. Was it because Ramses' pride recoiled from i,t that I...
himself indicated a new design for his mortuary temple which migh'
do justice to his actual achievement? If so, he must merely hav(' pro­
vided another stimulus to artists who on a minor scale and in lilt 11','
subsidiary scenes were probably already actively engaged on historic·al
~ scenes of a purely descriptive character, such as the war council, til('
;g
interrogation ofthe spies, and the Hittite attack on the Egyptian can't •.
~
Q' None of these go much beyond Amarna in the matter of spatial rcpl·"·
'c> scntation; both plan and elevation are used to show the details of Ihc'
~
..... lamp, and, though registers are on the whole avoided, the allocatioll (,I'
~
~ the various other scenes has been left completely vague. The vattle of
<I.l
-<::: (~adesh on the Ramesseum pylon (Fig.Sl), on the other hand, gues wd I
~ beyond it. Here a clear geographical description is given so that 'till'
o spatial coherence of different groups can no longer be a matter of dOli 1...1.,
1:>';)

Ii!)
To talk of cavalier perspective here is again misleading (see p. 11 0);
H
I'z; the matter of perspective does not enter at all, for the viewpoint of tIw
spectator-we saw that only once at Amarna this apparently played a
part-was not a matter of concern. All that was aimed at was to
illustrate the disposition of two armies on what is virtually a Illap or
the enemy's country, the main feature of which are the Orontes nivcl'
Hnd the town of Qadesh. It is interesting to note that the diagolllli
('urve of the Orontes plays, decoratively speaking, almost the purl, ('II'
the hill in Seti's reliefs, but the older balanced design is practically lost.
The scene is discursive, untidy; the transfer pattern or the rflynl
dlluiot, awkwardly phl,ced, fails to Le impressive; the solid .l'ktlllllX ul'
Ihe unhcnten Hittite king neruss the river remains a dC(td Jlln.SS; th~·
two scem unrelated. Not even n wealth of new realistic details, cspl'('i~
IIlty ill ('olllJcction with drowning ligur('s, cn.n alonc for IL compl.;I;(' IILl' I
of' dl'I1TllIL! ie tension. Artisl jellJ Iy speaking, lhe secll(' is ft fn.ilmc.
Wc' dll nol knl)w I,ll(' <tnLe of lltc Ahydnfi temple Hlld tIl(' !'t'rnlLill
/lI'(' 100 fJ'lll!lllcltlnl'y \0 judge if it ('vc',' t:oll!,tillcd IIIl ('(JIIlIlty ILIJlI.jtio\l
• I:lli
•

 1)0'1'111 II/Ill/I/if /luIU/ /('/'1/'

f'lfl/I'L ttl willi l,if.llllf·il,,,I"I'lllIlId y,l '1'111' 1',,1 ht'I' 1111""1'11 JlI"JI('('"I'''
('/11'1'
tiull with uqllltLic lights 111111 dl'llwllllIH J1glll'C~ W\' \'V('11 ~!'(' H/llllst
standillg alddc-cleep ill w:\tl.'l' w\Ilild NI'p:gt'sL tlllli. Llwy l1J....: copi('d 1)1'I~lj
least inspired by the Qadcsh hlll,i,lr ill Uw llaIIlCS~('lInl; LlH; hir~h.
handed manner in whieh grolll\dlillcs an: diilcarded. might point to th"
same influence. It is, howevel', eer'tain that the Qadesh scene at Ahll
Simbel is the last known effort of this type-the reign of ltamscs 11
was, as we saw, rather poor in heroic incident-it forms at the sam"
time the peak of an artistic development to which a reaction set in
already under the reign of Ramses III.
The Abu Simbel reliefs (Fig. 32) are epic in the sense that they aim
at a coherent narrative in which not anyone single event or single
figure predominates and where, in a more or less articulate setting,
events are unfolded in time as well as fixed in space. This may appear
an overstatement seeing the clumsiness of the transition of the scenes,
the lack of clarity achieved, but these failures should be measured
by the stupendous boldness of the attempt.
It was evidently considered impossible to combine the interroga­
tion, the camp scene, and the main battle in one spatial unit. The wall
space has therefore been divided into two strips by bands of Hittite
)
and Egyptian charioteers meeting head-on in the centre and symbol­
izing, quite involuntarily, no doubt, the undecided character of an
equal battle. Below on the right is the interrogation scene and on the
left centre the attack on the Egyptian camp, but it should be noted
that the enemies attacking on the extreme right and those near the
camp at the back of Pharaoh clearly show that he has been indeed
surrounded. This brings the two scenes into a kind of spatial relation
and the same happens with the reinforcing troops on the left who are
realistically turned towards the camp while the fight is in progress. At
least the intention of some spatial and temporal coherence cannot be
denied here. The top scene is, however, far more remarkable. Here the
more or less static diagonal composition has been completely discarded.
The king's dramatic encirclement by enemy forces has been expressed
by the serpentine band of enemy chariots which only leaves the
smallest loophole for his escape. The Egyptian messenger sent to bring
up auxiliary forces is outside this band (at the top, in the centre) and
the very unobtrusive countermovement of the Egyptian troops has
been stressed by turning the enemy chariots nearest to them in oppo­
site direction, without however breaking the encircling ring, except at
lohe bottom of the scene Oil the right, The horiw/lta1 'ace01:1(le' of the
rontcs RiveI' cloes no 1110"(' than spatially isolate the lICVCI'-enpLlIH:u
I W"('szinsl<i, AII(f.~. II.I'I~, 10 ~li.

i3
 1'/1/ JVI 1/' AflU.!JIII/l1
I
~11('111 Y 1.0WII III II I tile k i "H's eM'" pc 011 I h,' t' \ I ",'III,' I Ill'" f. Iii l,y .111 1111'1111
the urulllnLie ,·liBmx of l'venls, ullhc)Il,l{1t I hl' I'll I'll pl"'I'1l1l Iill or ViCI.III),
the prisoners and the cncllIics' hallds, UI'<' dilly di~pllty('d. H is I II.
rather small stooping ftgure of a worn-uut f'oyal soldiel' lhntfncC's LIIl'IIl,
looking back on a scene of near defeat.
No more truthful historical record of the sllpr('lrle momCIIt ill
Ramses' life could be given and not even Arnnrna, m't could represl'lll
the king more humanly, more devoid of transcendent dignity or pOWl'!'
Even the paradox of Seti's monumental reliefs is lacking here and till
battle scenes at Abu Simbel remain the most dynamic, that is, the mllst
time-bound, of all known royal temple reliefs in Egypt.
There is an almost tragic irony in the fact that one single youth I'll I
exploit, the lifelong obsession of what was probably a rather insigllli
cant ruler, should have been the main source of inspiration of his arti:-r' s,
while in the reign of his grandson Ramses III, when the countf'y
experienced the bitter reality of a threat of enemy invasion, the V('I'y
notion of historical illustration was discarded. The battle against tI ...
'peoples of the North', camped near the border, against the 'peoples "I'
the sea' attacking Egyptian harbours, against the Libyans pressing ill
from the West, were amongst the most desperate battles Egypt eV('I'
fought. Ramses III, we know, was a soldier of calibre, yet the account',
of his exploits are reticent, formal, couched in the abstract terms .,1'
traditional hymns of praise and the scenes which illustrate them I,ll'"
actuality; they have only one theme: the symbolical figure of tI ...
victorious king towering over defeated enemies. It is as if the chaol it'
events of his day, the terrifying upheaval of a Volkerwanderung Oil :1.11
unheard-of scale and a deliberate concerted attack on the rich peaceI'll I
Nile Valley could only be imaginatively rendered by confronting it
with the figure of invincible majesty. In this abstract confrontation 11,11
sense of actuality, all interest in dramatic reality, was lost.
Various scenes are given in a roughly historical sequence 011 'LIl"
walls of the funerary temple at Medinet Habu,l where the pylons 0111
show the traditional motif of the king holding a bunch of prisonef's.
The stages of the three main battles are practically the same: theking'I'
injunction to his troops before departure, his journey to the baLt'"
front, the main scene of carnage, and the dedication of prisoners alld
1 This great temple has been recorded by thc epignlphic expedition uf I h,'
Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, The cpigr3.plric WI)"" WflS ""dt"
the direction of Dr. Harold II, Nelson, the architectlll'tli survey anti tilt ,'XI'IWI,
tion under Professor Uvo Hoelscher, See for tile Hr,_1, sl'ril's ()l"icnt,d 11I,~til.llif
Publications, VIII (1930); IX (1032); XXHI (1(111,1-); 1.1 (1 Vtl,O), lind for I h.· 11111'"
series Oriental Institute Publication~,XXl(ll):H); XLI (IOIlO); L[V (111-1,0). H.", ,11~o;
W, F. Edgerton and John A. Wil~Ol1, INstoril'fl( 1I1'("}rtl,~ Of /(mllllf,9 III ( 'IIII'HI.\I',
1 !l;lO), See also WI'('~:l.illSki, /Ilfll.\', II, I'ls, I I (I 11101"
1111<
1)( 1'1'/11/11111111 (~/ ///1 IlII) ,(/ 1l1/1I:1'
booty 10 AIIIOIl HI'. 'l'h,· '"illl,· tollJlll'lI"I' lill'i IWI'II IIdl't1IIJ1I,~d I,)
hlllllillg SC'Pllei'.; lLf}lIl't 1'1'11111 II ... 1I'IIdii lillI/II J.{I I'/,l'1 II' (,hils,' WP 1I11t! I~ ",111
hUlIt. fl.lld \lI1C in ,"hic'll wild 1'111114 III'" plll·....... d IIl1d drivclI illin 1I1111'sllt'
(PI. XLVIII). Thc:;c fl,I'C mllll'1' 1"'III/II'lmbll', Ill(' /irs\' bel'UllS\, It 1ll00'" PI'
Icssstntiegroupha:; bCCl1fWhi('v('d hy Illld,illg the king till''' l'Ottnd ","1
spenr a lion attacking the chal'ilJL 1'1'0111 bchin/1. 1 This is tile' ()lIly illsi
nTlcc known in E.gypt wherc the kill~'s iuvilleib'ility has noL beplI III "I'll
for granted and the danger to which he was expo:;cd rnak('s his ad
appear one of human courage. In the second, thc impctu:; of the plll'SlIit
has been checked by what we might call a remnant of diagollal ('( 1111
position; in the right-hand corner beyond the collapsing bllll It Il'i
angular strip of water closes the scene. The two supcrimpos('d vil'lilll~
hali-covered by finely drawn reed bushes form, intentionally fir 11 .1, 1
, near approach to cavalier perspective. For us the )n;Lill illln,",1
lies in the battle scenes-the other historical scenes beiflg (;olllpipi d)
conventional-and especially in thc remarkable absence of tillY 1'I'i'
occupation with the rendering of space. The enemie:; 1'01'111 n :-:lIlid
pattern-one could not call it mass--oftwisted limbs and bOllil's illll'"
spersed with a few and barely discernible upright Egypt.inll s(lldi,'1 ~
This is not the confusion of battle, this is pure chaos. 2 Tht' very I'"~.HI
bility of tension between royal victor and vanquishe(t has Iw('1I I'lsl .11
the bald juxtaposition of absolute victory, absolute defea.\,. III 11\1' /,"'"
battle (F'ig. 83) where the disposition of the enemy's ships is:l.s OWc,IIl1 II
ical as that of their bodies, the placing of the E.gyptian vessels at. IcllHt
indicate the fatal encirclement of the enemy craft; it is, so t.n SI)('/II< I
the only concession made to dramatic actuality. The only l'Cdl'\'lllin
feature of these scenes is that the attitude and bearing of Sonll; of til('
prisoners has been imaginatively rendered. The proud dcliancc III' I Ill"
Philistines seems almost a tribute paid to an enemy morc fOl'lnidnhll'
than the battle scenes suggest.
In the reliefs of Medinet Habu New Kingdom tLrt appelll'S 1.1 lin VI'
swung a full circle; it ends where it began with [\. paean t.1l I h(' divilll:
ruler. Even the tensest of battles are immobiliscd, n:ulI('I'd III I~ loIy"'
bolieal statement that the king':; victory was absnlut.\,. If' thil'l Sllll,)
ment was, artistically spcakillg, not a climax, it has a s(J(·('ill,1 poigllllll('y
heen,use it was made Oil lhe eve of WhH.t pl'Q'vcd to Ill' ill 11;/{Y1'11I1Jl
rcprcsentational art tL long- period of senile decay. III vi,,\\, or I hit-. lillI'
I 'I'his sccne has IJccn Rtudi<:<1 by.1. J r. Brellsted in SllIllit'il iJrlwl'lIlrtill/ I". 1,1
(.'/ lJf/IIt, ~(J7 71,
• '1'111' II;gypUII.Il s'Jldlcl'l' 1'()I'1II gl'()IIPI' pltlt','d ill holl'i',lIntll,1 1'('I4I~j""'", wllili' IIII
hodh'tl 01' UII' ('JI('rni(,!-l 1\11 tile Splll'I' 1111 fll'llUlld I hl',lII and I'll ,,<'I,("\'4' I hi' ,,11'1'," III
I'h,,"~. 'I'hl~ 11H'llloti III' ("IIII)1WllllOII 1111'1 \)('1'11 ('hll'idtlt,'d hy Ih, II. II. Nc·IMIIIl,
(hi".lll" ItHlIiLlllfl COIlIIII"IIit'l\I,il)I\~, No, 10 (('Jtll'III~'" Illljl), 1'/1\11'1'1,,11) FiulIll'" 1:1
IIl1d I I.
11111
 /1('/"IJ ll/i'/l1 (~I ,1/1' II II I'd I kilt)'
Ilti~ht t'Vl'lI 1'l1'1I~~'l 1I'/ll'll pi' "1'1'11111111111 III Ih" wily
trrlll'\'l 1I111CIl' (.1
Ire:,s 111(' hlll1ltll l Hi(l(~ c,f Itlllll~I'~ III: 0111111' lIig" (:Illl' tllnt. l"lrlllt'd
Ih,'
,'n' "l1llee l.o the lCIIl('J)OS willi 01' III(' \'('1I\plo W(' Illld lIll' dlllll,'l' ol ic'
NI,,',II"
(1'1. XL1X ) 01'1>hara01l seekill g ,'II LI'I'I.nill 111('11 L.l
Thc following ten CC1'll.III'jcR Wel'(' n,bsoll ll.dy burl'ell 01' new vrnl,o,. .·
in (.jt.hcr paintin g or relief, in LOlld, 01' lcnlJ)Il:, 'I'imc-hoIlO1I1,pd pit'Lori
nt
I'm'mulns were endles sly repcttt ed and thc l'CVCI'Cllee for tile lI1Wlllll ll1
lg g
which they imply proved a poor suLsti tute for an ideal whkh
Imd
illspired the Egypt ian artist throug h the ages: a form of repres c lI
' ll1­
Lional art in which the flux of the phenom enal world had been. '\,1'111111­
~"'" '('oded. Mcre reveren ce for the static meant a parody of this; it I:!lt
hod
~ ill fatuity .
~ 1 See Uvo Hoelsch er, Das Hohc Tor von Medinet 1fabu (Lcip:r,ig, 1I11()
~ •.
r)J
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os
......~
....
~

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~
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eo
C\~

C!)

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z
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 CIT..i\PTI(!\ 1

rrh e Integration of Figure and

in the Pre- and Proto-dynastic P

hoever turns from the comparatively smooth lI,)\v "I'

W Egyptian art history to Mesopotamia will bc H~l'IH-J.( I,y /I

startling lack of stylistic coherence and continuity. 'I'hifi i
plll'I1y due to the uneven quality of the work. Egyptian art, ItS lL ",hoi",
\lffers from the monotony of an almost uniformly high a,ml tl s"v",·,'1
"l''ilrirlcd type of performance; the tradition of good cra,ftslllll.ll:,hip
ttmy give the dullest work a spurious dignity, the ncccplll,Il 1'(' 01' ,~
l'C1rllHd code may almost hide the originality of outslnlldillg lI,'IINI..
1II Ml'Hopotamia the opposite holds good: the best work hlLs a q lin I i I Y ,.1
IIlI{kncss and daring, the worst one of unredeemed illcolll[lrll'll('l',
",hi"h makes them seem worlds apart. l Moreover, violcllt cllfLngl's "I'r ""
11('('111' in consecutive periods which mayor may not be dlle to all illll""

of differcnt ethnic strains. In short, Mesopotamian art, ;1s n wl\l)l(" ii'

'Oil' plex and varied; whatever links the different phases lies bCy(Jlld I hI'
"illigI' of form-critical catchwords; and yet, seen U!l(lcr lht: Its}),'('I, 01'
11111' parlicular problem, the continuity of its devcloprnl'lIt will prOVI' 1(/

Ill' II III 11 istakable.

When we started our survey of thc Egyptian matcrilll wil hit 11I'il'l
'I'I"'I'('II('C to the figures on early pottery, wc fonnd thallll\;sc w~~r(' 1111
lilt' wholc representational rathcr lhan dceorati v(' ill dllll'IW1('I'; III('
UI'l'IL('1' IIsed was usually:1.n opportllnity for, not rL dOlldllll\illU flll'tlll
II, the' shnping or :;pacing of lig-III'f's nnd groups. This 11I('k of' ('WIC't'l'll

for ck"ornlivc values waS in tl, Sl'I1S(' pt'ophctic. VOl' ILll,hullJ{h "I'PI'('NI'1I
Ililillllllllll'l ill Ji~gypll)l'ovcd l.hl'llllghotlt extremely !;lII'I'H"t,(,()tl·willllH,
I hOllgh iL I't'du(·c.:d 'COI'Jl()T'(·"lil,y' lind nll il implies for OI'j.(lln;t' 1'01'111 111
11111 "l/lnll('I' we illdi('ltted. il 1·t1l'l'Iy l'llllsidcl'l'(l 1.11(' /odllt(W of till' IIv"il

Lf. ALATlASTEIl. VAS!': FIU)i\'1 WAIe.I(,\ J II, 1""I1I,),rnrl, Illurr ....· t·/llpluTI' 01/1 1/,,' 01.'/11111 IiI'lI,;OIl ('101"11/(11, 11) 1:1), 1'1",0,

(lH[,,.'..f(' l!i I )
I lin I,~,M,
 1'111' IIII"P, lIIIIOl l (:/ If'I:~/lI'/ 1/1111 1)( 'I,WI
/(1 1/11' / '/I' /III /'/11(1 1 rI\ 1",,11" 1"111';/,
ubl(' slII'fu('( ' HigllilkulIl ill iIHt'II'. ~lIrflll't' ~:JlII"«' 1111 wlIll~ of' I/"llpl,'
~ I,r II. IIulopl 'lIl'I' lilli, 1111'1',' I-Iplll'('/1 1,,/'1 III Ill' tilll'.! IVII" "IIIIIII,II1~lllt';,
Tock LombS,l1Ierely IlIeu,lIt lL prttcLicnllilllil.l1I 1l\l'lilll itltH:; pOflllil) ,'," 'Ill
ilitit'H /'lllllrilry IIII' dl:l'qnL Livl' IIIISNlh d,IW'l 1/1' Ih,' l,dl.'I' /'lllIlill) .I, I,
of adding figUl'C to .Iiglll'c, group Lo gl'Oup. III I h(' "II\III1I'n~l.i VI; pl'OCCN:- llll"'t"
: "f IIII' tyP(' nfSptlN 'lhl'y WI,,'4' tt) (\('''"I'Y. 'I'lli' 11~IlV 1ll'I,I,,'d "11.1'1
compo sing ritual and funcra ry seeucs the neLu/1I houndul'ics of ""111 111/
I'lwh .inl l'nlplmsi~e lIw t(d\lI\'SS III' I Ill' l... uk,'", lh/· 11l,ri:t.ollllllly HI1'1
separa te rectan gular wall were nearly ahvays rC!:ipcctcd. Such 1,'llId
ullit!, 11111. hOllnd:-: Lhey I'cfnilld 11111'1'1' I,h/' jOilll'<J spil'nls Illl llHllllhi" ,11 111 ,11 ",~,
suited to perfect ion the confro ntation of static groups which thc
SCell(' :lIrl'y the cyc roulid the ein'lIlllfl,;l'ClII'C; while ill I. he slig'" Iy /ll'luyil
usually deman ded. But althou gh these walls rathcr sternly held ll:
tll­ 1111'1.(1)(', the contra cted POSI' of' the ibex, Lllu lIpwn,r
gether figures not dynam ically related , they nevcr impose d their d tm'il1,~ III' IIII'
formal 1I,'IIdy eil'cub r horns cpiLomi:t.e both the vcssel' s HIClldl''' hc i l-!lt1
presen ce as it were. The decora tive possibi lities of the rectang nllt! II
le, UIl' 1'Il1llldncss. And yet organi c form bas Hot been merely nmdu I;lIhsl'rv
tension betwee n vertica ls and horizo ntals, for instanc e, were genera i"111
lly I (I dl'('Ol'l\tivc functio n and treated high-h :lndcll ly ill Lhe pr''''I'sN
ignore d except , as we saw, in the case of the chario t motif or ; I Ill'
in tllf' «",Sf'nLio.l charac ter ol'the animal 's shape and postur c haH bel'lI illtl'Wh
Seti reliefs where a diagon al achiev ed a finely balanc ed design
withill I/'t! wiLh what we might call the inorga nic movem ent of vMr
small section s of a long registe r. I'o I'll 1 flll.l
Iit'sign. This subtle balanc e was only rarely mainta ined and ill 1.111'
Prehis toric art in Mesop otamia , in many ways the aesthe tic an III"~
ti "un nllimaJ charac ter was sacrificed to decora tive functioll. Th,· lImvl
thesis of its Egypt ian contem porary , proved equally prophe tic.
In itN
III 1'1. L, for instanc e, eviden tly sugges ted an
cmphnsi::; 011 cin'lllll l'l'I'

earlies t mature form, the potter y of Susa,l the reperto ire of animal
alld ',we and radii, but the barely recogn isable elonga ted frin/!.cd bc.d V/
human figures is extrem ely limited , but there exists an intima .1' n
te COl' IIll!. or sheep was a mere preten ce at organi c form.
relatio n betwee n figure and design which, as we shall see, persistN
The ligures on Susa potter y are nearly all painte d in svlid 11111,1''',
throug h many phases of later Mesop otamia n art. We shall analys W..
e I:h,. 1111 vt' shown (p. 2 supra) that such shadow figures frustra te
syntax of the Susa vases (PIs. I, L) withou t consid ering the L!\ll dr." '"
vcx('d Ill' imngin ation which tends to fill in an outline
. This is allothe r rl'lIoJOI
questio n whethe r or not the use of animal figures had a symbol
i('al \\ hy !.hl' allotte d surface never appear s a mere emptin ess IlgII,ills
as well as a decora tive signific ance. In the case of eagle and ibex t ",lw'l.
this iN 1111' Il"urcs arc seen, so that these lack a halo of three-eli IIIcllsi.
at least probab le but it must remain mere conjec ture and does not ,nil I v/ ",1.
affc'('l l'ltl'Y (lrC, as we said before, pure form.
the questio n of their decora tive functio n. It is clear that represe
ntu, 'I'he mre perfect ion of such a great numbe r of Susa VII.S('S is 1111 t
tional figures were by no means essenti al to the design of even I",
UIC' 11\(11'(' I1Slonishing becaus e they remain an
isolate d pel'lk of l1t:hil'V('I1I1'1I1
finest examp les, yet it would be a mistak e to speak here, as is
01'1:('11 wll lIin the confine s of a more or less cohere nt lIighlu llti cuILlI"t
done, of 'geome tric' pattern s; for this sugges ts that the disting uishah :. Thi'
l., \ 1I111j.(/' settlem ents of the Al Ubaid period , on the otbel' 1I1I.nl1,
elemen ts, the horizo ntal bands, the circles (interr upted and unbrok whk" 111'1'
t'II). \'III'l'lllly consid ered an offshoo t of this culture in the nOw inhahil
radii, vertica l strokes and triangl es, were pattern s which coullt llhl.·
Ill' "llljllS of Mesop otamia , produc ed Ilothin g n10re tl,csthcti"'l),lly
concei ved in the abstra ct and mecha nically applied . In the cas(' 1'(:IIHII' k·
of II •It' I h/\J1 medioc re pottery painte d with abslJ'a et plLL\;L:r1H,. Thil4
Susa pottery the opposi te is true, for here, more clearly than in I,hlll/'o*
any ot' Iii 111(' Ubnid culture stretch es with dcpressiug' lWllll,L('IlY 1"'0111 I II
its derivat ives, these pattern s were sugges ted by and in turn
WI'I'/' PI IHi'lJ1 Gull' to Northe rn Iraq and a.ppears to have
meant to articul ate the actual vase form, the elemen ts of its strucl.ll relHti illl'd :;1 II I! II It II I
"" Ill,' fll/lny centuri cs.
the charac ter of its plastic movem ent. Hence the signific ance
uf' I h, WI' Jilek u.ny hint of 11101'«': daring n,rLisliu dfol'l.s wltil'h milC hl
irregul arities we find, becaus e in these swellin g and shrinki ng, mcel f'lIrill
iliH I 1"'1'''"( ' Lo 1.111; mOllumC/lts uf' Lhe cu.rlics
t Ii Lel'rl,te 11t'I,jell!. I M/'ll u puIII
and diverg ing lines the subtle ty of the delicat e shapes , their splayil
ln olillll /lI'I., pl'l'hnp s also I.hrollgh Lhe s(~lI.rcil.y
of 1II'I'IIfI,('ologi!'/l1 dlllll, I
and contra cting, was empha sized and a rare harmo ny of shape
lind ,,01, 11l"ollnhouL Lo spring on 111-1 HlIrJwisN; in 1.1\l' fOl'nl (II'
patter n achiev ed. H'll,llllhdlill
II I hlli(' j(II~/.Y {/('cmnlJlis, bu LLIII' pf\rt!lcl
It would be imposs ible to separa te thc represe ntation al and 111111 Ivgt:l1rsi:-; of !'cprC/'lI'IlIIl,llolllll lid
III 1111' Pml.olittm(,I' period shollid lw I,he dl'spo,il' of ('v('ry ,H'I hlllltlx
represe ntation al elemen ts in PI. I withou t ignorin g the ract that 1111
th l "

also were concei ved in conjun ction; the wide band aL LI1I' Lop Ilnd I 'I'hl.. p.. rl/ld "IJIlIPI'i~,'~ IIII' whll-II In "h"
111, /1 •• ,1 Ifl tllll
fI'lIlll;'11i Ilr.. IIIIl'o!flU i'·lcI 111""111111111111
UIIII, lIf1d .klfldlll, NII"4r p",'lo<lli. SI""" Ikloll/(II
I See.J. de Morgan . ~llt11(1ir{'" 11(' ia D,f'~WLli/lJl rn Past', VeIl. XI I I. 'I. IIl1d H, 1.lnyd,
I " ,,;"'"J.IIIl lIrl"'t'IIIJI "W III 1/1/. 0;1/,,'/1 II/'Illtlll ( 'hi('lIllll, 1111,:.1),
I)· HI, II. 1(1,
1,(;
11
 "/11 / fll I p., /'(11111/1 (~/ "'If!, II 1',' (/I/d '''''IW'
hi:-:LOrill,lI. 1'01' lhullgh il ('IlICI'gl'H 111111,111'0 fllill "l/l!l i dl'lIl, Yl-I, it 11'l r!tli III'
eon'lradiclinns, iL (;IIUl'L:-; nuLlIl'll,lislic II,~ wI-II lUi rnntnsl ii' nil.] ('VI'1I
herald,ie design, it renders dl,;voll!; .rilllftl acl,s;JlI(I whnt IIlll,y be wholly
secular scenes.
Its appearance coincides with what it; usually elLllcll the dawn of
Mesopotamian history, that is, with the building or cities, architectu 1"1 ,
on a grand scale, and the earliest written documents-in short, with :I.
stage of cultural development comparable with protohistoric Egypt. J II
Mesopotamia, however, historical monuments, in the sense of chal­
lenging reminders of single persons and events, are with one single alld
doubtful exception conspicuously absent both in the art and in tl\l'
writing of this period. The repertoire of sculptors was not dominated
LilA. S'I'():'JE TItOII(:1I
by the figure of a specific ruler and his acts. Nor did personal or top I ,­
([Jag/' 15i)
graphical identity play any part in the earliest writing. The documents
include (alongside mere 'bureaucratic' records or aids to memory), two
further types: first, accounts in the sense of binding contracts, and
second, rather enigmatic word lists in which a number of natuml
phenomena was arranged in some kind of systematic order,! 'I'll.,
earlier phases of the Protoliterate period thus appear both in writtl'lI
",-ord and image strangely anonymous and impersonal when compan'd
with Egypt. In fact, the term 'protohistoric' seems hardly warranted,
Yet it must be admitted that here also we find, at least in the first tY]l"
of document, a preoccupation with certain aspects of time: in till'
contractual accounts a monumental challenge is implied. Herc a
practical transaction, a relation between man and man, which has
significance for the future, has been made articulate and given all
abiding form. We may assume that from time immemorial, in the ca~;H'
of oral obligations, divine sanction had been invoked; but by means or
this written account man himself imposed order, and challenged til('
disrupting influences of change and chance and the temporality of II
dual will's decision.
The word lists, which have no parallel outside Mesopotamia :1.1111
have puzzled scholars a great deal, do not entail such a challenge. 0"
the contrary, they may be considered the obverse of a desire to impns,'
order in the orbit if human affairs. 2 These lists, consisting of a SySlt.:1l1l1
tic grouping of objects, beasts and plants, apparently embody 1111
attempt to recognize an implicit coherence within thc burning rmdli
plicity of phenomena-for it is very striking that thc st~ll'S wlll)~W Lilli. HAN 11,'1' :-('1'1,;1.1': I'lillill 111"1\ \
movement epitomizes cosmic order, werencvcr mcntiol1ccl. The Jl~' (/)((,:.:(' I .i:!)
had, as far as we can judge, no magic function WhJLlcvcr, bll L t1wy \V('ll'
1 A. Falken:::tein, Archni,w:hf' 'J'tx/(' 1111,~ lhuk (13l'I"Jj II , 1!I;jO).
2 'W.vonSo(]CTl,in IVell Ills (;('Sfllir'!llc, II (lilaO)AI2 (H,IiOfJ fS7.
I 'J,H
 If! 111l' /1/'1' fll/rI 1'''(1111 dll/'I\II(' /','1/1,,1
l'II11'pIlHl'd II lid 1·lnll'II'ILII·d lip Ip,lllllt·dlllt·, Wl'\·"C'II"·,ph,, d III"""HIII)liI
wil1l l'l'ven'II(T lind IH'V"J' 111\101,· ttl H('I'Vl' H /l/,L',·III" 1""1'\1:.... 1\'1 111'~!"
c1,'voIlL dussiHcnLiollN Lhey Illlty IInl, 1'('Vl·:tl Ul'cnl. HpCl'lIlntiv!' d"pi il llldj
lllW JllIlS!. UUluit Lhu:L t;]lv)"U is buth phil\l!-l(>phi v (1I;1IIcd"III'1I1 "lid II"
OJ- I mort! i lIary I>Cl't:nc hurniLiLy i It Lhis nniquc uLLcITIpL Lo 1t1'1'1'dll'lId /11101
t ul.u order and coherence ns n fael of trnnsc'~I)(lcnt i1llj10rLII,IlI·!l. III 1111,
l'ellpecL the lists show a concern which diffc)'s J'n.,fn1 thu U110 I'('vl·nh·d "I
the jnterpretation of omina which may, for all wc know, go bLlI'k I() 1111
l'udy datc, although only in later texts all.] pl'act.iectiit Ut'f'!IIII1' ,
(·rilnble obsession. The use of omina also prc:::upposc.s a 1'()JWn'!Il',' III'
phenomena, but here all interest was focused on the dyIlal'\lie r"ln,1 illll
hcLwuen superhuman powers and human fate, and on 'the I'IlSHihilil
of predicting events by reading the signs revealed in c(;'I't/l.ill (lh.i('(·I,~,
hy observing coincidences. The aim here was to gain sonll,; 11l'1~1I1; Vo'
power (namely, the power of avoidance by forclmowlcdw') I'VI'I' II ..'
HlllLping of personal and political destinies, The lists, more,.('Y('I'vnL Lhli 1I
f'(·lu·-.l'idden, ignored the dynamic implications of cosmiu IInk"i I h,",(
'nrlicst encyclopaedias merely satisfied the nced or S(.I11,· Idlld III
intellectual pattern within the range of concrete pJICIIOII\l\llll' wlllI'lI
were closely observed. Historically speaking, thc contractlwlll/"'"l1I11
IlI'C more significant for they proved thc basic fonn for futuro' :o1,lI'llIl'
til rcgulate and stabilize all marmer of human rcln-tioJ1Hllips, ~:ql'"r1,
e('onomic, political, even religious, as we shall scc.
I have discussed these early writtcn documcnts at SOli)" 1"111[1.1.
h('cause both explicitly and implicitly the deep eOIlCCI"II for Ion II''',
measure and relation' which they reveal does also pluy Ull i1llpcwillIII
PlLrt in representational art. Explicitly because, as wc I>hall "IT, "1111
t.rn.ctual accounts were in historical times frequently given UI(' rnl'l1J III
t\ pictorial statement. Implicitly because througllout rcprCfl(\lIlul iOIl
wnfl made to harmonize with, often made subscl'vicnt V'I till' IlTlkl'l
coherence of design. Vie shall find that rarely, if ever', a givntl HIlI·rll(·(·
WitS uscd as a mcre opportunity Jar represellto:tiowd displlLy 11111/ Ilhm
I lint burnan and animal figures wcrc uscd to fOl'lU. a ptLllCl'1l IIIlI 0,,1
ill thc manner of dccorative 01' applied art hnt: IL~ nn illCle)lf'lIdi'ld, IL
pllre design.
We Sh~l11 now consider tlw l'e)'flo.ins of the PI'Fll.oliLf'fll,lc' IH·I·jlul 111
d()ln.il; thcsl: faU roughly illtn til t'cc catcgorici': we hnvl' 011" 1""o~III,."1
or what was rl'obo.bly a sLl'lc (PI. l.Oh), tllal. is, H Nillg'II' 1'J"'!Ulll
lone ::;Iah IIsl·d fot' the pUqNfl(, or eXhilJiLiJl/-t' lL ~1'1I1J1tlll'l'd dl'/HIJ,II'
IIIHO Jt lIulrlbcr Qf cylinder st'lLls Lind iml)l'l'flsinml (PI. Lll I, It'i'4il. III"
Ib, 1I(I)i anll finally tWII sb'IlC' VeSi'Wlfl: n S('lIlil'ylind I'it'llI Irollgh (JlI.
1,1 I[\,) ILllt! H Itdl Illl1lOsl C'ylindl'i('nl lillu'stunt' vmJ(' (PI. LI). Wl' HI,"IJ
II,
 I'l,l' IIIII'/;/'(,IIPII (!/ 1('/~It"/' tlnd 11/'''';';'' III I/It' /'1'1'· (/1/,1 '" 'I/O rllluI\//I' /',1,1111
fll'Hl. dOltl with tho IILLt/'l' W hieh i~ by {':L" Lll(o Ill< 'I'll, i IllJln:tlNi VI,; /LIIU maWf"
I HiTjlw.~i'lI Jlod .LI II, HI ill I h(' 1'11'0'1 lillI' 11 Jt '''''I1U'1l1. itf' II ... IIUIII'I'''' I U"li'II'11 II (,I
worle
ii II 1II('!H'(·,dilll' "hlll·/lI'l.\'I",j' II ... I'v,'l1lq d,'pi/'II'II. '1'111"'" III'~' "!II, "",11Il
til '" II'lHll11Il'(1 1"11" It lnt\~ lim,.. 1I1,','t· tlfrlol'inl{ N('I'IIPH, 001' II" III,} (II
. "'@jM" ~-\
.~~ '.. ,' 'C7";C'~"'~'~""
~~... .~" . '/.)--~'.' ljl.II;~YI'(,)('ruphlLf.liz.c Uw illl!JCjl'llllH'(' (If'ILHillglc hhlLOI,jl'ld lij{llI"': tile

~t4N,~ ~~~\

",,; ,
,:~-:-:: / ~" .~., :'
. ," ,

.2,. '. 111(· 1lIOI\Ort\CIIVLl l'c[)tkl'ing (If l\ fllqWt'llwly iJllpol'l,n"L hili " I'"

'ft((
" -,.-..:
IJi

~ ~'~"'"
... 1111lllU ('v('nL, lhe SHcrcd nlltl'rilLgo or tit<' goddess IJlIlIIIIIL, by wl,l,'"
~~~~ '/:~ till l'yC'l,' ferlility ill all crealures-mcn, bCM'tS, Hlld plarHS WII.fl III

,J.{~~£'~. '. ". Qr~1

.. : .' ' r - 1
, t "

!i
.%t ~.. ' ...
.'.
b\ 111101111'('(1. 1 111 thi~ ritllal of the divinc wCddillg or tht: 'lIollll'r gild
~r'\'····~. ~ f' . . t. ., . '. . . (I; .ot 111111 her own son, thc god of fertility, the Iff.ttc'l' WILS NonH"illil'
I, III j'llt'nLcd by the priest kiug. 011 the vasc, the 1.1IQthcr gllthlc'.,."
FIG. 34. Seal Impression, Warka I'lldilli{ in front of her sanctuary, faces ::I, row of triblltc-bClI.rillg I'll{
1111'14 IIt'ltdctl by a man who carries the 'first frllit'; uchiJld the l"y",1",1

It is significant that this shape was chosen for this particular scene.
In Egypt, where stone vases abound at an early date, only one late
protodynastic one shows a sculptured decoration. The votive slate
palettes offered a fiat heartshaped surface which determined, at first,
I 01 I hc' sh1'i11c is a ritual object representing the goddcss Ii lid I III'
I" 11'11, or priest king who actcd as substitute for thc lUvillr Illv,"',
1'111' I'lt'cond band shows a continuous row of ftgures Cil.rl'yillg t IIll 111'"
111'1 which introduce and accompany all wedding ccrcTllulIY; 1.11t: l"wl'l
II Hh'ikr is filled with alternate rams and ewes and lIJI(]Cl'llt'nl II i I II n

d. pi"kd plants, barley and date palm, What makc:) this wl'/'Ic ~:(I v e'!')'
II Ueing in Near Eastern art is the livelines:; 01' the SCOII(;S, u('!,ij'Vc'c1
wit hin Lhc bounds of a very austere decorative framework (\I\(I H nlilli
'HII111 of dramatic action or even variation of posc. 'We HI'(' 111'1. c'vc'il
I WIII'(' of a repetition of figures in the middle register; cite" lOr 1111''11
'lIlHL muscular men, firmly striding, slightly stooping, iIlV'III, (III III
FIG. 35. Seal Impression, Warka III"Ik, ill an individual presence, organic, alive. They IU'C I'clld"I,,,,1 ill
dlllosL pure profile with the exception of the right ShOlllJcI' wlrie'Ir
the grouping of figures (PI. VIla). They became, however, the vehicle 'P(lI'IU'S pressed forward rather awkwardly. The result .is Umt. Lh"il'
ofapictorial statement which ignored the actual shape and function of 11llrpu1'cality' is as convincing as that on early black-Ogmcc] Gn'l'I~
the object used (PIs. VIlb, IX). The contemporary maceheads and the \lI'1c:S where, curiously enough, wc find the sarne rt1l1scu!nr sLrcIIgl.h
single stone vase of King Scorpion which may have been used in the Illlf'l'ntrated in thighs and shoulders and the same vitnl, confidelll
same ritual acts in which the palettes functioned, were apparently used hi II I'l II/;{. This characteristic of all early Sumerian art mn.y k,\,1 in IHilH
faille de mieux, for the scenes neither fit nor suit this type of surface. ',,It'r instances to figures almost wholly consisting or VL'l'y (lllIll'JI
In the case of the tall Warka vase, on the other hand, the parallel 11l1f,I,ocks nod o.1'm8,2 cmnparcd with which the luog-Iegged, long-flllllk/'li
bunds ofrelief form an extremely suitable decorative scheme and what IllUyptil\11 bodies appear conceived entir('!y fronl tile' point of villw 01'
I .It,,,fnl outlin.c fwd, al'e totally lucking in organic vitnlil'J'

'I'lle lop register has an almost weird COIlCl'ctcn('RH. '1'1 .. 1 gooddt"l'

\VII hOlll.,qlllLlifying insigllio" il,l\t1 the cqufl.1 ill size of tb,'I.l'illIlIOIIl'IlI'I'I·",
Illl'f'H them c1tvl in H lo"t.:' I'olwj the sheer hUnlfI,nity of 1,ld~1 HUll I'.' 11111
lilt' r( 'H t I'll in t of the geliLu "cs. I(i vel; the conf"un lMion n. c'o)'inll,'! I'f'lllldj I
l'hl'(LI'\.ioll is whCllly \111dl'o.mnl.i(' and Yl't ti,l; Llllpn's/li(lli of' H Iilllll\l'l\
I I'll'" II ro"'hC'()!lIill~ Htlldy hy l'I'(l"I'~~tlr 'I'h<Jrklid JILt·obHI·I. III ,/IJ11111111 Ilr Nt'll
I~II~'''' 1/ ,'l'I/ltli,'II,
l~'JG. 36, S/ml Impression. 8ns(t (~. t '0I1LI',lILlI, IIf/lIlltt'l ii' It "(',,Iv/ou'" O,.f!'"lfI/I', I, Il'lg, :lU Iii 1~'"'II('I"'II"f,' 1'!lII/"
[ill '·"J,III'III,·'/"t',',I.II.'KO.
1(; I
 /'/1/' /'11,·...i 1(/I'ol l '!/ /"';;'111' (/",; / )/\1/,,, III 1/1/ / ',., (fllf / J' r III II rI) ,,(,,\", I', I 1111/
telllS II1ITI,illg' I,,'('vailsj Ihe Sl'l'lIl,llILS till' V("·)' qlllddy ofdylil illlil'
~PILI'I' ~'et 1111 qllll'"Ii l'II'1I11I1 gl'lIlll'i'IJ.\'oI '11<",IlJlI'lllIq"'~I' Ii IIW"' 'I, IIIl 1I1'1I111lt'1
whieh is so (:o!IIl'lcLcly absCllt il\ the jllXlll(lllsit j</ll ,II' flulII'es in •.1' WCllllldlillt ..~, 1l~1'l't' willi lIlt' I'Pllgltly vI'1I i"111 1)0111.1"1' wllll,l,
ritual W"'I 1111111
acts in Egypt, ,hi} llfowd ill i Ls nlLLlIl'lti sll/l pI', pili. 1I1'11~h I. /II{ I\:-l' .Iid "x"ltI /1111111'"
It should be noticed that, while the sccond ano third registe r show 1"111'1 ,
1111 11101'(' c'"lpllld,jl,; I)(TMIS (' I\' WILS I~ "1\1'1' l'''o,;llOl
a continu ous circula r movem ent, the upper sccnc, nlthou gh it 11111111, WIJt'Cl dL'alilll!, wiLh tIl<' rule whi('h stdm pIny ill I\1I'H II II,.11\11I1
\WOOII ill '''I
Idlll .. lltl
has its I11I
climax in the group of goddes s and shrine, does not show a break II I WI' I,;ludl hlWC to keep this l,tI,l'liesL nlOllOrYIcnl, ill nlilld, I t is 1'11'111'
or all
antithe tical arrang ement of figures, The presen ts piled up betwel' I hid, in this CllSl,; L1le surface vI' the stonc uocs II/ll~ I'Pjll'l'sc
tribute bearers and shrine may repres ent objects which either
lI llL lL Hillgl l'
haY(' jlldllli unit; the king is rcprcse nteel twice awl till,; 'two supni11 I
been or will be brough t as gifts, and this slight ambig uity makes JI\J;"Il'1I
it a IIltl','C''; 1Il1'rc1'orc mel'ely noat in tL kind of VaCl1l11n.
perfec t trait d'union in a virtual ly unbrok en contin uity, Althou 'l'lwl'o I.\.1'C scvera l.fragm cnts of stone vases with plastic li~IIl'CS, lillll
gh a
cult object was used here as an opport unity for a religiou s scene, lilt! Illdls, which accord ing to some can be (bl:ec1 as C[l,l'1y o.s till'
this I'I'n111
has not been treated as a mere design . The vase offered an ideal surfac( !111l'iLle pcriod proper , but since they belong typolo gically I,ll lL
~ 1'\('l'i(',
for the repres entatio n of a cyclic event and the liveline ss of the 01 \ c',;s('\s and sculptu rcd groups which 1'01'nl a ('IH'/l/lolflgil'lIl
is unimp aired by their rhythm ic sequen ce in a broad strip which
figures
lin W('('n protoh istorie and early dynast ic cnltul'e s we sla,,11 di:,I'II'.
Ii 1\"
seems
a self-co ntained spatial world. 1111111 Itlter. Thcy seem, moreov er, alien in spirit and stylc' wlll'lI
I'Clll\
The decora tion of the trough -like stone vessel (PI. LIla)1 entirel
lacks the monum ental charac ter of the vase. It has a simple symbol
ica.l
y l"ln'd wiLh the tall limesto ne vase and the Warka scal illlp"('ssij'"/'i
\\ IIlt'h we shall deal now.
wi I"
design antithe tically arrang ed, two lambs emergi ng from the shrine
the mothe r goddes s on cither side and flanked by ewes and rams.
or 'I'IH' superb glyptic art ofthis period is a most bafflin g ph l'IIl/III\'II
')1l
Yel. 11111 only stylisti cally, as we shall sec, but becaus
e one is 1,('lIlpl I'd 11,11'.1,
here again the fact that the lambs are picture d half outside the hy it. should exist at all, why so much effort 'was spellt (jll lIlI jll VI'I'll'"
shrine
gives the scene a peculia r actuali ty. We saw that in Egypt a similnJ 1ltll('I'SS of plastic render ing upon an awkwa rd anll '(,Iusive' ;.111
' r'll'l .
device was very rarely used in the New Kingd om and with the fl f "'IlJnLions on the origin of thc seal cylindc r nrc f\pL tc)
same III' 1'1'11 i 11.""1;
effect. II l'l, 01' course, plausib le that a people whose bnil(lillg ItIIl! wlililll
The fragme nt of a basalt stele (PI. LIlb) shows a huntin g scene; l
IIl1dt,,'ill] consist ed ofthc ubiqui tous mud of marshy plains shc)\dc
two figures, probab ly represe nting the same person , attack a lion llm ... '
with ,1t',c"nv('I'('d the eharm of repeat ing pattcrn throug h Lhe Itl'('il!."
,,"1
lance and bow, This monum ental treatm ent of a purely secular
eve II I, F,IIIIl~ of an engrav ed bead. But why thc half-pru.cI:ic:d, hulr.'llllgil'ld
at such an early date is extrem ely surpris ing; it is in fact unique liWll'JIIl '(' of scaling with 'thc stamp of owners
, 1'01' hip' shoulcJ have i,llllll'l'oI
the empha sis is here not on the beasts, as it is on the hunter 's palette ~,flj .. I'l to chom:e the hardes t possibl c way of "pl.'odII eillg o Ill; 1"'lllltiIl
H
(PI. VIla) or the knife handle s in Egypt. The lions are, in a lit" 'iplain( 't!. Nor docs it help jf a causal
sens(', reasou illg is ('hange d illl .. I
subord inate; they stress the domin ant streng th of the human II It Illo~i('lIJ one and the [l,csthetic prediIc ctioil for ('onl.iluHlll1>
If this figure represe nts the king, as is most likely, it is remark able
figure. fl'i\'i',j~
thai, \, hh'h so llllUly seal pattcrn s show, is 1lscd to e:x plui II t.lw
neither an associa tion with divinit ies nor a militar y feat with politiea
implic ations but sheer concre te vigour should have been chosen
l I' IIndl'l's I~L an ('arly datc.! All we can say is thcLL if eyliutll'l' HI·,iI,;
<'holl'l\ 01'
III'C'
t\) 1I/P'"VI'd wilh ligure s-anti this is the easc with 11.11 I Ill' ('II,'ly 1111("1
\\
convey the challen ging statem ent of his power. It may be aceiden t.h('y nrc a f01'l1l of HI't. which is sni gn/tl'i.v 111'11 \1('1' 1'11 1 (11
tn I IH_'i"lI'/l"1
that this statem ent is anonym ous and the damag ed state of the ,k'll)nl l iv(' 1101' purely rcpn:selltttLiontl.l in intcnl,il)lI; they 1'"lhlHl
does not preclud e the possib ility that we have here only a fragme
StOlll' ~, III
nt or filii. l~ I'i'W tS i'IILflLimwl dr,\';g?l. This do('s !lot lU('1L1I !I111,L III('
(',Y1l"c1e l
a more comple x scene, but its anony mity and its concre teness
would 1111,14'(' Wll~ 1I0t. SOIlIl:ti lllc'l; IIHl'd (\)1' rcn lkl'il1l! /I, ('011('1"'111 h("'III'~
be in keepin g with the charac ter of the cylindr ical vasco The II
,nC),~I, l'.:"lillilllllllly Wits. Hill. wll(\j'C'l\1'1 SII('h it Sl'CIIC; wlluld Ill' ('III iI'c,l,Y
strikin g differe nce with the latter lies at first sight not so much wll
jll t1w I~,,,illljll('d il' Ih(' ('I'IUIII'l'<llllll'l'll,('I' of fL st/l,ll l jl Hetti Wllfl IlSl'cl ill' (\It
roughn ess of the workm anship -for we find tilt: sam.c type of II
piasl ic' iill!ill!w d. 1'111'1 his (lIIlTIOH". Ihis is I\\'Vt~l' Llll: ('tlSt' wil II
vigou r-as in the utter disrega rd of dCCOl"fLtive COIIsi(/rraLions, IhI' ('ylilld"l' 1{('lal,
Alid I I~lll' 1IIl'III 1('., "lwlIL til" ul'lll.ln 01' 1111' l'yllndt'I ' HI'III Hi'"
1 Hrill:!>h Mu,~rll1'1l (Jurtrlcrl .'l, 1JI (I n:'::H) , 1'1, xxr
II. \"U1llld llll, ('I/'llillll
""., p.II,

15~ 1M
 1'1t( Inll',tf.I,,.(/IWII t!/ 1"'/i/II I' rtl/(/ I "'''ti'l II' 11/1' 1',,. (11,,1 p/ "II) tI) /If/,\I" /',., '"
J 1('1'(' lhl~ He'lL! illlPI'\~~Hil)lI is IL NI'I'ip or illfli'll' "II'
1"llglllWiN\' j'xtt'llsioll lily typ('s of :ow/ll 1I1I1,II'r"el /;"\'11111 1111 I,,"go 1'111 1", .I'll III Il/lphf," ,fIlfl
and this will o.lwn.ys rnuke eV('1l Ll C(lll\;l'CIlt. S('('II" UPIWllr l~ rcpNil,
iv(' jll'l"IlIlI'lIl.. TIlt' inrl.,II'"lt' I'l'i";I,\', H'l 1111 i"dl'pl'IItIc-III., ,",l 1111 IIpl'l.,
design. The early artists, who evidcll tly (leJight.cIl in CIII)Crotc )'cprcSt d,
'II­ !II 1'01'1", posl\d prplJ1cllll-l \Vltil'h wl'n' /'l(lIVt'" by I'll"I'''il'illl~ H/'I'II1I'
tation rather than abstra ct pattern , were thcl'crlH'C [need with H.1l1
Il IIldlll'lIlil'llir r(,l\d('rit\~ LOll bibLINlll grtl\lpillH which r'"'ltwk urn
proble m of opposi ng values: they had to solve a conHict betwee IIi'l'll'
n tht' Wf.I d \\Il' mi~h t cull hl'1'uldil,;. W" ('I") ftll'l'luly
order of pure design and the self-sufficiency of scenes 01' figures hero nol.i('(' tho l'lIl,jll l l
, This fln'1. of Iwruldic f{l'oupillg on org:\IIic j'1)rrrls. II illllliobili",cs
conflict lay at the root of a remark able dialect ical develo pment, Lllt'llI, min;
for ill j Ilf III uf their autono my, theil' voll'ntio.1 life.
LIcm1clic lif{\lI'('S .III 11111
the course of Mesop otamia n history it was solved at the expens
e of jl!ll','nr r(\ught at a certain momen t, a phasl.: of tl'o.nsiellt
either the one or the other value. Mbreo ver, we can clearly see already mOVClIll'lI1.
IlnHld ic groupi ng ma.kes evcn a plallsib le l'endcr ing 0[' violt-lIl. Iwl
in the case of the Protol iterate seals that the conflic t had other iOIl
impli. ,1 '1'I','nr lrunsfi xed, curiou sly unreal , and
as soon as its j'III1CUO ll Il~~ II
cations , It has been stresse d by the best author ity on Mesop otamia
ll IlIll'(~ design is obviou s the backgr ound of the ligures no longer
glyptic that the aim of the artists was to produc e a contin uous frieze,l I\PIlt'III'o
"Illie spncc at all, as a compa rison betwee n 1>1. LIUa and PI. LXI will
This is undeni ably true, but it leaves out of accoun t the proble
m of htlw. The possibi lities of heraldi c friezes were, howcv er, hy Ill)
movem ent of the figures which constit ute the design. For a continu 1I1"lllI',
ous • pll)itcd to the full yet in the Protol iteratc period and in the tmnsiLi
frieze may consist of a mere repetit ion of static motifs -which ll1l
thclI IH I wecn protoh istoric and histori c times (the so-eall cd '.Jc-mlk
form a kind of stacca to rhyth m-or of figures in motion . l. Nili'll"
phll'l(') the friezes disinte grate into a mere reversi ble pattcrt l ill
In the first case either a small cohere nt scene may be used (such wlli,'"
as IIII' inLegr ation of figure and design no longer plays a. parI..
1L iN III,!,) III
a confro ntation of figures in adorat ion or cult acts; PI. LIlIa) or
singh' Ihill Jleriod that a new bold type of plastic relief and with it a nOw 111111
figures, by no means necess arily inactiv e, in which the notion of If
mov(~­ IJlI'Nlrs which seems quite alien to thc serene and placid Urllk "1'\"'('
ment implic it in left and right orienta tion has been avoide d throug
ha IIII~t.i()Ils, but which was to play an impor tant part ill btl'I' S\ II lII'!'i II II
frontal positio n (PI. LIlIb) .
H.I. Il/imely, the motif of a hero, man or bull-m all, :-lllbdll
As regard s movin g figures, we saw that the tribute bearer s on tlll' il\g wllel
III 'l"IIs, The fact that on an early vase 1 the hero is holdin/-( d\,WII
cylindr ical vase embod y a movem ent which returns in itself. The \,W"
seal 1IIIIIs in either arm might invalid ate the theory that hc shollld 1)1' II
impres sion is, howev er, not a circula r band but a mere strip of indefi­
I, illd of protec ting genius of the herds, Even if cattle were dl)II1Cs
nite length. Here only a design which shows bilater al movem ent Lil'ld ,,"
could t IlS co.1'1y a date as sheep or goats, the wild bull might for long
be consid ered a satisfa ctory decora tion. It is therefo re remark able hlLYe'
thaI. 111,"1 consid ered as terrify ing as a lion. Both might have heell illl,'I'
we find relativ ely few examp les with a simple row of men or animal
s e1Illrl/-tC'llble in the symbo lical functio n of denoti ng bestial fOt·(,~·,
headin g in one directi on, but that we do find a numbe r of experi nlld
ments till' lIIotif need mean no more than just the expres sion I)C 'the ('olillil'
in arrang ing figures in such a way that the sugges tion of directe d !
move­ 1,,'1 ween human or half-hu man power and animal violcnce.
ment in the one has been annull ed by an antithe tical movem ent
in tlw Now it is worth noting that the only figure of tl hlll1 in I.he· postl ll
other. Someti mes animal s simply move in opposi te directi on in differel '"
lt III' It human being holdin g down two liolls OCCUl'i)
Oil "Il(' "r I.hl' proto
registe rs, someti mes figures facing each other have been arrang
ed ill IllllLlllit.e seals (Fig. 36) which, though their date il-l lwL nlJ:-<111
such a way that 'tensio nal space' and 'hiatus ' alterna te (Fig. 34). II l('1
"'ltHill. show close aflillities with those vI' the l'rol,,,lit.I"'H,te IWl'iwl.
The most fertile discov ery, howev er, decora tively speaki ng, was '
fllIly I't.ylistically, howev cr, for I,he imaW'ry difl'e1'::;: WI' (lilt! n !lI'rMilll
that of a closely knit antithe tical group, the possibi lities of which "1I
W!'rl' pi /'Of'('uplltion with mOllstl'OUS 1'01'111 which is l'IlrC ill I.h"
graspe d at an early date. It was early realize d that the inner tensiol II"\' of WIII'I" ••
l It lIIig'hl thcrefo re be tentati vely Mgllcd t.hut t1w 11('\111''
of each group could be balanc ed by an outwar d movem ent of '"'\'11 "/1'11'
til .. whll'h npr C1Lr in the late I'l'ol,olitl'ral,t' pel'iod nnd whil'" 111'\' dl'l'Ot'l
figures compo sing it, that bodies facing and heads turned away, llt'd
for with JlII~slic IIgurcs, hnv(' 11;lnlllitc 1'111,11('1' Llwll Slllll\'rilill ,dllllitl l's
instanc e, could achiev e both static cohercn~I' :t.!1(1 bilater al mOVCl (1'1,
lH:llt LIVH), Antilhe ticlIl grouping' prrvl\i1s Hls\l It('n', llllli wlil'l'I' plll'llln
(Fig. 35).
, II. n. Hldl, /lallll/OIl LIIII (111// ,',v,vl/riaT! 8I'/I/1)lItr(' ill /h/' /lrltllth
/1/'''''1'/'/11
Seen in the light of such prcoccllTxltion tIlt, l\.stonislliJlg VUl'il'ly
ul (III IIN"I IH. I H:.II'I) , 1'1. II,a.
\, I '"IIIIIW' I', ('II(II/uMI I/' til'll ('11111111//','1 0';1'/1/1111,", 1\111.VI'/'
lSCC u, FI'II11krO I1, "1I'.l'il. till 1,/J/1( II', I (1'\\11
II. '(Il, 1'111. \£1, ,W MI,
1
I 1111
 "/1/' /1I/I',.!.)l'(f/WI/ f!/ 't"tJlf11' (/f,d / /i'SfP,"
lI,n i Illul:-; alii Icri IIg to 1,1Il,} :-;1.1 ,.f'~<:l' flrl' 11l'l'Hllge'd ill ,'liW'" WI' nlid Lh{~t 1.1 ...
movement is frequently halted by til\' heHdN 1Il'1'1g' tlll"lll'd outWtwet ill
front view (1)1. LIVb). Some allied though slightly It\tcl' steatite vase's
are completely covered with low rclicf (PI. LV); these F;h.OW an unUSlllti
disregard (for Mesopotamia) of a relation between ::;m-i'uce and de::;ign;
in fact, every available inch was covered by figures which form a solid,
quite amorphous tapestry of birds, beasts, humans, and monsters.
At the bottom of one fragment from Bismaya a kind of procession or
musicians can be recognized, but the effect of a coherent scene is
diminished by superimposed figures in the wildest postures. If thesc'
are to be considered part of the scene, not a mere tapestry filling, tlH'
spatial effect they might have had is destroyed by the absurd proxim­
ity of touching heads and feet.
The art of the first historic age proper shows no strong affinities
with these rather barbaric carvings except in so far as the hero awl
beast motif survives and dominates from now on the repertoire of tlw
seals. The problem of the interrelation of figure and design will hc/"('
again prove most important. But only here, for in this period the pre­
occupation with historic actuality set a problem which demanded :t
new solution.

1,1 \' ,\. S (' 1'1.1"" (' It I'~ I) V ,\:-i I,: WIT II II I': I! (I
(/ J(/.~.!,'(' I rl.i )
!.IVI\. 1'-1('\11,1''11'1(1':11 \ \Sl'~

(/III,:!'" 1:,Ilj
15
 CIIAPTI£l\ I

.
('(1111ar and Consecratory M tii' In i"il rI
Dynastic Monu ts

II,' first Mesopotamian l,ings to cha1Jcnge oblivion by pnlf'lnilll

ing theiT identity remain as elsewhere shadowy figllres IIIJI I hi'
III ntalizingly vagueness of a mere name was heru giv~1I /'ild 'NIIII"'"
lli 11 vl'ry early date by the combination of imagery Hnd j~ w.. illl'lI
O:'~l~.rrl of Itct~. It is characteristic of the dilJercnce in sLnLtlH II lid 1'\1111'
11[111 of' kingship in Mesopotamia as compared w.ith EgYPL thaI, JIl'iI hc'"
!!II/Iijl' 1101" acts recorded vaunt superhuman quulities Vl' diHl'ltly hlilwr
hU1t1l1l1 power. On the earlicst known relics-the llian 111()nllllll'IlI.~1 "",,
!Iwil VC'rLicn1, one squat oblol g stelel-w here inlaw' IIl1d I.I'X L II pp"/lI'
'
In tl)lljllllcLion, the Icing is shown 'Ll'inging Offerings n.nll SlIpl'l'visill/.: 1111'
ilifd~jllU (JI' eult objects while the as yct 1111 tmw;lutable ins.....ip!ioll J "'01 j
or
t 1\ 1('S Lhe number and nature the gifts. It is, in l'9.cl., 1l(lIlIOn', Il(
I hlln n, pictorial donation contract mcan t f'or ll. d i villl: I'c('i piloJl L.
''''' Itll ve one more or lcss legible I'elieC of' slightly laLer drtL<:2 whi<:h
JrftWII t II(' king, generally refeTrcd to as the 'pcrSUlHtgc ItllX f11.tllllCS',
I fi(llillIl'y figure touching with onc hand thc cnL"U/H:C ul' Lhe ,,,,"plc' 01'
i1t'll'toll; Lhe Lext, ~I. J'air')y ela'Lorat<.: dOllnLiOIl l'unLrud, LbiH lillll'
!DIll"" III,' b~tekgJ'(Hl11d oJ the seen!', Hilt the- firsL 11 II) III II Ilt'll I, wil h H
!r:'1 1I,1"ldllg's nil me- is not il. stele, iL is a Sljllarl' SLellll: pllt'lll(' wil h II 111111
l!l 'Ill "1·"1,',, similar Lo Anu "oll/{idy conLl'l)q>OI'/.\Ilt'Ollfl wit It 11 r)flll.Y II 1111 I
ft!lClIl'ClIlJld HL vH.l'iouf! HiLes (PI. LVI), t)()IJI(' of Lltn~l: plnljll("l WI'I'I' Jl,,!"iI
hOi'! fllllllily 1Il'IU' Lhe u)Ln.I', the hol(' bcin/( used fcll' ill!'I'I'lillU 1111' 1,11111
LV, FRAGMENT OF STEATITE VASE, KH.'\ Fi\.JF. 1[[Td flf'1I uod; Lhcy ('(Ill 'l.hCI'("fot'I' llf' ('ollsidt"l'f.:d IL 1IIIlIIlilIll'IItllllilld III
(page 156) 11111 t ;1I1\(' IllIll' lL <!('(:oI'CtLivI 1 nhjl'c'l.. 'I'll(' r('pl'('S('lI!ltIIOIl iN III ,'C' 11101
ill III(' HC'IIHt.l !'llhL It 1{l'l'nLt'j' nlllllber 1)1' 11f.fIlI'l'1-i lhll'w of' l\j"
lJ'illlllHfll IIl1d his 1'II1llily /Ire giVl'I'. "'11(' I,IIW'I' IlW"'P 01' Ihl' Idll
II IIlIMI<I'l, Oil hll; hl'nd ('il h(",- Nh'lW"; hilll HlllrI)lI/.! 1111' I'llildlll
, '" \Y, 1~11I",.f 1/1~/11'!lIJ!S(//II.'r(1I1/1"'t.-//I/(/(N(I\'1 Y(jl'k, 11/10).1'1, \ l.
Ilr MIIII,I'U,lJtI"IJ!I[ll',(",HII ('/urltl,cI',I'I.11I1H.tdl.
lli
 rI II( I rl/ II \( / 1'" f /" I I I (} 11/'
.1' "
ol',~ krlll'l,· .... l'\'prl,,,,-III'j billl III H Nylllh,t1"·,,I'll.j wlii .. 11 \V/IN pll,.,
tkdil'llli'HI ril.lIl1.l; 1111' holdil\l:{ 1\ drinkillg- "lIp ill III(' l()w~'I' rq~ild. I
prvlmbly I,('ren; to a fCllSL in c()IlIlecLioll wit.h ,III' ('(lIISl'('I"td,ioll "I' till
building. T'he nrTallgement of the Jigllres is INiS IIlt'ive thall 011 1111
carlier monuments, it takes the shape of the 1;\.00(; illto lleCOUlIL 11I1t1
achieves some kind of decorative balance. We htl.vl.: Lhcl'cforc II('Il
again the picture of an act of devotion and it is only in the IlitCJ.. til
Eannatum (PI. L VIla, b) that we can speak for the first time or /I
historical monument in the sense of a pictorial reminder of an imp, ,,.1
ant secular event. The stele, however, was not erected for this purpo:,(
alone. It is a boundary stone inscribed with a contractual settlclIII'1I1
betweeen conqueror and conquered. Nor were the scenes by any m('u.II'
a mere glorification of the king and his acts. On one side (PI. L VII II)
the god Ningirsu sanctions, or rather wins, the victory. He has callglll
the enemy in his net, a symbol of the absolute power of the god, tile
absolute helplessness of his victims. On the obverse we see the king, 1I
primus inter pares, leading the solid phalanx of his troops with til"
enemy underfoot. The lasting significance of Eannatum's victory 11m,
therefore been expressed in a manner which not only differs from 11U'
Egyptian way of timeless abstraction-for it takes actuality illl ..
account-but also from monumental artin the pregnant sense (pp. ~l rr
above). For there is no correlation, within the scope of a single SC('II",
between the actuality of the depicted battle and its transcendent sigllili
cance; both aspects of the event are pictured on different sides of the'
stele. The paradox of monumentality has thus not been solved artist i
cally and yet it must be admitted that the definite relation which cxi ... ' ..
between the conceptual content of the separate sides may well ha""
influenced in a subtle way the rendering of the battle scene. For it iI,
striking that-apart from the king's wielding a spear-there arc II"
signs of actual fighting here and the undramatic stolid invincibility "I'
Eannatums' phalanx, merely executing a divine decision, does in a WII Y
express the irresistible quality of a god-given victory.
This most remarkable historical monument remains so far an islt
lated phenomenon in early Sumerian art apart from a few douhlr,d
fragments found at Khafaje 1 and is significantly the last one known 1"'1"
which a free standing stele was used. Until the dynasty of Akkad tIll
perforated plaques which held the standards of the gods were COIllIll(tl'.
the only other scenic representations known to us being on thc so-calli" I
standard of Ur (PI. LVIII)2 and remnants of simillll' objects f()Lllld III
1 H. Frankfort, Sculpture of the Third Millen-nimn /J.C', fmm 7'ell A,~/IIlIr 1111"
Khajaje (Chicago, 1939), Pls. 1] 0 C.; 11.3.
2 C. L. "VooUcy, 1'he Royal Cemetery (London :lilt! I'hilltdf'iplllil, ]l):.!'l,). 1'111, III.
92,93.
lfiH
/II 1<(/1/ 1/1/111/'11/'
l~iGh hlld 1\'1'11'1.' W" do lI,,1 kll'l\\, f "Wily willI! IlwH" ",1 II lIt1fll'dill l'1'lIgdf
!/Jrf't d'orl wil" si\('ll 111111 1'~l'iH 11l~,II" 11l11l,yN, WI'I'(' IISI't! I'ClI'. .IIltlj.(lltg
f'l01l1 'IH' 1"11'1, l.Iml, (,Ill' io,l'('lIl'l4 1'1:1'1'" I" Will' II lid I." HtJllIC resl j v,' c"''''
jj, nt 11111 huL LIH~t Lhey till liCIt ('UJltll.ill lilly ('pIlI,I"I,I'I, h{'I,W("'lI vid(ll' /Il1t1
111'1 II i~,l\('d, iL SCul11S musL !,rolmw!l; L1mL tlll'y W( 'IT voti VI' ('11111 II 11'11111"/1
llllllli Ill' V iCL<H'y fol' cerClllon in,1 lise or c1ed iCllt~d lo It LI 'III J.II'. 'I'll,,)
\~ 1I111t1 t IWII huve a curiuw.dy umhigllous function, ncitlwl' qlliLl' 111"1111
1111111,,1 nor IIIcrely dcvout; and it 'is rcmarknl>le that this HlllhiAllit
,c IIIH HOOlChow reflccted in the style of the rcprcse)ltalioll. This In,t,l,
UH_ IlIlphnLie challenge of the stele as well as the almo!';t bllSilll'ss lik.'
ll •.,tl'l\('lioll of the consecratory plaques. It lucks, in fact, allullity 'II'
'1" II1 ' I ,,,lion. The rectangular surface of the broad trolleated l'yl'lIll1id
lilt" IllTII divideu into parallel registers, a simplc and ruthcr III1Th:lII i"llI
llli'III{~. III the top register, the king, slightly largcr than t.1w i,\IIO'I'
11~1Il'(~1l lind placed in the centre, gives some cohercncc to 1.111' W'''lp.
Jo,1/4I'whcrc it would be rash to speak of scenes at all, especia.lly (11'1111111,'
1"III'lli in the smooth sequence of soldiers, chariots, alit! (·I~pl.iv'·11 Ih,·
11II IIIJ1hcrnalia of battle are given, the pattern of war, not itflllC'llIlIlil r'
)11 lilt' obverse we Hnd a similar display of booty and whal. is p.. 11I,"111 y
I I (.liRious celebration of victory. As a commemoration 01' jL{'lllllll'v('1I1
II IlIlhcrcfore hybrid in character and the simple method III' ('11111111'1'11
t lilli, Ihough it fits the decorative scheme, is artistically ,1"(11,111''' 1·I,ildll.h
1'1,,' 1Ililin value of this 'Kleinkunst' lies in the de1icaey 1)1' WIlI'I, '"I1l1
!a'Ji especially the prisoncrs of the Mari inlays are intcmlf'lv nliv.,
IIlIL ('ompared with the Eannatum stele it is insignifictLut.
The inlays, though in a class by themselves, are stylistically 111'1, l'li I'
II moved from the rough stone plaques we mentioned bel'ul'c HlId whh-h
II pre'sent the most frequent and rather dii:imal cHorts at ~ccn ie I'wlIl p
1111'1' in Early Dynastic art. The use of' some of these: plaqlle s is kllllWII
(I" 1l'i7). We were certainly justified in calling the pln'fl lII ' of' Unw,lIsh.,
IIlolllllncntal in the commcmorative scnsc but the Lel'lll Hllty HI)t /It',''"
Wllrmlllcd in the casc of some of thc enrliel" eX:l.Il1p]l'S wlli/'Il /II',· lllll'"y­
1I10Wl n.nd rcpresent simple scenes of worship 0" ('ddmd iOIl. V('1. IIt('SI
WI1IIId remain iuexplieahle as It type 01' tcmple lIlt'lIsil'j \Ild\''lM 1\1
11I"\III1C Lhat they also hlid II eUlIlrtlf:lllomtivc illlcHLioll. IllIIIH,ly. Ihlll
III' rllllling explicitly 01' impli('illy, dc'vollt nd,s JH'rf<tl"nlt·d hy flin,~11
Iwopll'. Not ollly do wr hlwc [l, slI(fieicnt nUlllbl:l' 01' pll~l{lle'li III wlale'll
llalli illtention hns b(;pn nl/\,(ll' quite ('!(ou,r,· hill, 1.1H' 1'('1'111 111'111\' 1,11111\
1III'Ilt is ,'('v{',din!! (l11d dve/; Lhe dllc Lo Lheir '11ll'linin!!: ii, iii II II II in III 1111
'H Lllllllfloll. J~t1'r/ll'/lli(1Il8 1/1 i\i,vh. I, (I'lIrlH, 111::-1.),1'111. xx'\. VI, X"" VII
'1,111 '\. VI (111111'1) 1'1" 111~ rr.
I II, t"flllll, fo' I. IIII'. /'it .. PI" "ll \,H: 1t/1I1I, JIIMr 8r'''III''I'r /lJ 1111' lIi!llllll U'JJItI'i.
Ifill
 1/111\' fill/II \

('ur'1l1 01' lL dOlltd Il'" ('111111'''1'1, I ht, IIIHIIIII~ I" ttll

"I" WlilIl dl'l'" d""1
ll'!I'
Y which I1l'cll\liOIl ill c'Hlahlj~IH\d 1'l'LWl'I'11 1111111 Illlcl /(I.d. 'J'hifl typl' III
pictorial CQIllIIICJ1101'i\,l,j01i is Lhl.:n.f"ol'u sl,111 1'/11" kl' l'('lllov('d 1"'11111 11",
concept of a dramatic challenge than the RL:tndal·ds. The blund, tdlll,,~1
businesslike assertion that an offering ha,d hern triode, It feast IWI II
celebrated (or the costs of either defrayed) did (;f'f'Lninly Ilot 1"'0\ I
particularly inspiring to Sumerian artists. The recol'ding 01' ;)cl,:-l ("
devotion does not, in fact, entail the complexities of'monumcJI'tnlll,'1
the tension. between actuality and transcendent significance. 1<'111' till
importance of even the most trivial acts-such as the work or t 1"
stone-cutters on the Blau monument-is self-evident as soon ns I.hl'\
are acts performed in honour of the god; while conversely, since 1.I1l'.'
are single acts of single persons they imply a self-evident kind "I
actuality. It is very striking that, once commemorative art losl's II
challenging and paradoxical character, artistic inventiveness app' 'II r',
to wither. Admittedly, Sumerian artists suffered under a serious hallC II
cap; stone was extremely scarce and mud brick architecturc offers Jlt I
vast walls which could tempt them to more adventurous undertakillW.
But the scheme itself lacked imaginative scope, and this, more 1I till I
paucity of material, may have contributed to the fact that this Ill'l
bogged down in a display of smugly devout little figures engaged ill
stereotyped acts offeasting. Even the attempt to introduce a little Jiv\'
liness in the lower registers remains purely haphazard and unintegratn I
As regards the rendering of space, the plaques show neither dal'illj'
nor originality. The artist of the Eannatum stele, for once supt'rl,ly
indifferent to the decorative claim of a balanced design on a flat SUl'rat'C',
made his figures move in one direction and boldly doubled the fll\V
of his soldiers' heads to make their phalanx appear more solid, III
thus produced with primitive means almost an effect of recessioll III
depth. Nothing of the kind was ever done on the plaques. The gcsl.tll'('
of the figures, usually arranged antithetically, are often quite liv<'l~
and so organic that the space separating them has the characl,er 01
dynamic space. Moreover, the rather inarticulate drawing and m(ltl,'1
ling makes their nonfunctional rendering less obtrusive than j II I h.
Egyptian canon of the human figure, and the result is that occat;iollfllh
the void surrounding them seems less a 'problematic' than a HilrroW
stage space. But even this cannot relieve the dullness of these hybrid
temple decorations.
It is interesting to note that both the lack or irnagilln:Livo Jllloi
emotional depth which these plaques reveal, and their Ilcvou t i n:ii~ 1"111'1
on a personal link with the god, are revealcrl in IL diffc."cnt wn.y ill 11'1
development of the contemporary sculpLurl' ill the I'OlIod. J 1t'1'(' \\'\
00
z
 III /,;,,1'/) I}) 1/l1,(i/~ JI /1111111111 lit,
11l1llHilIII C'OIl('C "lillll III' lIlt ICf"IIWI 111'1 WI'. II J.!IUlll'ltl Will
1linpcl" '1 'h.' I'urlil's\. urcllJP Ol'slll'III" 1'1I1111d III 'l'c,11 i\~.III11,·(PI, 1,1,\\1
Oill"IllI'd t.WO c'\llL sllllnnl diffl'n'lIt, ill Hi'l.I' J','Olll IIii' \II I II 'I'll IIl1d di
dlllllli.. llI'c1 hy till' enOl'nlUllS Hi>'.c of t Iw ('yell, whic'lI (c'spl'c'inlly ill IIII'
111'1111' Illll!t- god) ~:tvc the ('()J'lIltdiz;cd hClld It w('i,'d hill. nlflsL ('1111
IlIt~illU 1l1lptrhllntH.1l ellarl1eLcr. W.iLh lIll'Sc' cllit sLid,ues was fOlllld
j 111111111('1' of' figul't's representing wOI'shippcrs, nlso l'ol'ltHtli:l.l·d ytl
[jllllgl'(y indivirluf\.l, an almost pathetically motlt:y crowd which 111111'1
!I lillI' I illlc: have been set up in the cella of the smull temple. Therc i
'Oli,,! plll'Blld known outside Mesopotamia for a temple at'I'llllgclIl('lIl. iI'
Ili('" III(' ligures of single persons were thus brought ill J'(llal icm Lcl I h,'
,'ul',1I'piphnny and naively, trustingly, exposed to his unel1l1ny st II 1"'.
I 1h('n' need be HO irreverence in this m:rangcment, unci in 111.,,;<'
Illy ,,1"'Lucs awareness of thc god's presence has beclI ullJnisLld\ILbl
PII~"SI'd, above all in the figure of the priest, who,~c hcad 1'('('111
Hffcd ill awe, almost in ecstasy (PI. LX). GraduaJly, however, LlIl' v,,"
tCIIHllI1l implied in this confrontation may well have s/ackell('dj ii, HC'C'IlI'
tltlll Ily Hnd by all effort was concentrated on the rendering- or Hillul\
pOi HI:IS w,hose singleness was insignifie~nt in itself. The wi/olh I.n lIpl"""'
In dllgy III the god's temple may ultlmately havc lacked till' d"pl"

,,' 11,1 iUiolls awareness which ga.ve to the earl ier CHIC'S Ihl:i I' 1'111 Ill'"
lwltwlll'd but moving dignity. It is a fact that solitary JI;gypl ill II 1IlIIlil
I;/Il1Ic's hardly ever lose the true monumentality irnpli('i I. in Il ('01111'11',1
Ii, IWI'l'n harsh immobile body and lively individual hend, Tlll'n' i h 1111
IIl'h 1'111\ lrast in the Sumerian oncs, for these are cither q II iI.e J'OI'IIII1Ii'l,I'd
'-" 11Illuuln.rly concrete: posture and gesture is in this cllse !t-/oIS f'ol/IlL-lil,I',
j hi' 1'1I('t' ll.tleast in the better ones morc expressive; hutlhis ex p I'I'/olsi 011
if /f'IrUilous awc is absent, may hover betwecn scrcne plllcidiLy alld II
',h lid sl1lugncss hardly rivalled elsewherc ill ancicnt art..
W., slill have to deal with the glyptic of thc period whic'h ('I)I\I,l'md
11l11l'IHil\~ly with the poor quality 01' the plaques, 1'01' 1111' Sl'liI clt-Higll;
It I' , iUOl'(HIS and bcautiful. Thcre is 110 doubt I hat til is is IHI'/,Wly dill' 10

lilt 1'11(" I.hut the selll cutters discovercd in the IlIOt.il' or llal' liI'l'll Huh
.!lllllg willi hcn::;ls-whieh firsL o.ppcul'cd on the se'nlpl '"'l' of' I hI' p""
I dlllg.JC'llldctNf\,sr jJcl,jud olle ol'cxtl'll.ol'(linn,ry liv('lill('s~ IIl1d d I'll III
II jp 1'111'('.'. yl'L olle which f'olJlc1 1'111111 1.0 pnf'cc,tioll !.Ill' tI(','()I'11I ivt· (,1'11111
"II h., ('ylillcl"I' fric>'.c.Fmllkf'orl, has fl,lIl1lyl',I'd ill g'I','al dl'lllill Ill' ilIUl'11I1
Iy willi wllic'lI Lite possibiliti('s or I.his I1lOlil' W('I'(' C'xploilt'c1. 'l'lll' 1I10MI
111111'111(' pl\Ltel'lls were pl'Odlll'l'd (PI. LXIII.) in whic'" ~ollll'ljllll'lI 1111
nllll'uc'd IIl1lilh('lil'lll group, NlIll<'Ii,"cS n, ('OIlliIlIIOWI f'I'i(,~I'. N,dvc'd III"
I'llIhl"1I1 of II billlll'I'f1llllov('1l11'111. 1"!'llIlkfo"', c'lIllt-clllli/1 "Iyl,' 'i'"I1Uillll­
'//,;11.,1'1, I ~7:1'IH,H:': Ill.
Illl I,A,M.
 -~-~·-""-'lI-·-,-,.r--P"""""""~1 TJ

11\ ( , II lid II... f IT II I j" ('C'! I /I il dy jlll>llllt'd 1I"l '('g'III'.I" dC'I'ol'lIl, v.~i Ii \"'IIII1'~
IH'SSj 1./1(' I'llly dillll~l'I' iN Ihll,1, il. Illjl~hl, 1111.1\1' 1Ii'l 1%11 Hi/fill of' 1111 "1'_;'
t1J1tl in SWill,; ref/pl'cls t1lis Lype or ill/.ft'lIuILy ('Vlllpll'lely f"llul"III'ii
imagilltttjon, Fot tJll.: motif l1lu;,l. btLVC 11Itli lit 011(; Li'lll' u, <!l'llrlll.
mythical significancc anJ jt has jll its cn"'jf'r {'I)I'nl It st.irring VI/{tlill
reduced to a mere pattern it is apt to ]ost.: bOlh. What we Nllld I"
connection with the heraldic use of organic 1'01'1'11 is even morc vnl j, III, " II}\ PTE ft III
A tense situation rendered in this manner becollles Ul.1 arrnngc'lwld "I
figures transfixed in violent postures which arc determined noL 1" "
11
arily by the action itself but by decorative considerations, 1'11"': 1111 t and :F1l'lfilrncnt of UIVIII('
temporal aspects of the action and its correlate of scenic spa('I' 'II'
robbed of their truly dramatic character, These heroes have ill II,,'
tHllttli.lncl as 'I'hemes of the Akl<acliaJl
become a mere sport for playful designers, ilncl Early Babylonian Period

. Haid before that Mcsopotamian art is apt to sprill~ 1'1111'

priscs on those who look for coherent deve!o]"llllf'IlI" II
realest surprisc is undoubtedly a monument crect,cd f,y lilt,
II dli1 I iliff (,I' the dynasty of Akkad, Here the break in tl'I'c1 i Iillll i
I !llflll.l'd tl1(lt. one i::; tempted to link it with the coming inl'i I'"W""

Ii (I lIar"I'c'nL ethnic group (speaking a Semitic language), whi,") I'lld

rill' !CIIIg' ('o-(~xistcd with and was ::;ubmcrged by Sumcriull ('i viii/uri 11111
iiiCI HillY hnve made itself felt for the Jil'st time.! Although hi.'illllll'ld
[,II 111'1' iN not conclusive on this point, the possibility 11('('11 11,,1 111 1

!Uihllrll·d that the abrupt change in style, rcprescntfltton,,) I'll'" ('/I (

!lEI n ' l'lI fllUcLion of the monument in quc::;tion mighL 1mdly lit
;C' lIlIlIIt'd 1'01' in this way, The stele of Narl1msill (PI. LXI L) is '(,II" (I,d
[}lIlplt'l I' 011(' known in Mcsopouunia in which a historic c;v('III, 1111,
UCUI Il'pJ'('sCIILccl dramatically in terms of human achi<,;v<,;lllcllt "h,lle,
i UhJ I I UlI'I'j ng one of latC'l' date, the on ly one whif'h is Hot flU bscrvieJl L 1.1
II' ,1111'11 HItLtcmCllt of any killd, for thc presellL inSNirtion is (\ lu.ll,;1'
:1./1111111, 1':v('1\ if it wcre us(;d as H lJuundary stone t.he ITI'J'('!4(llltn,1 il1ll
II' 11ll1Ji('icnL; the challenging statemcnt oftbe.: king-'s OVl.:l'lvh,')r1l
1111' pll\\'l'l' wns expressed cnLi,'("y in terms of lLrt, lind Lht' fl1('1, tim!. in
ill "0111"'('111, Sf'('lle bot/) the Hctll1diLy Ll,lld t.he l.I'ltIlS('(IIH!t-,d HIWIiIl
'ill'l 111'111(' vic'!.ory Wll!4 stl'l:ssl.:d jUHlifics oUt' lI~C of I hl' 1('1'111 JliOIlIl'
1111 1I1,d 1ll'I ill the pl'l'g-lIll11t sense rur the firsL nud I.h" Illst 1illl!' ill
I rll~' 101111111 hiNI.rll'y,
11,1111'(' W(' 1I1wlyi',c I.h,' NlI1'lIllHill HL(·I<: We WHII!. t'j c'(lJIsidl'l' till/II
l'rtIH"1l1IltI, 01' fL J'()t1ghly ('f,"('-shulH'd 011('which 1,('l1rs t.J1I' 1111'111' 11
!Iijllll, Nil "II II Il'li 1I'!'l pl'('d'\I'I'S~l)J', Hilt! whic'h ill 111<)1'\' WIlYIl 1111111 11Ii('
I 'Il\lllldl" ,'I\('nhS"II, III ,1011111111 oj Ihl' illl/rll('1I1I 0"1'11(0/ 8(J(','/'ly. 1,1 \. (lUlIU),
., I·
'" Illll
 7. / /'/111 ('/1//111/(///1/

h('I,tddil lltt' (·111111/4'(' IIlld ('1111 IIl'rig-IIlly (-011"1111'11,11 II Ililill~ilitlll h(,I\\lllI

SllIncrinll and 1\ klmd ill II wmk. 1 'I'hey III'" rrllgll 1('11 f ~ or II. 11Idl!l' :,t'l ".
arranged in rf'gi~tcrs; the pr'occssilJlI of pl'iiol l ll1("'H 1\11(\ lht' kill/{ III III.
head of his soldiers rcscrnulcs thc motif of tlte i'llll1<!III,d bu/. 1,11(' Itlllid
to-hand fighting has remarkable actuality, lIugely th/'ough LJI(' sl 1'/1111"
and varied postures of the enemies. A pceulim'!y COJl('r(:to 1,1.\ ... 11 "I
horror has been added to the vulture scene by clogs joining ill I h, II
gruesome feast. The most significant change of all, howevcr, we' (jlld ""
the fragment which repeats the motif of the E::rnnaLurll stl<"': 1111
enemy is caught in a net, but here we may conc1udc-altho'lgll 1111
scene is badly damaged-that it was not the god who held II ... III I
but the king himself. The figure facing the king was, apparently, II gllli
and to him it was that the spoil was dedicated. The victory th('11 \\ II
sanctioned, not won, by the god. 2
The actuality of the scene on the Naramsin stele is not only dll" I,·
lively action and an absence of divine interference, but is rUlI(.,I, • I'
hanced by the setting of the event. The topography, though Pll It h
formalized, has convincingly concrete details, and both it and II"
incidents of the battle hold a subtle balance between the dCl;l)r:1 t 1\\
and the dramatic. The roughly triangular grouping, for instance, l'il:, I)"
shape of the stone, but it also underlines the climax of the actiul \: Illld
the upward surge of the conquerors is balanced by the falJing 1111,1
collapsing figures, halted by the rigidity of the four doomed S\Il'V i V',I
on the right. The smooth cone of the mountain top, rising well ,tI'''1 I

the impressive figure of the king, does not dwarf him in any wfty 1"11
seems to emphasize his human stature and at the same time c!wcl, II"
impetuosity of his stride. For the king's posture epitomizes the 1111/1 I
ment of the soldiers, yet he appears almost immobile at the mon}I'II! "I
his triumph, holding the enemy transfixed with fear, and though III
towering figure has a symbolical quality, the spatial relation bcl.w\'\ "
him and his prospective victims has been made more concrete hy 11\,­
tilting of their head at different angles, the lower ones looking i'H'/"'11
ingly upwards. The king is thus not only the symbolical and dcC'oml' I II
but also the actual dramatic centre of the whole composition 11.lId t Ii'
empty surface surrounding him emphasizes his spatial isolatioll. '1'111
aloofness is enhanced, not minimized by the divine symbols at tilt' ,. 'I'
of the stele. This victory, blessed by the heavenly powers, \VII" "
solitary achievement.
We have no other monuments from this period wllich CVCJlltPI~I'WII It
1 Revue d'Assyriologie, XXI (1924), 65 sqq.

• A. Spyckert in Revue d'Assyriologie, XL (11H5 \'(1) wllntll to l<l('lllll~' 'til. LX. "iii 1'::--:'1', 'I'I':J.I. ,\S~I \II
figure with the net on the Eannatum !'ltcle with tIl(' killl{ (JII thu hflllill of Ul(' H'IIUi,"
fragment. This meanti to ignore all textual ulJd plctoJ'lll1 ('vlll"IIl'!:. (jNlgt' 1 Ii I)
] (J I,
 L
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:.. z

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t.;.l ~
{fj .-; ~ '1;
~ -.: :c
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,....., t.;.l
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'- <l.;
< %
(fJ
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0, -::
Z ~
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 I 'ltr /II,', (~f' III /'/'(/f{/(fll (/f!d l r'I/1'1I Ho/n'/em/ffl/ 1'1/ /1Ir!
ijlf 11li/(illlllll,y flll,l tI/lring' pi' III,' ill !lil'ie, II", 1'\tIIIlIIt'''II!l'/,II~I'
N,li'llll, ..

iJlllq 11,''1 dhmpPl:lIl' III ~ngl'l,hj'/' II 11t1 w,' dll nut. kllow wl"d,- j l' jill
1~l1ipl,' •l"l'lJl'Il, I 11111 1'11I\k 1.11(':1/' p"WI', Thf" ~IYfiti('. 01\ Lilt' ollwl' IlIIlId,'
IHIIVII 1111 1'I[1II111y 1'(\111:11'1<1\,1)1(: hteuk wi~h Lite SUOll'rintl tmtlil iOll,
II "1"1111' dcIilll~ra.tcly to illVvC n,wlly froll1 forr)l/t1 dcsig-n. (\.111L It pl'/'
1!11,,/p/~Lion with riLw.d acts Ol' fcasting. First of' ~dl, the j)nttf'r11 (11' 111'1'(,
11111 bllll.mlln Jighting bca.sts ('pl::;. Vb, LXlb) loscsi ts in tJ'i('/II'Y; IiiI'
)1I1phllSis i~ now on the articula.tion of wcll-spaced JlgUl'CS pcr1'(ll'lllln
\\~'11 ddlJled act~. The result is by no means successful, for th~' 1111" ii'
i. llilnll its decorative charadeI' and therefore does not lend itself t(ll~
II Itlly dramatic scene; too great a stress on the concretcnc/'.is of t.Il1.~

11"llI'I'S impnirs their character of a heraldic pattern, while '1.11., ,,('nl,

jill it.hetica.l grouping is a dramatic absurdity.
More important is the fact that we find a completely ncw type' III VI'I'
II vl'ly religious scenes. The world of man and his historic deeds whi.·h ill
I lie Nl\rfl.msin stele appears, if not divorced from, at any rate lin 1IH11-f"1'
d"!,l'ndent on, the acts of the gods, finds in the seal designs a tlllllllt"
1lIII't in an equally self-contained world of acting divine beingii: WI- lIlId
1,,1' Lhc fm;t time in history the dramatic rendering of rnytlJ. His it'P1I1
"/II that these mythical scenes should, as far as we know, hav\) 1/l"'11 Pili
'/lI'ved into the cramped and awkward surface of a cylilldITIi"/I1 wil('l ,
Ihey were, decoratively speaking, not satisfactory and wcn; I'll/III ill
"unlet!. Yet their appearance is highly significant, for Ih,; d.."IIIIlIIll
It;JII"('sentation of myth is the reverse of secular mOnUtlICII'tll1iL~', I'
1"l'SSCS the supreme importance of acts and events, not ill n,t'tI!'!' 'll
II'HC'I1C them from oblivion, but in order to emphasize their fl,l"tllltlH
tlu·il· present importance, although they arc beyond rccall in t01'111S nl'
I illlc. The tiny cylinder surface did not give the artists much fiCOp,· I'or
(·(·nie display except in a kind of shorthand rendcring. Yet till; /'ll'l'IIf'S
II'e lively and discursive; the scant topogJ':1phi,c:d illflif'll.tloI1S, l'WIl
Ullle divine attributes, give unmistakable ac:tuality. Tllu dmglJlI, I'(\/,

IIlSIIlI1CC, pulling the weather god's chariot (1'1. l...XUIH) is IL I Illl" I

"()Ilvincing creature and there is no doubt, even. ill till': l'UNl' of tll(' SIIII
110/1 t.'s voyagc, that the spectator is watchi ug n, d nun/LI i(· (,vl'1l1, IIIlL II
l'III1/{lol1'lcration of symbols. Both secular and IllyLhiml 1I101l1l1llC IIt,,1
II", I hough they are Wl'lrlfls apoTt, have llsuolly as Lh.('il' 1'Hl h}'(ll Illld 11'1'
\'illiellt I1ction, but the reJution between ..Ii:'),n and gud C'lI,1I ill Ihlll: ,'/I'l'

piny no part ill either. It i~ t.rlle thaL (),·cll.sionally IL h'"IIII" fiEf II I'
IIrrl'l'illA' or sLanding IWIll' lJ,Il :tlt.ul' lIanks n mylJ1PllJgind fl\'~'III' IlIlL II"",
H,1I0 c'olllH'dion hcLwCl~1l thl' divine rtlld 1,)1.1' 11111111ln plll.lll'.
TIIIH dVCR lwt lIWnll, howevI"', Lim!' L1ll' old prlll>ll'lli 01' 111l'i,' lllllllllil
I II, FrlllJld'ul'l, ('/llilld{',' ,<"l'ol,q, II!" 70 lJ I.
1.:\11/1\. WI':,\'I""':I( (:011 IN JlIN t'II,\Hfll'I' (ji'I/.:',' II:.'J) III!
I.Xllllt. '1'''\':NI':~'I'I\'I'lni\' Nf'I':i\\';' (jlfl/{f' leln
I,XIII(', 1'11':,\1, / 1 ";1>1\',\'1'/':11 'f',) 11'11'1' \1( (Iirl...:,' fOn)
 111 "",/1 ,,1 'j'I/ I 1//1 ' oj
, 1//1 fI,{, 'I"II //1 {(fill /,'(11/). 1
1:111,,/1
,
1111 1// I',
II~BIIIIII'I"l it. i'l
..1'111111 111,,111 II WU'i C'I"
i rc,l y Igll on'd ; 1111 11H' I'Pll ll'ltI Y II Tlll t!
j'tlll ll!'d Ih., /'III 1')1 I I IInl llW 1:,"1 '111\ \1\1'
01' yd (\,1101.111'1' typ l' pI'
S('l'IW, I.hl~ N"-l 'ulI" cI pl'I' f;\'tl
hillg ' 1,1 \\'1141111 1II1I 1I1Ig I' 11'1
1'\'11"
pl. J.\. llld ). III his tlll'll ClltI"lI, 1'11'11
l" I iOtl CII' 11l1"1 II I 11'11 Iht' 1,,,1\,,, 01' LlIg'lIsh (wh lllld lllil
scen cs whieh Il1nkc thei r lIl's\' LLJlP lt't1 1
(·o.l' l\.II(' (' 1I0W 1I11c1 :-.<)11
11 gnil l in pll(llllll lhl! l\lid It sl(' k IIl1ldr wil li \L
rity (PI. LX lllb ). III thes e SCCIICS, IPl'l 'ilCl IIIL lil)ll ' sn'l w),
pilI, liP l\
however, nllll.l'lillll is I\,voldl't1, 111111 mlllll"'I' 111)(1 Vlu'icLy nr his own HI'I'I LI
and god mee t face to f{Lce. The ' clJ\rri('s 1I,lId hl\'111,h<;lll i'IS( 'l'i1w d
late r tim es is apt to mak e one
COnln\(1n OCellrJ'l'lll'C 01' 1.111' lllt'lI
11 III
""'l_' whlc'h illsiRLs 011 his (lWn idel ltity Hlld wil II
nil his nWI·iLs LnwlIl'd
forg et how star tlin g fllld origitlld ,-,II" wil h wC/l.l'ying rrllpllllsis. One 1.111'
whe n seen aga inst the foil of ear II I I of lhe very rew rclil~rs or Llw prri
ly Sum cria n art,. lIor c is nl) rit 'HIl I 1111 II Hlonc bas in (ld
liN L whi eh sho ws the
to hyp hen ate the hum an and ultc rnu te iigul'es or lL rail l-go d 01'
the sup erh um an sph erc s,lI ol It
i "g I"
,t. 1111111 lind a fert jijty -go d bot h pou rillg
det rac t from the star k con fron out the bles sing of wil,I.,'r 1'411
tati on of inco mpa t.ib les, CXl'l'pl 11'1 ,It'd in It reig n whi
pre sen ce in mo st case s of a div ine ,II. ch su'ffered from tcrr ible dro ugh
or sem i-di vine inte rccs sor willi 11,,10 WI' do, how eve r, pos sess one rem ark abl t.
the han d of the mo rtal . The imm 1 e stel e of Urn an, mil, Icing oi"
obi lity of the scen e, thc Shriillli I II, \\'IMh, tho ugh it diff ers com
atti tud e of the hum an figu re, has ll" plet ely in styl e and intc ntio n rr/ll
, in the earl ier exa mpl es, a drnl I, It. of Nar {lm sin, rese mbl es ll 1.111'
fina lity (eas ily lost in a mec han ical illo! i, it in one resp ect: it is a com m cfl1(
rep etit ion of the thcm c) whi t'h i... 1I11 11l\I Il1cn t pur e and sim )l'lLI,ivl'
opp osit e of the trus ting and com 1111 ple, not a bou nda ry ston e or lega
plac ent rev eren ce in Sum erir lll (1'1, LX IV) . It doe s not , how eve l duc unw lIl

ous art. Som etim es the inte rces \"t'll,..1 r, ren der a roy al vic tory but onl
sor, as a com fort ing link betwt'L'1 '1II1d wor ks of the kin g in y IIII'

I 1111111
hon our of the god . Thc com pos
and div init y, alto get her repl ace
s the hum an figu re. (We pict1ll'/ '1'1 lie' is form al, the ston e has bee itio ll or 111l~

scen e (PI. LX IIlc ) in whi ch a seal 1111' n div ided into reg iste rs whi ch 1'0111
cut ter (acc ord ing to the insc ripl I'" O\I{' side ritu al acts and 11111
ded icat ed a spe cim an of his cra illll) on the obv erse fest ive cele brat ioll
ft to the god des s Ish tar, ) Hrl 'l' 'Ill firs l is- as far as we can jud s. Adt kd \ It
ado ran t hid es his ide ntit y beh I h· ge from tan tali zin g fragmc11ls
ind the inte rces sor, who , as if 1,IIH"Tlc and live ly pic ture of I\, VI'"
to mee t the god des s's pre sen ce 11111 11,1,
bui ldin g acti viti es, and it is siHI
from nea r-by and face to j'l\,h 111111 ill lhis scen e alon e the ,ifll'l Il1\

sep ara ted by Ish tar sho wn in fron ', 1 rigi d div isio n into par alle l stri ps
t view by a bla nk spa ce. 11l1I00'cd: a diag ona l lad der Illl'l IU,t 'l\
The con cep tion of ado rati on sce link ed the sec ond and thir d J'('g
nes -tho ugh thes e cou ld lw 111111 11111Sl hav e giv en this isll'l ' IIl1d
sec tion mo re coh eren ce. Thc top
wer e red uce d to a mer e formul
a~i ffe rs from the Sum eria 111\I1I~h bad ly dam age d, is ver y rem ark abl or lilt' ",,,,I t
pat ion wit h reli giou s acts , in tha n pn'tH'I'1I e ind ecd . JUlI~illg 1'.-.1111 II,.
t, par ado xica lly, it is bot h less 1,IIVt'rSe the gro up of the kin g faci
and less con cret e. The ulti mat e f"rllllli ng the god was mat che d by a Silll
reac tion betw een man and god :'lLl lll'n ngc men t on the left , and this 'lllIl
of all ritu al trap pin gs is her e rem 'ippt'd rath er mec han ical duplico,Lioll WIn
ove d from the sph ere of hum an 111\1 I he roy al figu re enti rely of the d.!
red uce d to a mer e awa rene ss. Rel 1Ll'I ,i"II, dra mat ic effe ct whi ch iL hits ""W
igio us ima ger y, tho ugh enr ichr Oil I he oth er han d, thes e con ,
myt hol ogi cal scen es, was ther efo d ,'\ fron tati ons cro wni ng a l'cC'tml
re at the sam e tim e poo rer in nlOl dl'l' ds hav e a sign ific anc e whi ch ul' /.{IIII II
and it is sign ific ant tha t a new il .., sim ilar one s on seal dcsi gN: luck
inte rest can be not iced now in 11'\' h('r c the sum min g-u ; 1111'
sec ular hum an acti viti es; we find plll '!'" p of a lifc 's wor k in the serv ice l
for the firs t tim e 'gen rc', Jlall,,·I,\ 01' tile gpd !lllt
I \lis f.(ives the m the cha rac ter
pas tora l and hun ting scen es and of a mo men tou s c1irno.x. ('11I,lIrrl
eve n an exp edit ion into the IIIt11 W in hum an ach iev eme nt and dee J,fin/ot
tain s.! We sha ll see late r tha t a 111 ilk p hum ility arc lIncly hU!tlll('C'd,
sim ilar dich oto my OCCUI'S in Ass 1I11d I he sign ific anc e of the con
art, whe re, how eve r, the sec ular y l'ill II fron tati on seem s to 1,1'lI.lIse/·11I1 I,hr
pre dom inat es. In Akk adi an g-IY II/'\' pro bab ly a liba tion -wh ich the sill' pl.·
this is rare , I"i" kin g pcrfol'rlls, As il'\,o t'lilpllllsi'l.l'
I lit, fllcL tha t the wat er of libn
We hav e now to con side r the last ,tioll is a bles sing 1't'I:t'ivl'd llfl W('I
pha se of pur ely SlIfllCl'ilLll c,j v i IIsll low ed by the kin g, the sam c II1H IH'­
'lion whi ch occ urre d afte r the dow stra nge , alm ost u. II g ,'lic, llf.{I II'l'
nfal l of the dym lsty of Akk a/I ILI\(I oN' urs on Guc lca' s bas in, onl y half w\li l'"
inte rva l of pol itic al con fusi on owi I111 visi ble nlld lksl:(,lIc1ing 1"'11111 11,11
ng to fore ign inva siol l. TIll' 1'l'II POII l'S out thc wat cr "se 0\ CO,
from the reig n of Gud ea and the
Thi rd Dyn asty of lIt- do IIIlI, l'l'v
l1l1l l
1111 iIcd by a l'cc ipro cnl l),('l
d for thl: rilu al. Thu s god nlltl
kill'~ '~JlPI'III'
a trac e of eith er mo num ent al i'lIl of bl<'ssillg, ft con c('p l of lhl' 1'1'\11
hyb ris or I'CVCl'cn{'(' for lllyl h 1 jqll IwI W\'I 'II
od Iwd mrLll whi ch is rllOI'C pro fou
eha ract eris tica liy, the old sup era 11'-'1, nd a.nd morr' dY"lu\li,. lhu n I,ll(' old
bun dul lt fa.ith in diyiJlc )1(1 wt'l":
gh thc l.;(Irl'l\.('c~ on wlti c'h llll'I lI'
1111.'11 1'lIn ll'l\c luo. l flln.Lt'mcnl.. Alt hou
of the gly ptic of this per iod ::;ho
ws sccu es of wOJ'ship hilI ill Illll II:. I)nj:t cl'. 'Ui(' Wledl'I'hcrML('
ligll l'I'
ll\ I
11\l1IJ( dell
1 II. Fran kfor t, Cylil ll(CT Srlll,y, pp, W/lih!J(,{·k\'I\M (lI'M O,,(l t'IL VOII J
1:17 U, 1\ /1,111/1111 A//IiTill/i1w.1\1 u-.:r/,.r; Nt'//r ,I\l.(lI MI'I\' ,
iU"r; (1lll t\llh lll, I Han), '1'.. 1'1'\ I v.
1GCi
1(17
 /1'/ (/11 (I I, '1/ U111111'111 (~I I 11/' III t 'III/II/ifill"

I~PPCI\I' ('l\lllloL lH' ('PliC'('iVt'd liS (1)(' ('1111"1','111 .It'll 1111\ 1il' Ilpl'I"', III Illi
JOnnnel' Or L1H' Nnl'nrl1sil\ sLelt· til,' dliplit'Il,II ' lll 01' t hi' "Ilyn' 11~'"1(
makes that impossihle-yet the t('lIsioli 1)('\.w\'\'11 killl! IIl1d uII,1 I" 11\1
deniable.
It is remarkable that when, after o.noL\/('r pniotl of disrllpt jllll, IIIl
country was unified undcr a Semitic ruler iu BabylvlI, the lin.. l. 1""1111
ment of the new dynasty, the famous stele of llarnnlllrn,bi (PI. I. \,
seems closer in spirit to that of Naramsin. This may oppem nil ,.I ",111 d
statement, for the tall stone which was covered hy the cJnhol'ltl (' "od ,"
cation of case law known under Hammurabi's name, CUll hlll'd'~ 111 1
called a historical monument and the scene which crowned its 1'11\''''.1('
only contained two figures. Yet the text does not-as do thc Urlllllllllill
scenes-emulate acts of devotion, but exemplary acts or jllslil'\' 11\
the king which refer to the world of man alone, and thc main diff,·... III I'
in intention between this and the Naramsin stele resides tlH,;rc fll I I III
the fact that the relation between god and man, which in tl1l' "",, i~!
was not touched upon, formed here the theme, both pictorially 111111
in the introductory part of the text. The treatment, howcver, !lilS Ihi
in common with the Akkadian work that, notwithstancling the ,·,,1 ,"I
ordinary simplicity of the scene, it has great dramatic power.• '\'1
there is no act depicted, not even the simplest ritual, to detrnet 1"'11111
the starkness of a situation in which a human being faccs his I~"d III
order that his efforts may be sanctioned and turned to lasting IlI'lldtl I
There is no reciprocity of service rendered here, but transcendent )111'" ,
and majesty on the one hand, dignified humility on the other, III, \ ,
been expressed with an economy of means and a convincingness 11l'\'1 ,
surpassed in ancient art.
With the stele of Hammurabi we have reached the last sigl1 ill"/I II I.
monument known to us in Babylonia. Nor is there much rellSQI1 "i
believe that the loss of more perishable work, such as wall painl illH"
left a serious gap in our knowledge. The frescoes found at Mn.l'i~ HilI ,n
a dull decorative scheme which reminds one of an cnlarged Hnd 1111
pression. They would, in fact, invalidate the theory that gIY]lLit· m\ I d
its inspiration to mural art. Kassite murals show an equally dull
sequence of identical figures. 3 The only remains of any illl()()I'LIIIH'I' )11'
small pottery plaques with religious motifs. These arc adrni lLt:dly 1111111

1 A. Scharff, in Wesensunterschiede Aegyplisclwr nnrl VordrTnsiali!fch

(Der Alte Orient, Band 42, Leipzig, 1943, p. ~l) poill!.'i ouL lImt Ih,' ('~'I'~ 1110
rendered in profile. This appears to be the case Ullt lIdlllllly the relit,,, iN 1'10110111
that the eyes rendered in front view are seen fOl"eshCll'kllctl, '('Il(: ('rr('t~L hi, 11II\\. \' 1
the same: it intensifies the relation betwcell tIl(' two /IA'"I·"S. I, S I\'. WI' \,~ I, I': II I,' II I( 1',,\ \I \III
2 Syria, XVIII (19:17), pr. :l2G-!j,I" PI. XXXV II :x 1.1.
• Iraq, VIII (lIH,(I) , 1:'ls.XlI·XIV. (/111/':1' I fi'i )
1U8
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Illrel bill, IId,blll'lIl1y 1,(H) IHltll' lu II(' \II' lilly llllc"(':-,f, \'\\'\'pl. III L1'I'
IudI'll!. I}l' '·I·li~ion.
'1'0 look bnck un UIl' lung hi~Lorit'ld dev('!lJ!,llll'lIL whidl W{' I."(t l " ' "
fl"'hllS Lo experiencc the f'ns('lnl1:tion of watchillg II. dinlrclj(':d ch;vclnp.
1111111.. A~ l'cgun]s glyptic, we saw Q.lr<;udy that there is It ('onflie!. in.
II, "C'lll in the very notion of a rcprescntational JCt;igll, that t.Ilis ('(," f1i(-1.
IVIII! soLved in a variety of Wt\,yt; in the l:>rotoliteratc pcriud, WaH pl'uc.:ti.
'Idly ignored in the slovenly patterns of its concluding Je.mdct "Nili'll'
"linse, most satisfactorily solved in the decorative use of the hCN-lllld.
IU'/lSllOotif in Ea.rly Dyna.stic times, while in the Akkadian peril)d til"
1"l'SS was again laid almost exclusively on dramatic scenes. The )l1(.sL
I;~tic of these, the so-called presentation scenes, were finally ~.vl()pl/·d
1'1 It classsical motif.
In representational reliefs the matter is more complex. The {'llldj·
dl'uL and joyful proximity of the human and the divine in J'e1i4illll~
1'(\lcbration which we find on the vase (PI. LI) never ocelli'S UgUi11 ill
1\1/$opotamian art. The significance of the later scenes secrn~ to (.stll­
laLe between a contractual statement of a religious nature mill I
lIlonumental-a challenging-statement concerning individual uul.:-l. III
1~ltrly Dynastic times the stress is on the former, the hybrid 'se/\IIC's' 011
dt'corative plaques predominate. The free standing stele of 'h:allllll.LIIII
(II. contract too but in a different sense) is, however, 11 t.l'uJy pict.lll'inl
1l10nument. We saw that one highly original and imag.iulttivc IIlPlir.
IUlmely, the god catching the enemies in a net, was copied by the (\l'Id,
Akkadian king, but with a shift of emphasis from the re]jgious to th
·cular. Only on the stele of Naramsin has individual hiS'tOl'i.'ld
Itchievement been given the form of monumental art, without expli\,j
reference to divine aid or devout purpose.
In the subsequent period, the Sumerian dynasty of ·01', l.hen· i.
IIgain a swing back toward the devotional, yet the stele of Urllll.J1IIl)II
OR far removed from the early plaques as from the EanJ1ut.lfIl1 sLck,
may be considered a synthesis of both, for it is a piel.Ol'iltl l'('('()I,d uf'
LXVIlA, ASSUR~AS1RPAL ATTACKI){C
historical acts performed in honoUl' of the god.
J<: N J<: I\" 1\ II ( , II I': U ~
\'
It is remarkable that in the art of the Middle find Lnl,. }\~sYl'i"lI
LXVIIB.
ASSrRNAS1Rl'AL A~D H1S AHM\' (,11()~~I:'';t: .\ HI\ 1':11 period, that is, at a considerably Ia.ter datc,itf;l. <.Ii rfCI'CIIl.I{l\(Jg'mpl til" lind
(page J 73) ('lhnie setting and within 0. different political orgnnisnLioll, I hi' p('Jld 1I
him swung toward sccul:n interest again, ill a way lI11pu1'lolkl('d in til
whole ancient Ncar East, .i~nd it is alse· )'cO)nrkld)lc 1,IIILI. wh('l'l'1I
Mcsopot.ami::l.lI A.tt Lhrou~h()ul Ilud shown liLLIe ('I}IlC~'I'n wil Ii NJlfli'('
IinlC j),cl,uulity, (Iithcr ill It posi I,iv~' or in tL ncgaLi ve Hl'nsc (cxpcpt j II
l.hcir' f'cw PlI,'e1y historic'al nwnunJcnls), this 1I0W )W('f1IIlC UI\ (lV(',··
wht'lrnin/{ pn·oc(·lIpnti(1l\.
1 (10

CHAPTER IV
Dramatic and Scenic Coherence in the'
01' Illun. In the faIence tile of Tukulti Ninul'ta we find the salll\,) god
Secular Art of the Assyrians
III It more emblematic form-a winged disk containing his feo,Chl.:l'/'.I
A
Syrian art, baffling and full of contradictions like so J'Ull('!, IllId
pertains to Assyrian culture, brings one most striking illl."\ II
tion: the commemorative reliefs of the royal palaces art: 1'111 II "
secular and narrative. To see this fact in its true perspective llJun' 111/1"
a mere sketch of historical events and cultural changes wOllld h,
needed. The shift of power to a northern centre after a pcriod in whit h
Syrian, Indo-Eurpoean, and other north-eastern influences 1'1"('''''''' d
in Mesopotamia under Kassite and Mitannian rule, presents a his!./ 11.... ,,1
problem that bristles with unanswered and perhaps unam;w('I'lIl tI.
questions. Morcover, the archaeological material from the Middl,
Assyrian period is so fragmentary that we cannot trace even n. 1'''''111111
development which would lead up to the reliefs of Assurnasi"pl,1 "lid
the surprising boldness of this new artistic venture. All we Can d" "I
present is to point out some significant changes in the few cxttl.JlL I'd" I
and the glyptic of the Middle Assyrian period which appear to 1111 \.
cultural implications and then to see if these new trends can bl' [,"fd.,
tively correlated with a changed attitude where the rendering I)f I'\'~ Id
in space and time is concerned.
Both Frankfort and Moortgat have discussed the degenerate glypl II
of Kassite and Mitannian origin and stressed the rcmarknbll' 1" ...... 1,
ness of the Assyrian seals which mark a new begimling (Ill. T,XVIII, j') I
The main points of interest for our problem are a llew delight in d)',",
mic scenes such as animals on the move or hunters attuckil1~ qllLlI'!"
actual or mythical-and a vigorous naturalism whieh cven llfl'l'<'lN I I"
traditional antithetical groups of animals, so that their ItI,Lilll'"
appear contingent rather than heraldic. Most n·mo.l"kn.bl(. i~ I,h,,1 'III
interest in animals and hunting develops at th" t~XIH'IISC of I'l.Hf~I"11
1 H. Frankfort, Cyl'inder Scots, l!l(l fit; A. MfJ\WlA'IiL. 'i\~~yrlll('I"l (ll~11'11I1 rI,
dreizehntcn ,Jahrlllmdcrt'ij', ill Zdt,vrIITlJ( Jilr /1'YI!J./fillfolli/" X L VI I.
70
1), ,III/ffll(' (//,,1 S(('/I/I ( 'ol/('f'{;/(('(' III S( I ,,1m 1(1 (J ,,' \ (/(/(/,
Illljl'I'Il'l. PI'I\~.'Jllldillll 1'l('I'Il\';] 111'(' "Illlg('lh('" nIH,.,,,I. ",iw" ".1"1''''1'''1
1'1 Ill'~; III' ()('('lll' littv(' ku"!. pnll1"Ulll~"d
AHHyl'ill1l l'I'III'nel('ris( il'~ nlld 111'1'
I)' Iii'll it'lI lIy clvllo to l-kthy loniull Wiles, while tlil' I\:w I'('Iil,rs vI' I he IWI'ill.!
~,hlt'h wc possess se(;111 1,0 uvoid likewise tlw well-wol'11 Hclletllc llftlivilll'
1I1l1 human conCrontation. On the earliest ono k.1l0WlI, IHl 'ubC'lisk' show­
It", n ,Ilumbel' of captives being bNught "befo)'e the king, 1'.11<.: /'piphlilly of
I h,' j.(od Assur consists of a pair of hands cmerging f("om l1, cl<iud tl,nd
11111 handing down a bow as symbol of thc king's poweLl Here divillity
1\'1'1 1'01' the first time shown quite literally transcending the ("(',dill
Ilj,llll'e-in the act of shooting a bow, floating above the 'I'oyld
II/olllrc in a battle scene. 2 On two roughly contempol'ant:vlI" ulllll'
loot's we see in the one instance the king flanked by the sYrtlblJl~ (If
Ilw snn-not facing its image--and on the other two royal flglln;s, lillI'
I, Ilccling, one standing before an altar which again only sllpporl S I
mbo1. 3
All the available material of the Middle Assyrian pCl'iod WPlild
I Ill'rl'fore confirm Frankfort's obscrvation, which he based lllll.inly (Ill
III I ('r Assyrian glyptic, that: 'the higher power has become iIlfw('('!'lsi hi!'
11\(1 direct contact apparently ceased.'4
I t would be rash to draw the conclusion that the prescnce hiNI C)l'i­ ,,,r
I'JlI/iccnes on palace walls and a remarkable absence ofrcligiulls Sn:llpl
II the temples could be entirely explained by a changing CUfll'f'l'l, (If
divinity and a different relation between a more tro.llscendcflL gull (tilt!
"'111'1. The part the god Assur played in fertility ritcs and hi" cnnnCI:ti(l11
wi Ih the sacred tree 5 are too obvious and at the same ti me tou OhNClIlT
Ilinn that the transcendence of this lord of hosts enu'lll he lakell I'or
I'ILllted. There docs indeed appear to be a curious hl.:,situncy ill tOil.'
!'I'(lllting god and man. There is also, as we shall find, clcl.wngc' IlI'l.w('(·n
·(·(dar and non-secular-that is mostly ritual-repn:NI'lll.lL'l,ioll, ('Vell
wit hin the scope of the palace reliefs. ])'01' the seelllal' 51'clleN ddigllL in
l'I'IH1e("ing concrete detail, the religious ones shun t\,t:tuuli I.y i r W(' limy
11/01(' this tcrm to denote a type ofrcligiolis imagery in whi('11 {{wlfj II, Ji 11('11 I'
HI\(\ /let in human form and in situations ItHnlogolls to neLllnl lil'(', 'I'll
IIIllC cleavage JiTHis cxprc::;sion in yet nl1ol,hcr WHy: !.lil.: If'xl,lIl1l p('plH'd
JIlU of the king's achicvement IJnullilding iJJl'icriptiolls 10NCs il~ tlllu'/I,C'!t'r
:lO,
'-hol)l of Orl,'lIll1f 8/w1l'/'I/, (LflllI 1011 , tit!.:!
17.1
 "1//1(//1(' ((11(1 ,"'1'1'111/ ('I1I//1t 11//
of It .I'l'ligioll."l d,'dil':d,i'llI, which it. had hlld 1111'lIl1gl"'lIl 1\11'''111'' 01 1I111!1H!
history and becolllcs (I, plll'ely hjstol'iclli rCI'mli. W(' Ih,,1 Illf'rcl',,1'I lit Ii
at a moment whcn secular ll.rt On a lorg'l' SClLl.: IlIld«'1'l itH (il'HI. "1'1" III
ance in history, significant Ch~Ulgcs had alr,'ndy OCCIII"'I'1I h,,'" III
religious pictorial idiom and in texts, llnd that thcsc scern \)'"1 pi 11111
atic of a widcning gulf between the world of mall and or the divilll'.
But before wc turn to the battle and hWlting scellc.'; on t.he JIll hi, ,
reliefs we must discuss yet another innovation which aceenillltl<'s 'Ill
distance between secular and non-secular art: a host of wingc'd 111''''
sters in various beneficial functions invades the ritual scenc:;. Now II I
cannot discuss here the problem of monsters in Mcsopotarn i:l 111"
speculate on the reasons why these should have appeared throllgllillil
such remarkably convincing entities, whether they were COIlIJI<I',"1
animals, bullmen or merely fantastic creatures. It is a fact that 1111\
occur mostly in semi-decorative context and especially in pOJllIll1I
glyptic art, so that we may assume that they were at home ill 1/11
realm of folk religion. The Assyrian winged creatures which appeal' "II
the seals have bcen fully discussed by Frankfort,l those on the reli",
are either in human form or animal headed, for the human-headed 1"//1
which in gigantic form guarded the palace entrance Occurs only fllll'l
in an actual scene sporting among fishes in a naval battle. 2 Tlll",1
monsters apparently filled a gap produced by a less concrete religillll
imagination, yet they failed to inspire the artists ofthe reliefs. Wlwl.l"'1
or not they emerged from remoter layers of religious awareness, t"I'\
gained in the hands of subtle and sophisticated craftsmen an 1'",
monstrous form-almost absurd concreteness in muscular detail. V""
arranged in stcreotyped postures on either sidc of a formalized trCe ill
a ritual act they lose whatever demonic life thcy may have had origill
ally and are impressive only through sheer size and workmanship,
shall in our discussion of the late Assyrian reliefs ignore all ritual secnc",
because they are entirely formal and have no bearing OIl our proble'IlI,
The palacc reliefs of Assurnasirpal (885-860) present the first nitl'l'lI
tive art wc possess in Mesopotamia. 3 It has been suggested that till',)
might have been inspired by either first or second-hand knowlcdgl' III
the Egyptian New Kingdom reliefs;4 this is at least a possibility, bill
even so thc differcnces between the two would be more signjfLCllnt UIIIII
any hypothetical plagiarism and we shall only refcr to the Eay PLi II II
1 H. Frankfort, loco cit., p. 198, also Archivfiir 0T1:enljorsl'ltU1'lg, Xli (1937-:111),
128-35
2 Encyclopedie plwtographique de l'art, Tome II, J'I, ~, II.
S E. A. \Vallis Bunge, Assyrian Scu,{ptu,rr. in 11/1' /lrili,911 lI'h/lll'1t1l/. Ul'ijfl1 /'
AssuTnasirpal (Londun, 11)]1).
• J. n. Un'ast('c! in Stt/d'i(',~ P'f(w'fllf'lIIQ jI'. 1,1 __(,'riJjllll, I'p. ~H7 71
172
11111/1 ,"'I('ttl(1/ 1,/11/1/1 I" I (/11/1
11I1l''l illllt't!l't'lolh,.ow illl" fj,li,·j'llil" IWt'IlI,,,,' II lid C"11INh1t'1I1 1'llIlIlII'let
III' Ihc Assy,.illll wod" It. is, I'IW iIlSllll\('I', vl'I'y HI ril,il',~ I ",~t 1l0WlttT'· ill
lhe ItcLunl lmWc n:licfl:! I,hu killg' should <!()I11illnL.c I,Ill' H('l'IIL' c·jIIH'r hy
hi!'l fiizc or by his action; the king lookH and ads like any or his Holdil"'H.
l<'i,:thLing if; throughout at close qua.rters fwd slllin. viCLil11s lin' strcwn
1\ bOll t thc scene; but the defcat of the cncmy is not It ('lm'gOtH' ce In­
(·llIsion: enemy soldiers strimng away [rom the royal chariot tlll'lI hIII'I
Ilnd shoot at the king and repeatedly one of them gr::t.bs at H hOl'R<,'H
mouth in an effort to halt them (PI. LXVIIa). The enemy, mOI'l'OVI'I'
never shows abject terror; the light is fiercc and virilc', It is alst) cnl.irdy
('pisodic, not a single battle seene contains a eI ue to its ()11 \,(:011 11"
consequently, the spectator is held in suspense till he moves Oil Lp till'
next episode, whcre rows of prisoners or a city in :Hamcs eonIJM/.~: t.tll
story. Such scenes lack entirely the symbolical character whi('llllllld,'
Ihe Egyptian ones a timeless assertion of inevitable royal vic~ory; 111 1' )
show ephemeral events changing before the spectator's eyes fl'()IlI (Hit'
phase to another. There are no clear breaks in this pictoriull'pif', 1101' I}
action ever suspended; the movement of figures in onc directiolllllwll"
seems purposeful even if no explicit aim is indicated; rows or pl'istlllc I'
seem on the march towards their dcstination, not displayed ill I\. 1'0l'1 11/1 1
aimless stride. Movement is rarely met by countcrmovemclI L('x('('pl ill
the case of a siege where the town formed the centre of actioll (ill tIll'
reliefs of Seti I at Karnak this was never the casc) :lnd the nil lLl.1kl'l'!
were arranged antithetically. In chariot sccnc:; the gallopin~ !lllrsc''{
are not tilted magonally, although the extcnded forefcet ill'<' orr IIIC'
ground. In fact, all horizontals are usually stresscd in this ('1l.H!', till'
reins, the arrows, the prostrate figures under the horse's belly, I'll t.hal
the level movement is unchecked.
The drawing of the horses, in a surprising variety of gai I, und IH IN tl 11'(',
is throughout superb. The draughtsmen must havc known IIlld liVl'd
with them as no Egyptian artist cver did, and with n, clcli('llLc OhS(.'I'VII­
tion-complctely absent in their human figurcs-co'lld 1'01](1('1' slllldl'
of mood and temperament in sensitivc horscs' heads, he'Hl1l ifully ('0
ordinated movement of neck and body in horses s1.ll,rl.in~ 1.0 IlIlIl \lP,
horses swimming (PI. LVIIb), horscs straining lip 11 1l10lJlIl"ill slopc'
when the rider slackcns his rcin. l Thesc Cl'eaLllI'CS movc in 1\ /o>1'1'1l il'liptll-I'
which, if the registcr groundlinc is ad her(,a Lo, willla('k uII slIgg('HI illn 01'
topographical rcccssion, but the l'egister {l.eLs as horii\on HP lIlIII till
sccnes appeal' lis rcal u.s life. Fr('qllcntly, howevcr, thc Iw,·ji\oll linl' i
J Comparl' lite fncinl CX1)l"'HSi'I/' lind lilt' pUllilioll of I hI' l'I'I'l~ tlf Hwhlllllilllol'lllli
steppinR hOI'N('H ill PI. LXVIII> lind 1'1. LXIX. I\IHIl nok Ow 11/'1/,11'1111 pllwillH 01'
tilt' HwimminA' 1101'11(' III I,he Lop ll'/'t ('IIl'lIl-" 01' 1'1. I.XVlTh IIlId Ihll IIlIlfW\ll'II'
!I'OHlon of Lhl' dllllhilll! l1ul'l'lt'lIll\ Uuduc, 11/1', I'll., 1'1. :\.X V, I nlld :.l.
J711
 /)/'11111(1//(' (/1/(1 ,"""l'II/(' ('/)//1''''/1''1'
jgnorco and liglll:t'IHmpCl'j 111pOSt'd wi thCllll,ILP"'I.l'CIII, 1'(lne'(""1 11111 II J/ I ill II
spatial rclatiOll. The effect J1Jayvnl'Y IlIlltht' fl.('l,i'HI iN uNlllllly /,",.1" d I
knit that sllch 'floating' frglU'CS seem P;1,l't qr l~ CO 11""/'('11 I. g'1'I)IIP ill "1"""
In the camp scene, for instance (PI. LX VIJ1:t), tilc SIlI)(~l'iJ!lp(\;jl" 1",," 'II'
and horse form with the feeding animals a somehoW' rair'ly t'OIl\ ),,1'1/1
unit in depth although they are spatially not co-ordi'JIatc<1 wilh I h,. II III
which ought to form their background but {aib to do SCI sint'(' II ''0
been fastened onto the groundline. In the rather JJl'tl'row ""g-Irotl.,
in which the narrative has been arranged topographical i Ild it'll I 11111
are insignificant-the scenes have enough actuality witholl!;. I"" "I
PI. LXVIIIb, where (in contrast with the Egyptian habit or 111'1' I
plotting rivers or strips of water) emphasis is laid on the vCl'lic:d lI~'llf , ,
of the river bank, this gives a remarkable suggestion of reccdillg" ~.Pill'l
We have one interesting example of true scenic backgrvlInd. 1IIIIII/tii
not yet of stage space, in PI. LXIX, where the royal COl'tcgl' iii l,j , II
passing below the city walls. Figures do not yet always appeal' ill l'"l1
profile, there is frequently an awkward twist in the shouldl:I' I'q,(I""
though the burly rather amorphous bodies, almost entirely hidd"11 III
long garments, do not make the non-functional drawing so "!'\'II,II
that it interferes with the impression of organic corporeality wi". I,
they convey.
Apart from these details of spatial rendering the following 1'",,1
stand out: the narrative scheme of consecutive scenes in fai!'ly 11111'111\\
strips has nowhere been abandoned in favour of one which WOliitl illl'I\1
for a dramatic climax, a summing-up of complex event in one 1m 'g" 1/1111
situation; nor can we observe anywhere a tendency to tral!,>",'"d
actuality in the manner of monumental art. The story tolll 1.",'111:1111
discursive. This may explain the limitations of the experimenl:-> 1111101,
in the rendering of space: scenic space was intended throughOllt 1/111 II
merely depended on the choice of episode whether the hori:GOIl li"I' ,.1
the register sufficed or whether--especially when the action took pili I"
on or near water or was spread out over a large terrain-the pJ'ohh'llI
of the disposition of figures in space had to be faced. l'opogr,tJ,hll'lIl
coherence then began to form a new preoccupation for thc urti.st.
Under the reign of Assurnasirpal's succcssor ShalmuncscI' an inll)' q
tant innovation was made which enhanced thc character of Hq'lIl'
space: from now on human figures nearly always appclt!' ill 1'III'C prlllll,
that is, in a definite relation to the spectator's vicwpoint. The 1'\'111/1111
of this period consist mostly of bron:Ge reliefs Which ('ov('red tht: plllt,,"
gates at Balawat. l They arc narrow ~cen('s 1l.I"'lI.ngl.:d ill (]tIIJ1,Jj' 1'11"11
in such a way that the movement of thl.: liglll'(,.'s ill Uw uppel' "0\1 1'/
1 L. W. Kinu, lJrrmZt; relidsfrV1IIIhc (lal('IJv!!]'!I(I(J1/f/I/t'oY('r (I.,'ntlllll, I {lUll.
1711.
III /111 ."i/'lll/((/ /11 till' /,~ \ II(/II~
IPI'0Hiu: e1i"l'I'1 ipil til lil/~l (I)' I h" 10WI'I' 0'1", '1'1111'1 WIII'It, lI"Vi'lllHI
IIl'curativc ill .IILt'utiun, iN sldelly Illtl'l'i\Liv(' ill t,IUll'ltdl'l'. bilL I,IIIIII~~h
!l'('hl1il'nlly bold it ilj al'tistically fltth\.:I' c11111. The mOllol.ullY 0/' til"
Icpictcd horrol's, the records of a sCl'ieR (,I' eiunpaiglls, is pl'itcLienli
1I1\l'clicved and the work is on too smaU u scale to o.llow 1'01' 1I1\,!('h
c'xperiment. In one instaucc when a non-military event wa~ depicted
1'1. LXXa) topographical scenery was ventured on and the attempt.
made to represent the head of a valley surrounded by mountains 1)1(
both sides with a subterranean stream visible through 'windows' in th ro
mountainside. Here some kind of recession has been aimed at ill
I'endering the mountains on the far side of the valley; usually, howevel',
1\ II scenes run parallel to the surface.
The rather fragmentary remains from the reign of Tiglathpil.csal' 11 r,
nnd the reliefs of Sargon show a continuation and further dcvelop­
ment of earlier trends. Profile rendering is maintained and the supcr­
position of figures in the now slightly wider registers is more:
frequent. Groups without groundline are put in at different lcvt:]s ill
PI. LXXb and the line of goat's feet is actually sloping down tnwlll'dH
thc nearer ones so that the general impression is that of a co,herell"
scene in space although the figures are not yet topographically relaLt'd.
The ox-cart leaving the town (on the left) has been put on the l'cQistcl'
line, the more distant town walls and gate are slightly higher. Thi~
frequently happens in pictures of mountain sieges, but in this cLise t,hni'
is no indication of mountainous terrain at all, and the curved diag<.llld
joining gate and groundline, and marking the road down whi.eh till'
cart moved, appears less a contour line than an attempt to link l'vrc­
ground and distant background, a rather primitive way to indical."
recession. Remarkable also is that in PI. LXXIa the figures acliv('
on ground level are offset against a solid background of scaly pat'l(')'I,.
IL conventional method of indicating hilly country. This preoecupttUt.l\
with background recurs in a different form in the Sal'gonid relief of
PI. LXXIb, where the stage-set for the hunt, although formal, has n.
remarkable solidness, concreteness, These massive pines arc Jlci thl,;l'
merely decorative nor explanatory; they give-although the J)l'oblr'JTI
)f dcpth has been ignored-the actual and contingcnt scttil1~ I'M
ltctiOl1, We have one scene l showing King Tiglathpi.lesar 11J, i1n.nkl'd by
his officers, standing wi.th one foot on a prost.rate cHerny. This is Lh"
nearcst approach to a symbolical scem:, bllt pb.ccd jll l:t lower I'q!isLCI'
HS onc scenc among mallY, it loses even the Chal'lI.det' of a dr'nl\lt~1 je'
d imnx awl apr«'/l.r" clIl'iouioj! y cpisod ie.
I" ! Jr.. A. W"lIlfl Blldgr, ASllyrim/ S/'lilIIIUTi' ill Iltr IJrili,"lt i\lU,W'1I1II {rlllil ....'lIt/hllo·
1I/',IIrr Illlu'''''rIIlWi'lIl'filJ,(Lulldoll, IU:JHl.l'l. VOL
17li
 I )('(111/(11 ii' (/"t! S(','ni,
The l'c1h'l's 01' St'1I1111,l'lJl'I'ib,l ItH~ 1'111" I", I,"~~ 111'/1111/11 iI' II1Iili I h""1 Ii!
his succcssor Assurbanipo,l, lu'e 1\111 or ('xJll'l'illl('IIL ill I Itl' n:lld"IIII~~ (Ii
scenic spacc an<1 cSjJeeinlly in the clisposiLill1l of' (\/.(11]'1'11 ill d,'pl II. '1'110,
interest is largely focused on complicD:tcd activilks i'lV(llvill

LXV I] L\. j\ S S I' It N i\ ii III I' ,\ 1,':-; 1\ Il 1\1 YIN 1\ I V () I' i\ t'

I. X \' II 1II. E ~ 1,::\ I I I': R 1" L I': I': I ); <: ,\ (' H () S S ~ I () i\ T ()" 1:-oJ 1"\ ,1\ T .'; II S " I :-.. H

(jJ{I,!!,'{'17 !'i)
FIG. 37. Battle in the Mountain.~

groups of people and the relation between thesc and Lhcil'lo('al Hrll ill"
It is interesting to see how persistent efforts wcrc mudc 1.0 cmphll·,i
spatial coherence as well as unity of action. rll a ll10111llnin H'iSlLIIH, 1.11
1705-681 B.C. Sec A. PatcrSOJl, Assyria'/l Sculp/ll"''' III IIII' Ilnltll'l' of ,'!'ill/lf'h' 1(/'
(The Hague, 1915).
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1111111111('1', SClldk"!'IIlI'(' N('ldll'l'l'cI /l1I1I1I1g' 11'\'1:'1 OVI'I'" WHII' fll'f"~ 111111'1.,,\

\Vllh Ihe ('OI)V('nl,i\llllll /'lidl', whi/'" ("lIl I)llly Iii'
plil.t('I"1 0/' a nlollllltlill
l'lIllceivtd U~ l'cN'ding (Pig. 1l7). One mighL hv 1,('Il'plcd tel IIAC Ll\t· tl.:l'll1
l'ILVlI.li('l' perspective )1('1'1.:, but I';tdcLly spcaJ.;ing both it nod 'uil'cI'H C~'l'
vipw' presuppose a definite, if unu!:il1t\l, spatial i'elation hctWCI'1I
I!>/wrver and things observed, which is totally ahsent here. IL is trll('
I hnt the receding surface of the mountain side has been made 1110re
Ill' Jess concrete by the conventional pattern and that thereby th"

('t\ttered human figures and trees could be definitely Ilxed in l'C)n.tiOll

In it and to each other. Yet they give no clue to the observer's view­
point, because from a high viewpoint whieh might reveal their tusposi.
I ion as clearly as the picture shows, the trees could not appcar ill plai Il
I"'ont view. It is, however, undeniable that some sort of spatial collcr­
'nee of figures and objects, and some illusion of recession has h('('11
tchieved. How important this coherence of receding space was C011­
idcred can be gauged by the almost absurd insistence on a patLerlwd
Imckground which the reliefs show; trees stuck into such a baekgr'OUlI\I
HI llst of necessity be conceived as spatially related, and if they lIl'!'
HlIpel'imposed this can only mean also related in depth.
The same holds good for the marsh scene (PI. Lx.."XII) when' t hi'
uperimposed islands are so carefully joined by well-drawn sLripH fir
water that there is no loophole for spatial ambiguity, each :liglu'e, clwlI
object is definitely fixed in relation to every other and yct thc' vicw­
point has not been clarified. Again the illusion of a bird'H eye view
Lrengthened by the centrifugal arrangement of some of the I'('l,;,l
bU!:ihes, is destroyed by the front view rendering of other:;. Dul,
nowhere-as was almost invariably the case in the few Egyptian tapo­
raphical scenes we discussed-has any of the surface been left blulI]...
The full consequences of illusionistic scenic rendering, with its clll:dlCI1/!('
or complete spatial coherence, had been accepted.
More ambitious if rathcr less successful are thc attempts to jJi~,tllr;'
thc transport of colossi or the making of artificial mounds fo!' SenntV'/I­
('ri b's palace. We are far removed indeed from the first Egyptian cl'{(H'
ILt such a sccne (Fig. 7). Here the action is very lively n/ll! ill I'al'h or
I he different versions we posscss a definitc momcnt, a definite pllwe JI
brcn chosen to mark the actual phasc of the cvcnt (.PI. 'LXXl J I). TI\('
/llOst remarkable is that whcrc the colossus has to CrOSFl a. dip in Lit
"(Jtmd near a strip of water. While in some otber rcndcringi'i tll(' "C)W
or figures straining at the ropcs havc the HIIJlport of ~1 g,'olllJdlill('i Il('n
Ilwy nre merely sprcu.d Ollt on un anlorpholls pluin rrom whic'" t,bo

-
hiHoek rise:; where thr king in his chnriot \JVl'l'!oo)cs t1w s(~,'ue. lien·
/llt/lin l.he river ill the fon'(trlllllld with its IlI1lT(lW dnms /Iud IlhHtlllrlllL
M 177 II.A.M.
 /1,OIlUtllf
"
W(H'IC (1111 giv('11 ill f;ll'uighL l'!t'Vll.litl1l) 111'(1 ilH'('"'PI~ll"ll- willi II 1111:"
viewpoillt which pUl't of lIw SCCIle' would /i1lg'/fI:Hlj IIl1d tlHI 1'(.111,111111
betwecn phtin and hill 011 the right is 1I0!. dell!'.
Yet the same passionate intercst in rcccJing space lends tll ltllull .. I
curious experiment. The sieges of hill tOWlIS OJ" mow1tuin strougll c lld
had already become livelier and livelier, they were now freqlll'lIl h
offset against a mountain background which in some cases 1'0:;«.: :d'IlVt
the town or castle walls. Diagonal scaling ladders had often I",d /I
dramatic touch to the event,l now however it became a mutte'l' 01
ambition to render the actual approach of the attacking army 011 II"
mountain side. Such an approach is of necessity in a diagonallir1l' IIlld
so we suddenly see, instead of ladders, solid paved diagonal pili I,
leading up to the strongholds (PI. LXXIV, LXXV), and that Ul('1111
at any rate conceptually, away from the spectator. The effect is Wl'lld
in the extreme, the more so because in a misguided effort at reali'illl
the angle of ninety degrees between these paths and the clilllhill
figures has been maintained so that the soldiers appear to be fallill~r
backward. The wild pattern of diagonals nowhere achieves the iUIISilll1
of recession or of topographical coherence, but the boldness or till
attempted short cut at landscape perspective on a vast scalI' I'
astounding and unsurpassed till Hellenistic times.
Sennacherib's innovations must have been considered aesthetie'lIll\
barbarous by those who planned the Assurbanipal reliefs, for they (1111
not venture any further in the direction of illusionistic recession. Will,
the restraint of true and very great artists they did not pur'SlIl' II
naturalism already run wild along topographical lines. The most gi n III
of them either brought their figures back to the relief surface in fa 11 I,
narrow parallel scenes or bound them by subtle means in a dralllllll'
situation that could dispense with locality altogether. It is truo I Itlll
some of the motifs survived, but it is interesting to note that wbc'lI /I"
artist indulges in topographical scenes, as when an aquaduct i II I I!j
setting is rendered (PI. LXXVI, top register) and the strange dia~ollid
rivers are obviously inspired by the diagonal paths, the scene is CIIII'"
of figures and is therefore much more plausible. In PI. LXXV II I h,
fleeing Elamites are arranged in parallel registers as of old, bill 1111
deserted town walls looming above them tier upon tier, reminde'!'/. ul
the threat they must have held, make the implicit victory aplwllI' '"I
even more formidable achievement than if a lively siege were gi \'1 II
The new restraint is thus dramatically most effective. One other 11 .. 11 01
in which an attempt at rendering recession had. been mude he-l'ul,
1,,\:-;\'1. FI .. \,\II'I'I'::-: 1'I,I',I':Ir-.I: 1'''\:-:'1' '1'1':1\11'\,1': ,\;\11 ,\1)111';)11)1."1'
namely, that of fugitives or looting soldicrs leaving n town, hUH 111'1 II
(jiU!..!I' I7'H)
1 ]~atersOJ1, foe. cif., 1'1. I
178
z
 III 11/1' Sn'lI!tfl' I, I (!j'1/11' I.',.> IlfI//\

dl'vl-!oped flll·\,lw1'• .A Irj'noly \III n, "C ' IlIlll'I.Jlhll' rl.lid' ..I' 1-!1·I,IlII('hl·.. il.
1.lig. US) lwo ~lIpl'rill1pllSnl tOWl1 wnlls Hlld It vcrl.il'lIl row I-ir foi\lldit'I'H
\t'fwing Lhe buildings 1'1tIggnst l'cc('ssillll. ()n i\.llothl'l· frll.gnl(;lIt 1 fugitive-,
II ppcm.'to be walking OJI a /lIULIJ Itnin contuUJ'lil1L;. This muti r is repeatl'l!
pluusibly ill UU AssurlllLuipaJ rclicf, 2 In 1'J. LXX VHI, hnWIWc'i'
rrl(')J'('

I he looting soldiers are leaving the gate on a roa.d, cka.l"1y illllipnLcd 1

IL double line, which widens toward the spcctator. The Jigtn'cs, iLis 1.1'11('

FIG. 38. Looting soldiers leaving a City

lIr(' clinging rather timidly to the boundary line, 110t walking ill lh
Illiddle of the road, but the effect of their marehiJ'lg downhill alld lorv(J!/'{l
III(' spectator has been unmistakably achieved by what is virLul\lly
true perspective.
LXXIXA. HUNTED GAZELLES, ASSURB..x::\JI'AL
However, as we said before, the greatest artists of the period IIl( rcl l

T.XXJXB. HUNTED WILD EOTIS E<..:

fllTllIIged their scenes pa.rallel with the observcr; they ld~o w('r,·
(page 1RO) T('nt innovators in the matter of rend('ri ng space L)II't 1I0t rC('(,i'lSillll;
drnmatie space was wbn.t they (lifrled at find pUl'f1doxienlly I,his lIilll
WIIS not achieved with h"ruan Jiglll'CS in ILCtil.)(), I.ml, wiLh 1L1li,IULL.
I PnlCrRQll, 10c. cit., PI. HI!.
I fI, H. IllLlI, f1tl{;!Jwlli(l'II, mill .Ity,vllrll", .'l'/'1I111tllrr ;1£ III/' IJTf/i.vlI jllI/,V/'I/III, 1'1.
Sl ..
170
 ),.((/11(1/'(' (/(/(/ SC/'I/((' ('O/I"/I'IIC'('
There i~ only Que extl'cliH.:ly 'hlll1ltlll' S('elH' Ill' 1,111' Idrll,f Oil his ('PI",)1 ,!I,d
a queen or concubine sitting np1'jght on u chail' ttL his r('cL, whidl ,,1'.,",
has an odd if restrained dramatic quality. The heud ("II' u sluin t;II"III)
hanging in a tree ncar the musicians destroys the illusion of dOI1I('I>( It
bliss and gives to the festivity an overtone of cruel sensUOtlSI",s" I
Otherwise it would appear as if commemoration of the sarnc h11111/111
if unhumane, pursuits, the same patterns of warfare, repeated JIll.!
elaborated now for centuries, must have wearied at least one al'l ,,,I
whom we must consider the greatest of all. The historical epic wa~, II'
we saw, discursive and though astonishingly inventive in matters' 01
detail, it lacked the very quality of all great art; being time-boulHl:llld
space-bound, it never transcended the purely episodic. Througholll 1/
period in which the violence of one small nation brought a stagg('rill l '
amount of suffering on countless peoples, pictorial art recorded balli,
after battle in a scenic display unhampered by metaphysical consille'r:1
tions, with a brutal secularity which, for all its freshness and vig'Olll
had something shallow and naIve. Victory was a man-made thing, II
was devoid of the symbolical quality which it had had before both III
Egyptian and Mesopotamian art, and which it was to gain later Oil III
Greece in a mythical form. And since victory was man-made :1.11"
ephemeral, defeat also was a contingency; it lacked that touch or till
tragic which gave to the Seti reliefs their peculiar dignity. The art isl ~
of the hunting scenes took up a motif as old as mankind and as 1111 -ll
changing; in doing so he not only displayed an astounding virtuosil.\ I

in the handling of animal form, but showed that he possessed 111/ -ll
~
emotional depth which could convey the tragedy of suffering allli ~
Ioi
defeat, of desperate courage and broken pride. Vl
t./j

There is nothing in these scenes (PIs. LXXIX-LXXXI) to detl':1l'1 ""i

from the actual or imminent disaster that befalls those who provid.·
sport for the powerful. There is no indication of localty or backgrOlllld
for these groups of hunted horses and gazelles, yet they form a cohel'PII'
unit in a space we must conceive as a receding plain. The very empll
8

ness makes them appear more vulnerable, more exposed. The gazcll'''l
grazing restlessly, warily, appear under the threat of imminent dallg('J';
the backward glance of the male leader gives a peculiar tenseness L"
their movement. In the group of wild horses the possible cs('II,)1('
heightens the tension and lends a horrible poignancy to the nllll...
looking back at her young. In the lion hunt disaster is inevita1>lc; IU'I'I'
the group on the right (PI. LXXX) has no dramatic unity, each dyiJl"
creature is alone in his agony, and this Jack of spatial HI> well ns 1'1lI"
tional coherence is cmphasi;t,(·J by the: scpnl"tLc I!I'Clllndlilj('/ol or 1111
I II, H, I lilli, loC', /'il~ 1'1. XLI,
I:!
 11/ 11,1' .'VI I1I, ,, 11'1 III III {.;,q /'/(1 I1

llpt'riIlIIHl~t'd IIgllt'I'''!, '1'1\.· WI'I~II'HI dr'lI lllld

11\ 111Ii'l\sily I~ 1'1'111'1\('1
1 1101

the J.(roup wlli 'l'e Lhe fUyl l.l 1'lIl1rinL

is 1~I,L"I·kl.·d wit 11 IIll1 d rlll'y . hlll,
11\
t III' rigl' L, where 1IH' ]w.LLle iSH!'! yl:L 011

II nt!ct'ic It'd (PI. LX X X

lion "lid Lhe Lerritied hor se Ulld I); II, 1'\'0111'1\ il\g
hifl rille1' urc I:lcpll,mLccl lly t.lw
cll'lUlllLLic of 'flig nilic l),n t void~' 11111"
evc r uchieved in Ncu r J';ustcrn Itr'"
It if> stra nge to con side r tha t sho
rtly bef ore the diso.sl.rl)lIS Il!m k "I'
II\(' Assyri:.m Em pire , the sam
e peo ple und er whv sc (lomillil'll
wod d ho.d shu dde red bro ugh t fort fhll
h an arti st who rev eale d Lhe Ill-p
Ill' his fear and pity for thes e doo med i II
crea ture s and rais cd his sc('nCH II
t lit' stat ure of trag edy .
Ass yria n art, flowering on the per
iph ery of Mcsopotamia. prlll 'l'I",
11I'('\lr1'ed on the ver y brin k of a
new era. Alien to the predolllilH~
1'('li~ious cha rac ter of older Me sop otam 1I11
o ian wor k, and oOllnd, 11" 1111
00
,..... 011\('1' form of art, to the sec ular
pow er of single mU llan ,lIs whl/II
~ Il'hicvcments it reco rde d, it van ishe
bJ.J d when. this pOWCl' was ~~xl;('I'II,ill
<:::;
HIe d. One may well ask if not
~ a vestige of its influence could bl'
hI wes terl y dire ctio n, tow ard the I !'HI T"

f';
Gre ek world. So fa..1' this q\l(~/'lliClI\
\'1111
~ ollly be ans wer ed in the neg ativ e.
,........
~
(f)
f'C
C
......
....
o
",
......

1HI
 'HAPTEH. I

rhe Cretan Enigma: T.lonlo Ludcl l

L wns Professor Rodenwaldt who, in discussing the C(Jlourrlil "('

II \(1 ins of Minoan frescoes, first confessed that Cn.:lun I"iviljsnl ifln
held for him the enchantment of a fairy world,t '.1'11(: phl'll,s('
'~I'hll{'d by at least half a dozen eminent German scholars )lill,,)' r<""llI
I ,at.her charming absurdity and yet it is illuminati ng, I'm il '''11l'11I'1

III It )'tHC difficulty which a sensitive observer ofCx<.:tan ilrl. ha:i 1<) ,'lIe'i':
I hIli n.rt seems both more familiar and more alien. than :lollY WI' di
1lIIIl'Wtl so far and is part of a cultural life to which liorJlIId hl~i 111'1.,,11
I!'(!('ss is barred. The mass of archaeological data ClI.I.II10L ye'l, b., i,d,·,·
IlIl't(·U in terms of cultural history, and the aura o(nlystt.:1'Y fHIIT\lllI,r1; li~
1 people whose art appeals to us but whose script wo ('0111101, n'llt! IIlld
whose language is unknown has hardly been lif'ted sinc'e lI. ('Plild 1'1
proved that practically all textual material we POSSl.:SS .i.,; tlf' II, 11'g'ld Itl
l'lllnmercial nature. 2 Little understanding is gai.lll.:d by'lhl.: knflwlnlgt
IllltL Rodenwaldt's fairyland was probably organis<.:d 011 strictly 1)1I1'('IW
"I'at.ie lines and was extremely preoccupied with rYl'.L'tt<.:)'S ('()lll'crlllll ll

oods and ownership.

J n the face of Cretan relics the enchantment and the wonder l'I'lIl,JiI!
Ill(' sense prevails of a world intellectually and lYlorally bcyoml (1111'
l'lVlp, a world sensuous, alive and yet elusive. Who.t, theil, if: I hi
puzzling doubt one feels, the suspieion that all seholfltly Illdhud"l HI'('
ornchow bound to miss essentials so t.hat even if' we knew I he J'nc(,\IIt!
hllitory of this people-their political ol'ga:nizlI.tion nod l'Clit{ioLlfl pi'lL'"
t I('('S, commerce, domestic hl"Lbits and crafts-I:IIe :'iCCI'cL or theiL' vlllli~'",
Ihe rewards of their existence n I ight well el til Ie us .tf'Lcr all Y
if we givc ourselves lip to the nfl"ivc enjoymellt, Qf' whl~t CI'{~llIn
JlIC'toriuJ art has to offer: the passiul1l1.te beanty or plnllL!'l in bloc\!ll, 01'
ylIuLhs at theil' ~amcs, 011' dclic'llle Illyflterks of subnqllf,.'('IHl lift.,
('oloul' and '-IlOVCIIWllt· 'HIL movt>rncnL ('V.'II mol'(' I hnn "OIOlll' N"I~1I1

1 (;. Hodt'll Wllidt. /),-r /I'I'II'S tI/'s ill 1'{l,fll'U"N 1.I00t lllllll"'llflf' (Ill~ 1). 1'1'. I, (10,
oj AI ;IIINI, 1 v :.l.p. flH L Mill(,
• }'(I/(/('(' I

II'I!I
 II' ("t'(t/I / /1;",{,!.
, "If/ //1'1/111 / I/dl/l'
Lo bc Lllr Ht'CI'cL of our ('ll('hlLl llliWIlI. , !tilt! nbIJVII 1111 iL'l 11I~lIII'1I1111"'/;.
111 0' I'lld tlmLe'l lILlllwn yll hI' ,'c'e'oglli'l.(,d 1I~ Hllj·h. II;vc'll till' vlIhlt's 01'
Iw,'11
beauty of its Ircc(loll1, 1",)1' cvrll 11111'0(\,11 IwiliW~ h(,1'1: 'Hove wd h I plily-w orld ILrC 1l<:liLiolis. \.Iw !'llcill amI ('l)1\rltW· fI'l\lIil'('d tll'Vi'l' wholl
II,,·
joyous ease of ercatur es I1t piny. Cun ii, bc lhfLllllc fnillln ir of 1I1l ... did o\llsid(' I.he limit,aliOlls or Lhe gn.nl(·'s ('fl"crete I'lLlIl,ltSY
·/llil ~ i IL I'wll'.
which so many of the figurcs have for us, alit! which HodI'II WII I "'1 1I11'lI'd <'lmfliuL or proble m, lUlU nn ul'bilm ry soilitio n or vi<'lNy
101 1 , /II'\-" i I If
seemed to hint at, is in some way related to thc fnd LhLLI, w(' h/\,\/I'
111.. 1 "1'1 ', Hut for the rnrtieipa.nt~ of ritual garnes,
11 eont.ests, alld clalll'l'S
the grace of serious play so that we look upon it charm ed uut d(lulJl lIlI ',I' lmve an objecti ve import ance, for the issue .is no 0101'(', no
as someth ing incomp atible with our mature r worlll?
1'111 \('~,.
jillill Ihe: proble matic relatio n betwl:cn human a.ndsupCl'hlll)
lan f()I't','H
We would be guilty of an even worse absurd ity than lloSCl1 wllldl [I Jll'oLMm mimed , that is, experie nced and stated
at the sfI.me linlt'.
if we were to overstr ess the playfu l charac ter of Minoa n culture Oil II, II' I he contes t is not felt to be self-imposed but, as it wel'c, I'ore,,'d
1111
basis of an uncriti cal experie nce of its art. Yet we shall find tha l'lllill Ihe players ; and victory or solutio n not a feat, valuele
I. I h, ss ou t sidl'
concep t play may be more illumin ating than appear s at first sight.. : I II,Wtl re~tricted sphere , but a signifi cant achiev
Fill emcnt.
the conten t of the scenes in fresco and relief, when comparl:(l :-li/-{nificant, yes, but anonym ous as far as the actors arc CIlIWPI 'IH'd;
\\ II h
Egypti an or Mesop otamia n work, is strikin gly devoid of the pe\"lilli !!\lI. ,tS rcgard s the action, repres entativ e rather than singula r, for
l it
seriousness which is theirs. Cretan artists not only revel in the IWllll" ![lIll~p.l I he unique ness of histori cal achiev ement. Now it is tnw 1hat, ,til
of natura l forms; they also avoid depicti ng human achievcnwlIl rlllllll' tcts are formal , repetit ive, a matter of circumscrilJcd 1I1uVl'I
III',d;
whethe r in the modes t sense of manua l work- as in Egypt ian tomh.. I'il Illd play, howev er, differs in one respec t from the acts of
/lIT,'ring IItl.l
or in the challen ging one of battles won, politic al power asserte d. [!oI"rnlion which we encoun tered in Mesop otamia llnel 11:gy pl. III
'I'll. \ Illf
do not even boast of slaugh ter made in honou r of the gods, or loti 11'1' instanc es human action, entirel y formal ized, is Allbs\'l'
Ih, vi"III, I II It
buildin g of temple s. In fact, the lack of 'monu menta l art', so II li~i{)us event which transce nds the
C1ff. II action. In rit.ual pllly. lip I\' , \TI,
empha sized by schola rs who use the term more loosely then we dll, til,' human agent entirel y incorp orates the evenl whhoh 1111'1
but a sympt om of the very strange ness we are trying to define: ('n"11I1
I lid
tlillmlt l ically on its action. Both secular and ritual play, 1111'1'1,1\
Ill', lin y,
civiliza tion is unhisto rical not only in the sense that the model'll
Ill'll i.lll~ in commo n, that whethe r they need physic al COlll'IlW',lllI1 /1111 II,~, II,
orian happen s to be unable to write an articul ate accoun t of its pll:;I, I)" nsk for grace and beauty , a certain self-ce ntred
I' prick "I' 111'1111 11 110 JII~
record in which events and person alities have name and char:U' IIf 1IlOVCment, is their very essence. We shall ha.ve tolJl'l\,r
t II, I.leiH III 1IIIIId
but becaus e it lacked the desire for monum ental statem ent, pi(:I..... \\ \H'" consid ering the proble m of 'arrest and movcrn clIl'
lld ill ('I'rLIIII (III,
or otherw ise. We find no interes t in single human achiev ement, n() hili, seeing the scarcit y of factual data, I shall not vcn:lm
11(" II l' Oil It 1111'10
to em phasize, to rescue its significance. pl'I'('ise interpr etation of the meanin g of the scenes until we hlLVI'lI l1dl'I'
But if the scenes in which human s occur are thus devoid of 1111 Illod more clearly the space- time charac ter of thc repl'csc I1 Lnt.i"n
peculia r seriousness, they are by no means wholly frivolous, and t IWI'('by reversi ng the metho d used in the casc of Egypt und McflO-
11('14
the concep t play may be more than a tempti ng metaph or. I do
IItd !,lIlamia.
want to sugges t that the action depicte d pertain s to that irrespolI~illll

world of play which feeds on the impuls e of the player and dies
\VII"
that impulse, a self-willed world under self-willed rulcs that <'lLl'
1"
called to life, annihi lated, and revive d at will. The acrobn.liu
1,1111
jumpin g and the dances are neithe r irrespo nsible nor withou t f1l1l("
i'll,
for they are ritual acts, parts of religious festivals. And whal dil,111I
guishe s ritual from secular play is just the charac ter of its seriollslI'··...
,
We might speak here of objecti ve, as distinc t from subjc(,tive f;l'l·jllll
ness. For it is true that secular play also may be 'taken serious ly'.
j "'"
its import ance remain s within the framew ork of n limitf'll Hdf-"I'I
'lilt'i1
1 See J. Huizing a, IlmnQ Ludens (fhmrlc lIll V~lH).
'f'hi~ Ht Irnulllllnll WOI'), I" 1"11 I
satisfac tory on the subject flf ritulli play.
lW' 1~7
 Jio,

CHAPTER II

Complexities of the Cretan Problerlls:

Crete and Mycenae

W
e have, however, first to face a peculiar di ffif' II I I ,\' I hi,
problem of Cretan art is closely linked with thai "t' 1\1 \'
cenae and this complicates our approach in more wa'y~' 111.111
one. Crete, through its geographic proximity to mainland Gre."" 1111.1
its cultural links with the l\Iycenaean kingdoms, has throughv'll 1,0' I!
considered within the realm of Greek archaeology and has oC"1! "III
--
jected to the refined and scrupulous methods of an ahnosl 'II'!"
sophisticated discipline. The memory of Cretan culture Sllrvi\'1 I lit
classical times only in the form of myths and it is remarkable I hnl i I"
ambivalent attitude towards Crete which marks them is nb.. 111111 1 I
able in those scholars for whom the Greek world has in turn ;1(',/11; lid "
transcendent significance. The phenomenon of Cretan art has 11II1l1o 1
enchanted, and irritated in turn because it seemed prepost(,I'l)'.'l 11,-,1
it should be the historical antecedent and yet the absolute :l.J11iUl\'"' ,)1
what is most deeply valued in classical art. Hence a ccrl:till 1 II '0

consciousness in the scholarly approaches, efforts either to (lVI'rlll'lll !

Cretan 'naturalism' and to link it with something similar in. ~:I'I" I, ill I
or to overemphasize its undisciplined waywardness and tlwl'l·I", l.!
prove its utterly alien character. l In fact, the only cornforl /" \1' lit;
harassed Grecophile has been throughout that this stT:l.ll/-fl' io,lt" II !
culture, so uncomfortably close, so mysteriously linked with 'lhl' Itlllht
land, was not 'oriental'. Indeed it is not, even if the term should Il"'1I1! ! I!
I.XXXII. {',VI' ST;\I,I\1N(; 1I11:1l. II,\':\.\ 'I'll I ,\Il}\
us something more definite, more positive, than the stigllla of nil', I
(jIll,.!.!.!' I !lti)
barbarity.
1 G. A. S, Snijder, Kretische [(unlit (Berlin, 11)3(\) g-ivc!'< u gnotl HIIHI.,II11 \ u!
both trends. The Greek, or at any ratc EIU'OPC:LII, nlliniLic" of CI'C' 1111 ,,1'1,\,1" lI,t'
stressed by ]·'urtwangler, Die nntik('n (}1'Jn?I/('II, Ill, IU HIj" lind fill' II \'11,1,11 ",
reasons by Glob;, Dcolllla, Gordll" Childe, Cllllr\)ollfll'ILIIX, II'clI'Hdyk,', Mill "" 1
Schweitzer. Tlw clifTcrclICl' het.wl'l'lI (;"l'd, lind Ml"ill,n iN "ll1pli"r./;',od I,v 1111-1,,,
Wllldt, Prwwli"ik,'l', VOII SIlIi", {{Ul'O lind S"ijd"l'.
IHH
 ( 'IJ 111/ J/ I' I 1/ 1/'·\ /!/ I / /I ('It '1/111 I'r" IJ/ I III
III Ihill yt'l'y JlI'L'(J('(:lillltlillll willt willl'l' pl'nldl'lwl IlIi~ helll lh(·

I' 1~1I11 why sLylii'l1 it ",'i!('I'in hnvc j'1'{'qut'lIlly 1>('('11 IIvnhlll'dl'lInl wit II
HIIlIl'ld Hi/-(nili('llIIC('IUit! HillC'I,;, tL~ we HltW, the (' .. ('Lilli !'t'll1tlil1H f\(1ltl. ill l~
,,,:- ,. Lllltild' ('l1lL1II'l\1 Vf\.Cllllln, morc L1mli one I'whulttr has bc('n Lempl.ed Jlnd
'.'." i.1I hYJ!oHLnLi"c L1Jcil' character ft.!; the IIllmiJestittiol1 or a [(71IIIt'I'Srl'll'
ijjl! IlwJ) to postulate a purdy imaginary correlr.LLion betw(,;l,;n Lhell).
\'r flllly realizc thc methodological difficulties but believe LhM I~
1) "111111' nrgument can be avoided if in interpreting the mcan i ng PI' Ihi'
I I III'Il we err in the direction of the obvious rather thall the SW'('lIl11.ti \Ie,

Unfortunately, however, even the best ofiotentions l11ay w"'l ('01111'

1(1 Wid' in the face of such extraordinary diiI-icultie~ as thc "lid (, .. in I
\
jllt·ht'lIts, For the remains of mural frescoes and painted rclids lllT V('I'y
l'IlI/{ll1cntary and have been published in the form of ingenious "('NIII
Ilwl ions which are sometimes unsound; it is, for instance, I;l~d tl}
II "Ii",c how much learned speculation has been wasted Oll a Illysl,{'l'i(1111-

i" .. HOll called a 'blue crocus gatherer' who turned out to be a IWiJI""Y"
j"'Hgmcnts of scenes in relief on stone vases often lack a elrk to l.Il('i,'
jld ('l'JH'etation, and in the ease of glyptic, the mass of intl'jcat., , illillgl'l'
\\ hie II would in any case tempt the most scholarly rnill(l to flllllll'ly, I'.
hul through with specimens not found in scientific cxcavnLi()II,~. '1"1'
HlIthe more serious since a number of these bought ril'cl's lllLY(1 lll"'l1
I ('('('pled as genuine by Sir Arthur Evans and have bcclIlibNllllv 1I/o1'd

rur t.he purpose of interpretation by others.

l' .. However, the elimination of such material and the r.isk illVoh"'d i'l'
100~ill~ valuable evidence by being over-sceptical, arc mill(II' pl'ol )!l'1l1
~
'1lmpnred with one which cannot be definitely solved in til(; IWL'HI'II!
II~tc of our knowledge: that is, the actual relation betwcen Cl'rtll,il 1LIlt!
l\lyc'enaean works of art. Here again, scholarly chauvinism m1c! the r,wl
tllll!, the publication of the Mycenaean shaft graves was Sl. Inng drlnycd,
I.llve added to the confusion of what is at best a baflling COlllpk
lIuation. Not until Professor Karo's standard work appcul'cd ll did
t 111'1'1' seem much reason to doubt that the majority ( ) f My l.'1'1I11 L'a 11 SI'Il!.·"
old cups, anel daggers were Cretan imp0l'ts-in fact, Hon." lIlJ<!(Iubl
,'lIly are-and attempts to play IIp thc mcrits of fl, lVJYCtr1I\Cltll I'll vl,'
'('med a.t thcir best overdonc, at their worst, pCl'V('I'S(',
I Yct, so cautious and unbiasc(l a schv1ar as Pl'oft'sslIJ: Nil:iH(1I1 WII
.~
t"
IIlllCllIgst the fir:;t tv warn-on gcnrl·Il.I <Ll'cho'('nhJt:{j('ul I-!I'nlll\(I"~

). ....-::::;: /Il{llill~L ignoring a differcJlce ill chHnwtcr bel.w,·cll ltul.hl,;llLie Myl'('r\\'Illl

. " _ _I

IIl1d CretnJllTlntcriul, ltlld Pro{'('ssnr K1l.1'O hits now ('ollsidl'l'Hhly Hli h

I I''kCl .J. D, S. I'r.nrllobnry, The .ltrrllro[OP,1J I))' t.:r!'lv (Loutlllli 10110), WI Hq •
• U, 11. J(l\rQ, /He Srfuu·!tIMrtll,l·r lJOtl JIl.'lkt·lll/ t ' (]VI tindll'll, I{1I1ll).
Martin P. Nill4llllll, ?'Iw JI/i/lOIl1/·JllY('nI{l/'/Il/ 1i1'1ip,Ii/li Oild fI,~ ,...·/IIV"1Jf11 (/l
(""do' 1i1'Il/Jh)ll (LIIJld ] n:':7) ,
fH
 ('Of II/II/' I ,III'" l!/ 11t(' ('/,1'/((/1 I'/o/J/(
SLlllI tinted Uli~ view. 0,,1.1. hlLVO l'l'j('ded, 1)11 VII/'Y J.(IICld grllllill h, 'I
notion that MYCclmc Wll.8 0, IllCJ'C 011 "post of /l, Mi,Il)ll.l! CJI'j)i"I" 1111.1 ""
made a strong Case for the assmnption that Cl'CI:JlI\ artists 1\'1I1'ld1iP
Mycenae may have executed orders for their (')\'crlol'ds und 1111.1 lilt 1
work may therefore reflect an alien influence.Withuut lukilJl{ /ill',
the controversy about the hypothetical events which detel'lIlilJOd II,
political and economic relationship between Mycenae alld J\ IIII'" ii
we have been forced to accept this view because it alone ('UII 111'1"'"11
for the fact that there is both a similarity in style and a cOlJsidl'l 11,1
difference in content between some so-called 'Minoan' imports 1'lllllld!li
the mainland and authentic Minoan material. This diffel'clwi' i,'i, III III
opinion, even greater than Nilsson and Karo have seen. I IHi,Vt' II" I,
fore avoided-especially in dealing with religious and 5:1CI'IIIIII III,:'
scenes-the interpretation of Minoan scenes by using Myl'('IIIII,j
material and vice versa. This practice has already caused a gn',,' d'.1l
of confusion, which we hope to eliminate by treating the lVIII,,, 'i1
material on its own merit alone.
1 See also Helene J. Kantor, The Aegean and the Ancient Near
illgton, Indiana, 1947), p. 62 sqq.
III
HAPTER III
ivotal Motion in Early DeSH!'n
I will be necessary-as in the case of Egypt and Mcsop(JtuJllin 10
I(lrl with a short survey of early decorative art. It is trill' Ihlll, i'i
(·,t1'ly glyptic few, and on early pottery no representutiulls of' liglll"'o:
':1\'111', but the general character of this art can be shown Ltl pl'I'll/'1I1 It
i', 1I1111'knble analogy to later developments. Here the suhth.' vlld \'\111
l':flH/ (1IiI,.. " I h'l\lious work of Friedrich Matz 1 has contribut<.:d 1I1W1'(' 111/111 /Ill,
"lh",' to the formal understanding of early glyptil' nllli VII1'lI' I'IIj"'''I~'"
~1111\'. goes beyond the mere study of motif's aud I.r,j/'r.: h) U"d, IIy fl
'"llpal'ative method which is far less esoteric thall hi~ 11,1':11 "111'1 I· "Illl'
.,I,,/o(y suggests, what he calls 'stylistic pri11cipkll' ill 1110 dI'C'II!IIIIV,
Ill'/tlment of given surfaces. These principles, hI) sll(IWI'I \'PIl""II~iHgb,
,IIrrl'r in character from those underlying, for' imrtHIlN" I I.!' I'll i Ii II'U
pottery of Susa or the patterns on early E:gyptiu:1I Hetti:; wilh wll/"" Illi
nllllpnred them. He found that in designing stamp I>cnh;2 L1w l'1'I'1 II II,.,
'\w1'l\l1y speaking, did not cut up a round surfacc l.clIglh\vis(' III' el'lIl
WI/'le, like the Egyptian seal cutter, nor did they trf'lI.l n, givr'n ('il'(,I"
11·('t.onically by stressing circumference and radii as did till; 1tl'I isl /l Ill'
I Iii' Susa bowls. The Cretans emphasized both celll,n; alit! t,lr{!lIll1-
lc'rl'l\ce and thus produced a circular und dynamic po.tlern, l\, \Vlli,'Jill
movcment in the design. This corresponds with a prcference .1"01' spi,'nl
1l'l1l1lypes and in the case of animal figures with ft CUl'iolis spil'ldiJ'ol'lIl
twisting of' the bodies. Where human liglJ)'cs oce'lIl', t1wsc I\gn.ill h,Wt, ,
I'\rln.ill mobile quality: spidery limbs fixed on to t1 tl,jnngulnr I.(H'HU
1('10 orten pivoted in the centre and this, incidelltnlly, i1,ppCHI'N ,~
fI,'"lude to later types of" flgul'c drawing.
A difIel'cnt but related principle cnll bc detected in 1,11<,; tre
III ulobulal' vase ::illrfuccs wllerl', ill, n IIml1JJ(,;r UIIl:X('l1lpJil\('L! ill ..11/11'"
I':uvp" or M"csop0(,funitt (but ('\C'c'trJ'ing- ()11 til(' (;1'(,'(.1\ Illllillllln<!) 1,1.(,
, I;', l\1r1l'/., f)icJi'rtihlr'r('/,i;~I'!I"1I811'f./rl (lkrli" I,dp:t.ig, 11)2101).
• I~v~'n ill (lit' ('IINl' (If ('yllnd(' I'll f.(H' llill (liul Iht, ,!ylllll!rll"d) ~lIrl'!WI\ WIlH 1'111 \','d,
If/I
 ,tlfI" 1,1
tLll'lIlpl i.'i r(llllIdlW:-;"l ill H IlollI djl\~I"j,.1
1I11tdl' 1.0 1'lllplw"i:t.I' 11ll'II'
swcep. ''t:()I'~ion,', us MnLz Cltl1~ il, is II\(' kt·y wf)l'd 10 I1lksil~11 whll II I
atectonic because it doc:; Dol {lnttly~e 1.111' j rntl i')lIfd ClIl'VC iII v,',III'd'
and horizontals but grasps it directly in fl.ll oblique' patteI'll \\ 111,1]
carries the eye up and down and around the sUI'fo.ce.
On large flat decorated surfaces Matz detects a similar illl,I'I'P .. 1 ill
atectonic coherence. Here he finds patterns, the movement l'l' wit .. Ij
can be followed in all directions, He calls the decorative pl'ilJ('ipll "j
these 'unending rapport'.

FIG. 39. Kamares Vase, Phaestos

FIG. 40. Kamares Vase, Knossos

Matz's analysis is not only subtle but extremely intel'e~ting "("'Ilt ItiP
the three principles-whirling movement, torsion, and 1111I'lIdlll"
rapport-seem interrelated, and one might be tempted to ask i r lIi,"d",
principles could not be found in Cretan repl'cscntnl.ional ill'L. 1l1l,1l. Mill LX X X I v, .J IIMI' I i'I (: Ill·; j,; H. II J\ \: I ,\ 'I'li 1,\ Il ,\
has wisely abstained from following lip this ql'll'~tif}n. Wllich will ""C 111 ' (JJl/gt I~~:,)
1 0'
 ...-:: -"
~-
3 ~.
~

~~

z
L
z z
z z
z z
::
-
7:
--
";;{
-. ~
- ---
.- -
\
(
)
<
:> :>
'1
, X
X
;/.
;/.
~ ':
 /'I/lp/U/ II/pllllll (/1 II;(/I'/J 1""'/111
II" III 1\ dirkn:lIl, forlll Ink!'; Iais ",'iJll,ipll'l'l "live 1IC11, 1'llllnwl~y wiLh Iaill.
Illd II(' IIlops pt'ltcLicnlly with Lbr 11'~'o.LrllcnL or Ihe IItH'n.H,-1! 'KllIHlll'hl'
11'(', l\ Vl'r)' fillc polychl'OlllC pulLery which chrolllllug-il'HlIy 1(lld
IY1i1l!.iC'A,lIy just precedes the sll(lc1ell cmn't"csc(;I1CP of seen ie SCftl dcsiWl1'l
IIld fl'(;seo painting. The search for abstract decorative principkH
,tllid seem here, on the face of it, absurd, for we find in Karl'lt!,rcs w(ll'i'
111l'llllghout an astonishingly original but wilful 'free' desigll Ill' 1111111 j •
..Inured motifs scattered over the sUl'face: unconnected spirnls, WI1V
lilli'S branching out into droplike appendages and dotteu rllsettl'fl.
"/1 Uered, yes, but not without a subtle sense of colour vall1cs Hlld
11It!'mony of movement. For the Kamares artists delighteu in 'Jllovillg'
1'"I.Lcrns, like scrolls and arabesques, and this not only rnakcs flll' I.
IYl\II.I11ic coherence of disparate motifs but gives each one III' tlll'lIl II
Ill'ious independence as if they were charged with life. Thf'l'c is II, ~:t'II""
I'lli' Lhe organic even where organisms were not depiete(l, a klldt'lIl'y ",'
IIlllke lines sprout from hollow curves as if from n:xjls, Lo 11111 I,/! I j,,~il'l

IH'nd and thicken like leaves or curl like tcncLriJs, '1'1.1;1'\' is ,,1·\'1 Ii II
IIIC'l'casing preference for rounded cell-like shapes. Til 1101111' (Ii" I hi' 1'1111 ~I
t \llmples a balance of centrifugal and centrip«.;l,al III1/V('III\ 101 ,,111,,11
III(' large roundish patterns makes the designs 1\1'1 i "1'/01 j'llIlIl lid It 'I
"IIllYincing as organic form (Figs. 39, 40).

FIG. 41. Vase w,;,th Octopus, Gonnv;,u,

In the later stage--after a short decline in the poUer's ('I'nfL whell

til artistic interest seems focused on scenes in mund f1'l':S(lO\~R n.nd
lypLic-plant and :.J,ninlOJ. motifs aplw;)I' ill pr o l'lIsioll. The choicllc' nl'
lllglc motir." clearly shows ~J, pI/rely decorative intention: lhe tli.llli\~
I. X X X Y ". 'I'" I J.:.-; 'I' - 1\ J N \; , 1\;\ () N:-\ 1).0; or n vase n1i\.Y he stressed oy stCHlS of lilies, thc Lenluclcs of lUI III'l(lPII
(jlll.J.:'(' 1 ~'!' "mllrncc 0. gl(/blliar vCflse! (Fi~. 11); while' L1w smull I1l1utiltlSl'il f10HI iJ t
}II '1 lIll hll.M.
 'I/'{J/tt! Ilfo/wlI 111
.
/I;(/I'!-' eMUI
pparClI'Lly SO '"1COllC()"'ll'U llnllllld the VILS. II' Il'i,~, 4,~ III'" "1111 flil!
interspaeed by pattel'fls of rock, roundcd /1 lid ,1I·Jil«' mlllllltl"lul'l "iilt

CHAPTER IV

Absolute' Mobility in Organic For

retan representational art bursts into bloom in the Late Miu,ll,'

Minoan period 1 ; it then appears with startling suddennciis ill
mural frescoes and in glyptic, probably slightly later on earv('d
lone vases and in painted relief. Its period of efflorescence is surprisi "gly
hurt; it fades as rapidly, as inexplicably, as sometimes the genius of I
l,hild prodigy. The comparison may seem forced but it is not altogether'
II IIjustified, for in Crete the best work shows a striking lack of develop-

FIG. 42. Vase with Nautilus 1I11,mt, in the sense of latent artistic conflicts solved, latent possibilities
I ?tplored. The consequence is that we can rarely place single works,

form with them a live decorative network in which an 11l1lIU'('" IIIi
'unending rapport' can be easily detected.
Yet the same fine sense for organic form prevents these lfIol il'~ f'lll
being subordinated to decorative function; they are not Iwlw,nllU
not dissected; singly beautiful, singly alive, each creature pin.
in a symphonic design.
wIth any certainty, within the rough stratigraphical sequence, which jf;
Ilw only objective dating evidence at our disposal. In this sequCJlt'('
I Ial' so-called 'scenes of nature' appear before coherent scenes of aeLioll,
hilL they may well overlap, and valid stylistic criteria for dating HI'"
IlItking. All good work has spontaneity and daring; poor work is dldl
l"'('!luse it is repetitive. It is quite possible that every new al:tisti"
Vl'nture, early or late, had its mechanical aftermath, but one thing il
(I('l'tain: Cretan art could not survive on the strength of teclulical
I'ornpetence alone, as happened in some barren periods in Egypt; whell
11 I't' ebbed out of it, it disintegrated.
We shall, therefore, in dealing mainly with good work, frequently
l!nvc to disregard moot points of dating and treat the material as OIlC.
I I' all the same we discuss thc 'scenes of nature' fust (PIs. LXXXII·
LXXXV), this is largely bcclwsc their startling originality lilts
Il'lllpted critics to use terms which me confusing and ou!!h t to b
,.Iiminated.
The first rcactioll or tlaww who, kllowillg' Neill' Eastern nnd dassicltl
11'1, recognized the 1)('/I,lIl.y til' 111I~NC' pliinlingH WitS one of IILLcl' nllln#';l'·
nH'nL. From tirl'1C illllll('litClIl,tl 1I1111i. 1I0t, IIILLIII'(', hltd b('{'l1 nnd would

, Hnijdt,J', lor. cil., :.17, II"" ""'I~ Iiii ItIIJl~' "IHIII'd IIUI"II~L 11,(' ('ILrly dlLLllig "f lltt
II ('!lIke! tTOl'lIN ulill"",-."
1 oit,'
lUll
 ('1'1'1(1{1 1"
uc for millcllllin, the nrl.i1'ltll' Illstill (;O/l('Cl'tl. IIt'lists 111111 ,d/llllll Ii
served as acces1)uries of lflHlI'S pursuits, 'sc\)lIery' I\S H fH'l.Ill'J,t I,if II
actions. But here nature was 1)CL[-Sllfl1('icllt fl./> picl.(}J'inlt'vllIl'"1
And this was not the only SOUl'ee of wonder: thcNl' f,',,:w,u
paintings in the modern sense of the word; the ercllLlln"!. 11,.\
stones depicted, are part of a closely woven textul'c, t,h(' 1,,,1'11111 !
harmony of which defies analysis. We find, in fact, :L typt; uf ('.. h, 1111
which is the very opposite of the deliberate clarity whit'l, I'll' ·.li
elsewhere in the ancient Near East: of single figureD pHill.,IlIllil
outlined in groups painstakingly composed. No wonder allll,·I" 11111
notions occurred to those who were not satisfied by merely 1.,.,111.111 1 "
into a word picture the elusive charm of these scenes alld \IIh .. , II Ii
talked rashly of 'naturalism' and 'landscape' or more s'lJhUy 1<11'
the purely colouristic or decorative function of the figures.
Unfortunately, what seems most easily accessible in this fll'
prove most alien, so that our very criteria of judgment bec(') II II' ""It
To speak of naturalism, for instance-that is, of a conscious jill, I' l i
and respect for, the appearance of the phenomenal world ll'li \- i
tempting in the face of forms so buoyant with life, yet it ml'IU IS Ij.l' II" I'
the fact that several of these forms cannot have been ObSCI'Vl'd III .. II
blossoms and leaves of different plants have often been hi~h·11I1I1l11 ill
combined, birds' pIumage altered. 1 To speak oflandscapc )I] l\.y Ill' , q II Eji
tempting, yet this would make the term quite meaningless. '1'1"111 ,1111 ! I
requisites are there-plants, trees, rocks, watercourses (('veil " I('iii
'lain occurs (PI. LXXXVc)-but the essence of landscape, I,ll" It .. d
ing of natural phenomena in space, is lacking completely. Nllt ",iI
depth, but even up and down, from the spectator's viewpoilli. fill ~ill
ignored; rocks and plants above the central figure poilJ'L dllWi'Wfili l
while the spatial relation between figure and setting rCnlHill.'l"lIlllllllill
Figures appear to float-by no means in vacuo-bll t, IlS I' \',T!
suspended, caught, like a patch of colour in the centre ()f lUI 1111 i'II'/I
design. In fact, the more one tries to interpret these SCCII{'fI ill 1~'I'!lIli
naturalistic landscape, the more one is forced to admit also Lhl'II'lIfio:: ii i
'live character, to the point where one might be tempted I(l 11'·111, I h
natural forms as capricious patterns only. Yet if these j'I'q-l('i1I"l II /01 II'
illusionary windows, conjuring up illusionary vistas, tlllJy JIlt' .... I iii
ornamental tapestries either, for they do convey ulltbChl-io 111,1\ I Ii-Iii
of beasts and plants in an authentic, if by no mCf~JlS Hrti('1! IlLl.' I' (,!Iii
The tendency to overstress the significuncc of ~'itlt(\I' 1'111111 III
form alone is particularly dangerous jf scholurs lonk 1'01' (Ilil'llll~l.I !!i' I,)\)\)\VIII,\. II,\HVI',:->'I"',IC V.\SI':. 11;\\:1.\ 'l'ICI,\III\
side the Aegean in order to throw some light l\ll tlt(\ HII'lll1~I' "IE'llIii" (/}(l~'::(' I !I~I)
I

Ino
.,.
Pola.l'l' fJf JlN1Il18, (I,~, fl. 'J,/SMr. 1," X X \' \111l. II!;'\ \. III': Z I': I, \\' 1'1'11 It II L I, .I 1'1\1 \' 1'. f(, \ Il !\ II .\ N ,,~ H
(/ 11I.,1!'" ~()O)
 · n'lIllIf 'Itllnlill /(, (J, ~1/1l1t' "'111 III,'
f~ilnlll1l' (' .. "lllli lid,: I,(,th ('llin!l; (llid .ll~11I1I1 !l/LYI' hl'l'll 1111011'(1. HIII'II
4'IIJ1lpnriSQIIH, !tQw\.lver, !\"(~ 11'1\, illlllllill,din/.{, fIll' JlI'i~bN' Chin('!';(' '141"
Inpn.ncsc art slJollld b<; cOJlsiJcro,;u npLll'l f,'() II 1 ils clIllund cuulcxL, IWtl
III I:lpeak iJlJiscrillliHatcly of I,'ar E::tslcrn lallJseapos menus to ignul'l'
I h(' philosophic and nostalgic p::mtheism which permeates L'be wJ1C, I hI'
t1ll1ost formal aestheticism which dominates the other. The poignlLld
It''auty of Chinese landscapes of the Sung period, for instance, lies ill
II\(' fuct that here, more often than not, the vulnerable finite wnJ'ld ()I'
nUU) or beast is blended, in subtle contrast, with a mysteriously ill!.Ull
lllle, receding universe. In Japan, again, the reverence for the 'givell
IWl\uty of the phenomenal world by no means implies a simple h,v\' or
lIlLlure but a deep concern with its transcendent signiftcn,nec. I'll 'II"
noscnce of cultural data it will be as useless to look for such CIlIII!'I .. "
Il.y and depth in Cretan art as it would be to look for pcrspi'i'I,i V(' ill
I heir scenes, the primitive character of which has been agaill lind /11111111
I ..essed by sensitive observers.
On the other hand, it is not helpful either if an, .Lher n i l f"lll "j'
'omparatiye method is used and this very primitivclli'SH "'IpIII1l1ld
\11 has been done by Snijder1-by postulating a pC('lilin!' 1>!1'1 .. I ~i"II!I
llicmory which Cretan artists would have sbarod \vil,II J1"IIWIIIIII,;, 1111111
on the one hand and a modern mentally defici('IIL ('hild 1111 1111 ,.1111)
An analysis of the space-time charaetel' or (;1','11111 'Ill 1111'11\\1.. 1
Ildvantages over this type of treatment: it Ci~lllLV(lid illl"lpnlloll\i
Npeculation and yet need not ignore the rCllfesf\r\ I.lI,t,iollld ('111111111 /I
sueh. 2
Ludwig Curtius, in a fine poetic paraphrase of the s('('IH'H, l'llIlIfl'-~.
Lerized them as 'iiberhaupt Leben', life absolute. s The phnLlli' 11I1J:llli
well serve as a motto for any treatment of Cretan art fo1' nJ()v,'II\I'1I1 •
organic movement seems of its very essence: movement ill ul'usl, PI'
man, in wind-blown flowers with petals dropping, in the wl'itllill~ stl·ItI
of creepers clinging to rocks, even in the rocks themselves, which 8\'1'11\
n substance barely solidified. But it is not with movement a}olll', h\ll
ils peculiar character, that we are here concerned, a:nd ill (wlcr' lo
define it we have to analyze the figures singly, consider the qllCHLion of'
t.heir mutual relationship, the coherence of figure allll seLting. 'L'lw lin,1
question which arises, then, in connection with the single ligll!'(> is thill:.
J Snijder, loe. cit.,passim.
" Valentin Muller ~ives a careful analysis of Cretan ' JlallJ1'ld;U'l'tkIlUll~' ill II
LXXXIXA. BULL Al\D i\1i\\ Of\' /':\'(:'1,\\'1<') <:1':1\1, ",'0/01"''-' Krcti:sch-mykenische Stl.luicn, Jaftrbuch des J)ctltsc/um An;/iwolu,/J,i,vc/m) It/NIl;ill" ,
(j)({!.[(' 1 !l!l) 1025, p. 85, and J!)27, p. 40; it suffers, however. from the Iilllilntinn \)f 1\ !lilli"
formal treatment (I!1U the re:;lIlt is a pUTcly llcgt\tive Rtn.'t':lIwnt t.hlt!: ('rlllllli llr
LXXXIXn. DOC: i\1\'J) IJII':X 11\' ''::\\:II \\ I':" 1;":,\1, h'IJ""H, 'Jl'!nchkllll:;I;' .
(/lfl,!!'t' ~OOi • 1.. Cllrlius, in lJ£c At/lilec ](11'111;1 (11:U1dhuch cler l{lIl1~twiHHI'IIH,'hhfl.), II, /J('/
\ lo,q,qisc!te Sla, p. 6t til),
!)
 ( 'I''' to II
1)'\(J/IIII" II/u/JlIII) III (}I'f~tll1It' /1/1/ 111\
hus the stl'lICllmll complexity 01' thL'SU IIIPl,ilt,: I'I'I·Hl.lIl"'~ 1111'" IP''-'~jH II nrlllllllllll Ilgor(I~. Bill. fhiN uq.;'div(· ,jlldglll"ollllh'''li''' o'JOllll' Ihi III{ (";SI'1I
their 'corporeality' in the widest fun.ctionEd S('IlS{l he,." 11'""" c 'I,iidi
llld, IlltOI(;l y, the 11 unli Ly uf 1I11!1I1.llIp",'(·d IlhIV('IlICII t wltil'll iN Ihe
The answer is that this is not the ea1;iC nlll!. lhat-rnu.'illdr,jk illl~1 y I" I!
"IIl'I'dative of this 1nc'k (Jf stl'Lu'l,1I1'1\1 rigi, li
earlier painting and glyptic-the funclional l'cla'Li(m hi" I"', II [I
'l'his 1l1lhampcl'el!. movement, however, is 'free' in yet 1l.lIoLlwr fWIINI'j
different parts of the organism, the problem of thc J:claLi(l/l I" I I\(',n I
I iN, namely, rarely functional, nenr]y always umclatc1l, is in fILet sd/'-
and the surrounding world have been largely ignon;J, II' lVI' " " ,
·Ulll.llinea, and we shall find that both formally speaking /llltl 1Liflo lLN
characterize the type of movement in the fragments heJ'O dt'pil'lld, II,
"·/.Cltrds the type of action chosen, the notion of self-containcdncs~ ill
term 'absolute mobility' suggests itself. It is admitL('(lly I. I"i'" Iii
IllOvcment will prove the key to much that appear~ cnigmatic ill I II..
paradox which could only justifiably be used in the case of 11,/1'1'(,1111 'II'
I'II11racter of Cretan scenes.
molluscs moving in the unresisting medium of aquatic worldll. ,"
As far as the gestures and posture ofthe single figure arc COIlt:CI'llC·d,
one remove--in the case of birds in flight. Yet the term sil/{gl',,'" \'I
j "lIc'h movement is apt to be balanced by a countcrmovc;ment withi"
we do, in fact, find in these scenes, namely, an unpal'allt'lnl 'I'lli/it
III(' figure, which makes it appear self-centred yet neVel' at )'l'sL III III"
of freedom which not only transcends the limitations whil'h II '"111;;.
\'lIst majority of cases, animals in 'flying gallop' have thl'ir IIf'1Id
angular structure imposes on earthbound creatures, but I'VI'/I 1/.I11i'll'
IIrned back, whereby the forward impetus is changed inl.o u (,jrt',dllr
their heaviness, their tensional relation with a resisting :)1I"slll'" I I i
I wist. Nearly all human figures show what appears sllpcrnt'inlly 1\
Cretan scenes movement seems effortless, a quality epitolllizl'd "' IIi
"ttrious S-shaped outline or diagram; this is, however, by J)O nWll'H
'flying' gallop (most Cretan of inventions) and recognizuJJk III~" 11
1I1cre idiosyncrasy of pattern, with stress on buttocks Ulld l'lIcst, 1,"1
the 'floating' dancers whose feet hang limply, ineffectively, ;-<1/ 1111,1 II!,
I dynamic formula in which forward thrust and backwanl stall('c' oj
swaying figures seem detached from earth, not even :J'es;li"III (I'j
vice versa-are combined. This is particularly striking ill tlw "Il~(' ."
LXXXVI). The fact that Cretans rarely depict feet firolly /oiI'I"'"
III ~itting figures (PI. XCIII), of dancers and wrestlcrs, 1)111; ('VI'II Ilw
but often more or less dangling, has been noticed before, I hilI II I
posture of the so-called 'priest-king' (PI. LXXXVII) docs /ll)l, NIII~WHI
equally remarkable that when they render a sitting figllre il I' !I!
Nimple forward stride, and in nearly every instance of eel'tall fig'"'"
least in the work of the best period-never immobilc in tIll' /oil 11"'1 Ii;
drawing the union of an antithetical movement is (;!llphH!oJi:t.n1 by 1111
rigid or relaxed nor does it ever rest on an identifiable solil1 SC'lLJ. TIl"1/1
t'xLremely narrow waist which seems the pivot of a <.lounle volllti'.
remarkable of all, however, is the fact that the Cretan~ SOIIl' 11111
Even in the case of a group of massed figurcs in rOI)VcJOclIl.,:-;l!flll'
depict their gods explicitly as airborne creatures, who~f;l "pq,IIIII'
I hing similar can be observed. In the 'harvester vase' (PI. LXr'XXV J I ,,~)
occurs in a birdlike descent with hair streaming upward 1111.1 I" I
pointing down. I he forward surge is not only counterbalanced by a forc::;'l of fw-ks poi Ii I
Itg backwards, but the upturned heads, the cxaggcrated IiI' Ling 0/' II..·
The term 'absolute mobility', therefore, is not a nH.:r(' 1'",,1'1 "'11
fences, makes the movement of these youths not t"aL or IIl1u'('hlri/
paradox; it will prove a central concept, the implicatiOlls "I' 1\ ',1, I,
yokels but as light and as complex as a dancer's.
will enable us to group a number of peculiarities in Cretan (11'1. ill " I\'ii
An immobile standing figure is extremely I'Cll'(.·j We' h,wo, ill (hc'l
which makes them appear both coherent and signifiCHllt, WIllol,
only one good example in a scene which ill tL!!oJo ill III h"I' I t'NIH'C'I,N "","'1'
called the lack of harshness and structural clarity in organ ii' I!! I II', ",!i
t.ional and which we shall discuss later.
instance, is striking for Cretan figure drawing and modeUiJ/I; IliI' 'II,." Where the movement is not self-coli LaiIlt'{\ ill tl,l' HI'II',I' WI hllll"11 t 1,.1
out, although this can be easily overlooked in ca~es whe!'/' ,.j'I'/1 II,
other figures may provide the COWltCl"llIOV('lIl1'lIt wlllt)" II., I Il'./' I "I
convincingness of the movement (such as the feline st"ctl'ltill ,1I II,
H t.hc scene, as for instance, in bull-jllmping 'l('('lIc'N, wi" r I jIll 1,,,11 i'l III
catspaw in PI. LXXXII), the contortions of the tossed yllill ,. :il
vn.tiably given in a flying gallop but the hL'tlr1 itt IIfll 1IIIIIId I,ll" I, I I.""
PI. XCIVb, or a mass of surface detail make one f(Jrgot it 1"11'10/ I
the youths perform a saIto in the ()l'posil,C di,,'('li'J11 (1'1 I, \ \ \
in an obviously biased but very shrewd analysiS,2 has showu "lin " ,
In PI. LXXXIXn. the diagonal pos'Lme of' 1.11(' lllall ~'ljJlll
always the suggestions ofrippliJlg muscles rather tbun Ill' bllllj' 1111/11'
lifting movemc;ntj this is counlero,ctl;d Ily [.11(' d"WIIWlllIl
and tendons which predominatcs i/l even thc most I1cLtiil('d .... ,,,1, '"l
It lOall's vj(Jlent. aSSlllllt, which Tcn1iLillS fH"'llic'Jl,lIy 0111' pllllllC\1 l"d
1
,
SJlijder, ltlc. Cil., till Rqq, a IlJ;d.,"':) /il!.
(lr('ntcfl It dynnl1licnlly lJ:tlftllccd i!1'sij.{ll. Tlw ~1(:,,1,. IJllIvi.I" III 1'," ,
UH
11)11
 ('" /'111 '" J,\ I) I /III' III ()IJlIIIJ /II () I h (II/Il I' 'III fI/\
JllIlHlle r or il\!;Lu,JIC'l'~
wh('re' gJ'()llpilll~ ~i("'llI~J III ,Ii III 1I1 1I h,dlllll whnl,j~ 1.111' splLlilll rl'lll,Lipli I,('I,WI'( 'II 1,11l' 'Il"d IIl1d rllt' nwllil ill
nlOvcmcnt and COlin l('I'lIll1Vl~IUClIl,'ntlH'I' lhllll 1\.1. It. H"'" It' 1/1' 1I/'('lIlI, 1'1.
i Ii I LXXX V, Tlwrc is Ill) qucsLio ll ')1' i1111S1011ist.i(, I'l'('('ssioll, 1)1' L')'cnLIII
as the flying Hsh ill PI. LXXX lll, The NUPVr!, sen I wi!.h illl" 111111.1 '('S
4'('1\ agains t j\, partly fOl'ln-liUcd void, 1I0r of
(PI. LXXX IXb), the only instanc c J,nowlI of a ll)pugJ'ltl'hi,'"II.\ the Iao,plic e)uriLy of IIcHr
,_I. vitow, that is, of plastic forms l1ppcuring in one planc. There is II( I 1)(,-'111'.
and plausib le scene of action, manag es to cornllinc n. tC'nsit\l1l11 ',lIlftd
i 110 1'01', barely up and down. Such scpara
ble entitie s as occur ill UII'
with a subtle form of antithe tical (but by no men.lJS 'JI('I'I/.I .III") flll'hll
'OJ'm of single beasts, plants, and stones -thoug
ment which entails a circula r movem ent in the dcsigu, h plants frcquc nl ,!
('('01 to merge into one anoth er-are caught
It is, of course, tempti ng to treat this and other inr·l't.all('l' 1111 I. I in the web of a livillg
wOl'ld that has indefin ite orienta tion and indefin ite multip le l'Clal,iOI
a decora tive device, an attemp t at creatin g a patterl l. This in .111,1111 lH.
'I'his is most strikin g in the scenes of nature , but even in scencS
up to a point but, as so often happen s when the pictori al ('0111," " I ()l'
I /I('lion where, at any rate, the orienta tion of human figures is
out of accoun t, it ignores yet anothe r and very rcmark alll,' 1'''1'' 11101'('
I I definite; rocks may hang and plants may sprout from a.ny point of
'self-co ntained ness' in Cretan art, namely , the fact tLtLt ill'llllll t.lIl
\! ~('cne's enclosu re and in the later frescoes a wavy pattern ofstercotyp('1
rarely purpos eful and have their fulfilm ent in themselv('s, '1'111 "', !
Ii' J"Ocks may surrou nd it like a picture frame. The sugges tion of
gallop in animal s means speed but not flight; it is hardly ('V"J' It'" sur
,'oundedness is upheld throug hout.
to a huntin g event; in fact, the absenc e of huntin g sccnes ill ("Iii
Inglyp tic, where we often find religious scenes, dances , and l'ilL:s,
compa red with Mycen ae is very strikin g indeed . We do jilld M'tlil
I he more precise, more plastic work of the seal cutter yet manag
action in which more than one human figure is involvc d; 1.11('sl' "'1111' cs
('onvey the same sense of indefin ite coherence, althou gh by differe
be satisfa ctorily dealt with unless we touch on the vexc,l <1"""'11' nt
11 lllcans. In this case it is the dispos ition of the single figures (all in
their significance and we shall therefo re discuss thcm ill t III t;hui,'
II' 'self-co ntained ' postur es or acts) which gives the impres sion
chapte r. But this much can be said alread y that in 1.1II'M' ... 1 of a
I Il vngue dynam ic relatio n in an indefin ite space. These figw:e:;
usually religious dances, rites or games, the action is sigllili"/ 111'('
Ili t ! neither bound to the surface by a ground line nor is there any top"
itself, not subser vient to an ulterio r achiev ement or 011t' \Vllil'll
1'1 ~raphic indicat ion of a recedin g void. The gesture s of the dUIJ('ilJ
claims a single deed done, In mimes or dances each phase of 11111\ 1111(11 women in Figure 43 which lead from one figure to anothe r and dynarll
is an act fulfilled and the climax is no more than a mere pha,,':w, i
If we now turn from the proble m of the single figurc to 1./ Ill' " , ,I,
relatio n betwee n figure and setting , the term 'absolu te Illohilil ,\'
;11
prove to be illumin ating in a rather unexpe cted way, Fo!' if W(' .. ""
I
those very creatur es to whom this notion does actuall y apl'ly III
111['1'
natura l setting , then the similar ity with Cretan art is mosl. :,11 ddl!
Marine creatur es are in actual fact surrou nded by [Ill 11I1I't,~i
'iii :!,
mediu m and, if we observ e them in their setting , vegeta l 1111,( "I
hi I '-r~
forms may sugges t a scenery, but this will never be an 1I1111lld .i/-:lll1l1d
three-d imensi onal world; it will remain not only h~LptjC{llljr. I,,"d~
in a sense optical ly impene trable. Now if we werc to C1101"1l'1 t '"
I j;
l -
FIG. 43. Dancing Women, Isopata
relatio n betwee n figure and setting in Cretan seencs ofnnttlJ'c', "c Ill/Illt! ally underl ine the circula r groupi ng, suggcs ts a rounde lay; but L!lI'l'I'
well use similar terms; for here such figures as appeal ' (r()lIl:ltI~
centre of the scene) are 'surrou nded by' a profusi()l1 0('1'01'1 liS, \ ''I:' I
II.
II, is no attemp t to dcfine thcir rclativ e positio n in space; they 1'(JIIIII,il
l
II [it noatin g figures. Wc may (j1J(1 fl.Jl indicat ion of rocky soil ill whu.l
other, that are neithe r a decora tive foil nor l1rcalist,ir; ~('lI,illll, Hili 1IIIIIIIh ('lIlJ
tl only be called the forcgn)ulld oj' n scene (Fig, 44), but in these t'(l~H"S
in a manne r which eschews the hard facts of f'lIlwtiol)nl ",'llIl"lW tilt,
ldp scene itsclfis ncwl' hdd L0/-fClhcl' Lopographically uy it, as lill;1\.'
There is, for instanc e, no sugges tion of fL possib lr 1I1k('.ol'r '11" liS ih
\ i-' unity is dcpe,\( klll un l'xpli('illy c'olwl'('nl/l,tliolJ. It is intl 1'I'sting 1
there probab ly a landin g-for the jlll1lpill,(! dl'Cl' of 1'1. I.).. " " 1\ how
('I'itics lllWC (L~llin n,nd 11",illl I1polct'l l of' HIWft'<! l'lIchISIU'CS even ill
do not see whcrc til(' eat's pnw (1'1. l.XXX II) i;4 HlIJlPO/lI'!1 r.. 11 .. C'lII'lI:
1. Ii' wht'I'C 110 such Ihill~ 1I1'PPIlI H, "illl!,l) ' ht'l'IIWW ill
SOIII" slIbtle W1I,V II"
20(1 till t
 ',.rl(f/f /,.1
FIG. 44. Dancing 111an and Women, MW r lllu'
action of self-contained figures was yet made to nppt.:!Ir dyllllllli"iill
coherent. Such stage props as are given-a sacred trcc, all.n r. "" "II Ii 'i
are placed near the circumference and do not act as sulid c"''''II,,:
Action is never grouped antithetically on either side of it divl/II 1111"'
-in fact, such antithetical grouping seems alien to thl' ('11111111'1, i
Cretan art and only occcurs late and in foreign context Wig. l,r,) N",
.-- .. ~ --
FIG. 45. Goddess upon Mountain
we find--except in the late tribute scenes-that the cora 01' I]If 1r:!"11
is a dramatic confrontation. There is no greater diffel'cHco ('II'll'( 1\'" h'
than that between the arrangement of genii flanking the my I 1'11'111 Ii
of life in Assyrian reliefs and (in Fig. 46) the passionaLo 111'1\1 "Wid
FIG. 46. Dancing 111.an and Wornan,
towards and away from the twisted olive tr('c whic'lI S"('II I" lillil Ali
the sacred dance. In the finest fllvptic SC;Clll'H tile 11111111111 I 'tllfl'l Inn
, /lJ.wII/I1'1 1\ I,,!nftlj 1/1 U,.Wlfl1t' /I'pr",,"
illcl('Pl~JlUClll,ly yet hlll'ITIQllillI1Hly, IIl1d it, ill L1\f' IIt:HI.hcti(· 1111"I1I(\IIy (d'
t licit mOVelllCllts which roml!; Ll1l'ir h<llld. YPI, J't'.l'O ngttlll, 1,0 trcllL ,Ill'
d is[losition of 1,11<;: flglI rCS ~t::l if it WCI'C mc["(>ly dicLtd,('c1 by the dccoml.i Vl'
d('rtlO,nds of a circular filling means to ignore the possibility I.hILL ,.h..
(·hoice of this particular surfacc need not havc been;). contin
III, that the nuclear character of the scene and the circular
IIluLually required each other. However this may be-ftll(l we silldt
I'd urn to this question later-it is certainly striking that ill tbt, ('(i!-li'
Ilf n vase (PI. XC) and a rhyton (PI. XCI) (where the hal'::lh poi 111('(1
hnpe may have suggested the use of registers or at lea::lt n hori:t.(JIIt II I
IInnd of figures) the result is unsatisfactory. In PI. XC th.~ 1I1111sllill
igidity of the two figures fits the shape of the vase-if seen frc 1111 IIIII'
llllgie-to perfection, but it does not carry the eye round '/.h(' 1·-lIll·fllC'C'
liS does the sweeping movement of the scene on the hllrv('i>llc'r VIH'H'
(PI. LXXXVIII). Something mechanical, repctitive HlTII)1l 10 C·,dl I
illto the decorative scheme of those vases: thl.: idcnLil'lIl plll'llll"c' III
thc wrestlers on the one, the massed shields (or, aecorclillA' 1\1 HOlllf', II"
('owmde garments) of the other. We shall later dcal wil" III" fUII""'
Vapmo cups, found on the mainland, which both I'rUlII IIII' (lc 11111 III \ It. \\
of content and of movement in space cannot 1)e ('\lIl~idl,,·.'t1 I Y1'll'III, 1111 I
Illay not be purely Cretan; and we shall now COlIsill"I' II. II Ii 1',1 1'- 1111111 "'"
/I ttempt at scenic coherence which we find in Lilt' /'Ill ,·"lIf'd ;Illi II iu 1111 ,
frescoes. l Fragments of these have only bCCI~ I'olilld HI 1\1111'.""" til.!
belong to the 'transitional' period; the ::;CCIlC'101 1'1' 11I~llln' "I 'I'll II IIIIJ
precede them there. In these fragments (pJs. XCJ1, XCIII) WI' ("II' !!111I
recognize the attempt to render a vast and cumplex SITllC': n 1'(.",) i \ I
gathering for a ritual performance which includes the Spl·,'l.n,l,I\I'N, hlHflI
in more or less amorphous masses, some displayed 011 n 'g-"Illlthlllllld l
with fashionable ladies conversing in their private boxes. The hold II.',
of the attempt is staggering, although it must be conljiucrC'c! ILll l\.rl.lHli,·
failure. Formally the disposition of the figures is by no m('ltllf) llnlike I,hl'
scenes ofnature, for the dancers are again 'surroundcll'uy' Lhe SPCCLHI.OI
ina way which lacks topographical precision. But hel'c the fli IlIillll'i
nds, for the very definition of the subject matter precluded till' JlONHi.
hility of weaving a harmonious texture of livillg forms, fwd LIll: tOlIl
plcxity of the scenc made it impossible to concentrate 011 the dylllLlllic
coherence of single figures. A mass of spectato.rs is no more liv/'Iy I hllll
frog spawn, and not cven Cretan :utists eould rnnkc it pictQriully ild"1
esting. It is astonishing to see, though, by what bnlrl IlH)UII/; l.lwy 'Ir'I,'c1
10 enliven, to differcntiate, such dull amorphous IIllLLt-l.'iul: lIoL ouly "
'shorthand' skelchi IIg-in of hc(\,cl::; aliU lil)'lb~ bll L, in th(' 1JI11.l)lH'!' of' 1"111'
1 l'o/area! Mino.v, 11, SSG; JU 4,0 (lIS, PI. XVI: IT (HI 7.•,
2011
 ('('I'/flII 1,'/

painters, uy oold $WrCpN of dirrc'rc'J)L CO!Pllrs, rl"\J fn .. IIlIdl', y' II"

female spectators. Howcver, these n,u(;ll1pt~ lac·1e NIII.III'lj' IIi!
scenes of nature rocks and stones hacl been mOl'1; luvillgly 1I,"'(ltni
and only in the preciosity of a conversation piece (1'1. Xl'IlJ) dl,j i
artist find more scope, The charm and liveliness or the ;.:ralllll'lt "
has often enough been praised; what mainly interests liN II"I'! I i I
within the large, if small-scale scene, which lacks Uoth 1'1111'"11
subtlety and dynamic coherence-for even the dancers J( ,I. 'II" III~ ! J(

and forlorn-the nuclear treatment of a small group of ~il,lllll: III!iii

can again reveal what we found most characteristic of Crdilll 11,1
cannot say how-not even clearly where-these figun;N ",',. "Ii'
they are apparently neither looking at the dancers nor at "111,11 IOI!
each graceful gesture is as little purposeful, as seU'-colilm /II II n
dancer's, and it is the harmony of these movements which "'TIll.
unity of the scene.
We said at the beginning of this chapter that the spall "I Ii!!
Cretan art was short. We might ignore the careless flabby \Vol" "j' I
late period but for the fact that the symptoms of decay shull' "1""
clearly in the loss of 'absolute mobility' and all its spu,CC·t,j'1I1 "'iI
cations. Figures are no longer self-contained in act and pONt III'
longer pictorially integrated-in however vague a mHIIII(T \\'illt
surrounding living world. The use of registers and mural frit':!,1 I 1"/\
to the use of groundline and this impairs the freedom of III1l'lC'1I1 11110
ment in an amorphous setting. We now find tribute bemTrN 111/1111,"
in file, endlessly repeated. 1 Instead of scenes of nature U~t'(llI" el, , ,,'
tion, we find human forms subjected to the discipline of II. tI"/'11l II
pattern, subservient to a mechanical rhythm. Wc evell lilltl II Ill,
religious scene in fresco, but life and movement have gone (\111: 01 i 'I II
vibrant quality of the early glyptic scenes has faded illto II ,11111 I , j
frontation of seated figures-truly seated this time. 2 011 lL pl"l"d,!
contemporary seal we see, not participants in a saeretl UI1IIl'I" 1,111 f Ij
standing figure of a goddess stiffly perched on a mOllnlni" 1['/' :d!
flanked by lions, antithetically arranged (FigA5), in fad Ilulll /I jllljljil
confrontation of figures and a heraldic grouping of al1i'lIillM l"'llill
prevail in glyptic art.
To state these changes means to raise a number of 1IIII\W,\\I'I'I!!J!
XC, :--'1'1,:,\'1'1'1'1': v ,\:--1':. 11:\(:1,\ Till "),\
questions; we have no clue to their cultural implicaLillml H\" I" I Ii
(jHI,.!..!.'!'''" :W:\. :W7')
historical events which accompanied them. The 'Pf'()hl\'lll 01' oil' .\
Cretan art, however, has a peculiar fascination: it fOl'l't's III I I' ," I. i!!!ill
back to the short period of its bloom, to (Lsk where lav ils HI f/ 11l'111 10
1 P(llIlCC'Jjllli1l0N,lI,:.l, 70,I,A'I', PI,XII.
a Ibid., I v. "I. XX>\lu,
"01,
 , 1/I,\I)/ul,,' Jllo/JlIII I III (ll'WI/III /r'U( 11''\

wlWrt, iLs Wi'likll(·~H. To /lsI... thiN jIlClllI!; to f'ncl' 11 pnl!JII'11I WI' It!WII
lLvoidcc1 HO fu/': th.e l\xtf'f'rr1ely controv(:1"siul topic' or Cl'uLuJI rl'ligiPII. '1'0
/1('111 with it exhaustively is olltsiue thc seo}Je of this Cfls9,y. MlJn:()V(',',
on major points Jiifercnccs of opil1'ioll among seholurs arc stillnpplIJ-
ling. All we can do is to consider those aspects which SCCllll'(>J('VfLlIl, few
I he art of a very short period in Cretan history. This means that \YO
"hall leave out of account a number of monuments which [01' "hI.
historian of religion are most important, for it is paradoxicalthu't OIl!
with the decline of Cretan art (which was, as we shall see, cflflrlll.inily
J'cligious art) articulate religious scenes (in the sense of elaborate ritllnl
ILlld the confrontation of man and god) begin to predonJint'Ltc, (1111'
main concern must be to search for the meaning of scenes whieh, tlll)llg'11
most original as works of art, are less explicit. That the anSWCl' ('ILII Ill'
no more than tentative and vague does not relieve us from the IIt'('\',
sity of considering Cretan art also as significant form.

XCI. DEVELOPMENT OF HJIY'I'ON WJT/I BoX I :'\\: \ " I! II! i I

JUIVIPING SCENES, lI:'\I:IA THI II) \
(Prl/..!,'C :W:l)

.,

CHAPTER V
Mystic Communion and the l'iHT 01
W
hen, in our introductory chapter, we slIi'Wy,'" I II
ordinary difficulties which the Cretan mil I ('11111 1'1
we suggested that the concept 'seriolls play' 11I11!1I1
illuminating. It will, but only indirectly, not if'the (,('1'111 1', 11_' ,I
catchword or a stamp with which to force a spuriouH Sillltlill il
variety of content. In Cretan representational fl,rt I h,-
roughly into two groups and these have on the face or it 'I "(IIi,!"
different character, namely, religious scenes, COllerl'lI/·1! IIIIII
acts, and scenes of nature, in which human activity is di;'I'lI'IIIl"~'d
\Ve shall for the present leave the latter out of n.cenll' II, j, II' \
find that an interpretation of the religious scencs will I III"! III I<f,n,1' I
on their significance. Moreover, it will be ncccss(t]·y rin.. i I" H!'ilil
our statcment that the other scenes all have a l'ciit(i(lIl1-1 .. hili ji,11
less a scholar than Professor Nilsson has cxprcssscd MII'IIIII' 11,;111
the subject,
Now it is unfortunate that most treatments
which are based on the monuments suffer from Lw
to rely on Greek mainland material for interpl'ctfLLi(')ll I\lld II I dill I
to accept Cretan evidence at its face value. I vVc snw Idl'I'lId\ II.
enigmatic role played by the Mycenaean kingdoms ill 1111 III
Crete accounts for the first. The second defcct Cllll olily Iw, l,j I1II
anticipating our results: Cretan religion is in many I'('SI"'(" j li it
phenomenon and as such almost defies undcrstalldillg'. 111111'i' Ii
ency amongst scholars either to look for morc fnllliJiIl/' Nefl)l
parallels and to hail them without enqui"ing if t.lwy l'I'l!fl~1 i !II ,
the stranger aspects of the Cretan material, 01' 10 \'"plllill -'I
strangeness in terms of modern common sellse. frhiN ill 1111 'III
we find again and again that an Asiatic typr of' Illol 111""'1111".
'Hence the almost ludicrolls difl'l'r('nct' 01' Opillioll 1I111i1I1U ""htlhtl , III
pretation of details.
'IOG
\ 1).\11(' ('01JJ1/1111111l1/ (InrI lit,' (;"(I('( 1,1/ t'
Iflhlllr typc' -with OJ' without />loll-IOVt,
('retaIlS or lIla,t their 'IJIIII "purts' hltvC been
bull game.
At the risk of falling into the opposite extreme, I intend to iSl,lil,1 (.
the Cretan material rather than to link it, at ~Lll costs, with the hsi'd ie'
or European mainland. In either case a comparative method is Iw(·,J..d,
but we have found that contrasts are more significant than silllilltl'il.i,"
in trying to find a clue to the character of this strange island NiltllJ'l',
We shall, then, before we discuss particular types of Crctan liC('liI'::l,
I~I point out some remarkable differences between the subjects III' thl'~I'
nd of Mycenaean work, both in painting and glyptic. We sow It! "CII d.v
that, as compared with Egyptian and Mesopotamian art, the"" i.'l 1I
marked absence of any monumental intention in Crete; compil.l'(·d with
Mycenae there is a lack of purely secular motifs as well. A1Jlhl'lll H'
warlike scenes occur in the Mycenaean shaft-graves but not ill C'1'('1 I •
where we find only one, probably a late instance of u hcnrd('d '''luI
holding a bow on a vase fragment. 1 The well-known seolle (1'1, X( ') 111'11
young 'prince' confronting what is usually called an 'Oln('I'''' III" I 'I ":011
of shield-bearing 'soldiers' has in all probability rlllt a SI'I'IIIIII' llid~ I'
sacramental significance. Already Evans pointed 01lL2 111111 111" t",
called 'officer' holds a ceremonial sprinkler ILlld, 1I1'I'l/l'dlllg "-1
Mueller, the supposed shields should be interprrtc'(l liN "Ilff "1I1,liidil
garments used in a religious ceremony.3 'Vhethcr 01' noL I his 1111 f "P" III '
tion is a correct one, we must admit that the scellC, ill ('fill I "11'<' "'III
most other sacred imagery in Crete, is not seli-evidcn t, and IllIti h. rl"
as regards the content and the manner of representation iL iN I: 'o'c ' I 1
tiona!' The fragment of a miniature fresco which rcndel's 'tlw ('IIJllllili
of the blacks'4 running in front of his troops seems nnyLhill/.l' Jill I
warlike. All the same, another fragment showing massed CiJ.r\ll'(
probably holding lances has been promptly cxphtincd HI' 'suldh-.,
hurling javelins in an attack',5 whereas the mOst likcly intt:"J)l'C'Lo.I i()11
is in either case a march or processional dance such n.s we find. 011 Ilw
famous harvester vase, but in this case performcd by soldiel's. )l:VI1I1
based his interpretation on an authentic scene or war whieh UCC'IIl'$ !Ill
a silver rhyton found at Mycenae. 6
Equally striking is the almost complete absence ill Cretc' or hurtt ill
1 Maraghiannis, Antiquites ere/oises, II, PI. 50; Kurt Mueller, 1"rOhl1lykl'lIhwlll
Reliefs, in Jahrbuch des Deutschen Arclweologischen lnsl'ituts, ] V1 r; (aO). ~I,:e. dOl'
not consider tlus secne Crctan lH1t fOl'cign impOl't. The Z,\kro SI'ILli1, .10111 nlll t~
Ilellenic Studies, Vol. xxn (1902), PI. VI, nr. 12, 13, arc JIOL !,{'cnl''; of t'1lI1111111,.
there is no indication of arms,
II>alaceo! Minos, II, 702. 3 KmtMucller.loc, ril., 2,1,0.
IIi • Palaceo! Ml:nos, H2, p. 755, PI. XTTT. G l)uff/r/' oj IIIiIlOIi, Ill, 10/1.
o Karo, loe, rit., li'iRH. 83 IT.
207
 '(/'/(/(( 1,/
sc'enCI4,1 wlll/'ll rdJlJIIII<! ill Myl'CIIILI', 1111.1 (If li1'II11'1I ('(11111.111 I .. h
individuflls such fl.S we filld f)1I l~t trust 011" MYC\"lllLt'HII IWldul1I j'''_1
scenes of nature animals are not subjected til lL ~('(,lIll1r I''''lI!11I
,'\\\\\,",,,,"
while such fighting scenes as occur have jnvo.l'inlAy IL 1'1I1,1I;~'
character (PI. XCI), not that of deadly seriOlls <:n('(\IIIII,I'1 \\
shall see later that this by no means implies that they 1)11<1111.1 hi '1111
sidered mere sport in the modern sense of the word.
As regards scenes occurring in Crete but not on the uanilllrlllll ""
of the most remarkable differences-although it is gene'mll), HIli \
~
over-lies in the fact that a favourite topic of Cretan artists, 11I1I1I' I
the acrobatic bull-jumping, does not occur on the mailiialid /11 r.ll
This game entails a somersault lengthwise across what. 1111'1 "i 'c,

usually considered a charging bull, with the horns used as In" I.

performed by boys and girls alike. Sir Arthur Evans, whell II.skllll~ [I
opinion of an expert on American rodeo performances, mils\. 1111 \, I".,
rather astonished to hear the verdict that the feat was VOII'II. II I
impossible: to seize the horns of a charging bull would 11111. tllIl, I
suicidal, the impact would be too great-it would not be possil,l. , ,,,t
bull charges head sideways, with one horn close to the groHlIll.:' Nil,' l
is interesting that in the bull-jumping scenes the Cretan Illdl.. \,'n
pictured in pure profile and in a flying gallop-this had SOOIl 11I"'I'I!ii
stereotyped mannerism with Cretan artists-but not in LIlt" III I
charging. For since a bull charges with its head turned sidewl')
since-as we saw-a round or even a backward twist of tll(: IIt'lId I'"
a much favoured device in rendering animals in motion, WI' ""'1 I
almost certain that this would have been used if a chargillg' 11,111 \'"
meant. The leap seems therefore to have been performed UVI" I""
paratively peaceful beasts, holding their heads straight; the dlllll'(!
a sudden assault would then have made it a sufficiently excitilllC 1'1111
Now bull acrobatics of this type are conspicuously abscllt 1'/11111 II
mainland repertoire, and the famous Vaphio cups, found in 1.1 .. 1', I
ponnese, picture an entirely different subject, namely, the CaLI·hlll,
bulls. On the one cup this is done by peaceful means-the bllil i~4 III,
by a cow (PI. XCIVa). In this case the interpretation is ad'"t1I, iP
uncertain; it is conceivable that the beasts are merely pictured III' I'
nature, but the first interpretation is at least possible and wUllld '",111
a parallel to the one on the second cup. Here we see one hulll'lllll:ld II XCII. SPECI'A'I'OBS AT l'EH.F01(IVIANCE. ~IINI/\T{II(I: I"I(I':SI'I.'.
a net, one apparently in the act of escaping, a third (pI. XCI VL.) III II, I, :-.; 0 SSO S
act of charging, head down and sideways, and tossing [L yOlll,h. '1'111 '.Ii], 1,

,\ N II S I' I': ( "I' ,.\ T 0 1/ S.

1 Matz, loco cit., 17, enumerates the very few exccptionR, '1I1'L"I'('IiIII1~ I•. I", XCIIA. Jil,:<'Oi\STHI'('TION 01" 1l/\;'o;('I':
instance, the lion hunt seal (P.M. IV, p. 5·1,7 l"jg, (08) whore 111(\ 111·111'" "~I II, 1\ N ()SSOS
hunter is unconvincing llnd the lion extn'rncly hallly .1mwn. (/II1,~/' ~O:n
; Karo, loco dl., F'ig. 87 !i I'alaee of 1I'1111u8, 'Ill. 212.

~OG
 Iy'" t{(' ('f) 1/ /11111111 lJlI (f (111 1/11' ; I'm 'I' ( I J/"
r/\,hlo1 -'nul, it should 1)(; uoll'd, 1.111,; 11(11'11(-1 01' Lilt: hull, whil"
thll CIl,"
Illothcr ft\ll~ Jcngthwisl.: in, It pOHtUJ'C thuL dO('fj 1l0L Sll~l-fl.:sl. even
I'niled somersault. The work is eCl'to.inly Cretan in style. It is, for ill-
Inllee, striking how beautifully plausible the twisted figuro of tilt'
tossed youth appears until one attempts to analyze it, when one flnds
as in the case of the stalking cat-that it is structurally obscllrc, 011
Ihe other hand, the scene is not completely Cretan: the clarity or llt{:
pl1tial setting, the diagonal contour lines by which the soil has bCl~1I
indicated and a functional relation between the receding scene and tIl('
Hpectator has been more or less successfully achieved, are quite IIll
IIsuai. More unusual still is the fact that here the figure of' the fallillg
youth repeats the movement of the bull instead of creating a counter-
movement. And, most important fact of all: that the subject of tlll'
/ieene is un-Minoan. If the cup was made by a Cretan artist, the remarl,-
ILble concreteness and vigour of the rendering may well owe somethil1g'
o the fact that in this case it was a fresh topic suggested by or cho::;en flll'
the sake of those to whom bull-acrobatics were either alien or mC~l.lIiug.
less. In the case of the Vaphio cup the charging bull was victOl'inllH;
not so on the two feebly drawn Mycenaean seals 1 which show a p:u'l i"!1
tar type of bull-catching proper, namely, the rather brutal trie'k, Inl,','
performed in Roman arenas, of violently twisting the neck of a g'ldlll!,
ing bull in order to make him powerless or even to kill him. '1'11\.'1'" ,In
parallels for this tour deforce both in Thessaly and Asia MiJwr, \Vlti,·I,
Sir Arthur Evans has duly noted,2 but this game obviously diff'·I".
completely from the Cretan one, so that the absence of'the laUer 1111
the mainland, of the former in Crete, is extremely significant, JL il
unfortunate that an exceedingly bad and confused rendering of a mU.1I
Hnd a bull in a circular seal composition 3 and also the seal we pictllred
in PI. LXXXIXa and which shows no plausible likeness to a real bull.
atching scene at all, have been used as evidence for the occurrence of
such scenes in Crete and that on the basis of this Persson calls the fcut
f twisting the bull's neck and maybe killing him 'the chroa,ctic fcat'
of the acrobatic game. 4 We do not know of any such climax and the
only evidence we possess for the killing of bulls other than for sacrilkinl
purposes and by a figure clad in the acrobat's attire, is a SCCIII' 011
Thisbe sealS-here the bull is killed by a dagger in the mn,mwr vI'
Spanish bullfights-and the Thisbe seals which were bonght, no
XCIII. DETAIL I"HOM 1'1 .. X <'/I \ found in sites, are, we think, extremely unreliable evidence. Hull}'
(1 1(1'1'./(' ~().l,) were sacrificed, as we know from one Mycenaean and one styJisliClLlI
1 Palace oj M'iu,os, Fig. 1(i2, 164a. ~ Ibid., 22{) sq,; ]>.J\1.IV, 2B, 'W.
:tIbid" Ill, Fig. 163.

- • Axel W. Persson, 'l'hclZcligiO'IH'JUTCPcc hd:>rcln'sloric '1'i7lUW, ".IHI

6 PalM;" oj JJ1inos, Ill, L"il-\. HIO,,[ V, Fig, ('H~b.

() 200 II.A" ...

 'I'I'!Of/ /,./
lute Minoan sealn,nd frllll! the latC' Slu,t'()phaj,flls fuund /I t 1111111/1 '1', j \' I
But there is no grounu whatever to connccll.hc::>c scellcs wil II 1111 I.'il
sports.!
If, then, we eliminate spurious similarities, the sinwallli' ,·IHln!ll!
of the Cretan bull-jumping scenes stands out morc ckllrly ',,111 II!
question is all the more insistent whether or not we ar(' jwd 1/1.01 :,
calling them 'religious'. To deny the possibility that they IUld II 'I til
significance seems unwarranted. Even spectators of ll'lodl'I'I\ SplIlIl_1
bullfights admit that a strange quality of potent ritlllll, "" Jill I
understood, is the main secret of their fascination. Morcovl'r, 111\'11,
logical and folkloristic evidence points in the same directioll. III /III ... 1\
times all games that formed a part of large-scale festivil It''l '\I,
serious, ritual games. W. B. Kristensen has shown this to 1)(' 11"111 I \
of the Olympic games and Miss Levy has convincingly provl·d 111111 Ui
touching of a bull's horn formed part of an ancient tradition "I' f'1_llilil
rites. 2 Moreover, classical myths do not suggest that thc Crd/lll li'.'l1
was an object of playful sport. In the face of all this evidcn('(' N JIll"
doubts 3 seem an almost perverse scepticism, which balks thl' 111'1"' "1,'1
to any form of understanding. Only if we recognise the scrioll'lIl1
the game, the numinous quality of the bull (which is entirdy I" I !
the realistic treatment on the Vaphio cup) shall we grasp tlll' 1111 '1lIiil
of such confident and playful sport with death in ordcr 1,.. 1111'11 "
life's potency. In this strange rite, a bold and graceful I('ILI' "' I'
creature embodying terrifying power, the tragic climax of ~1l1'lii
appears redundant; brutality and fear have been transcended.
Once this is realized it need no longer astonish us that bHII. J"IIII'IIt
and wrestling occur side by side and that in either case tlw Nil 1111. II
'sacred pillars' (which are frequently associated with religiltliN ,,','i
sentations in a narrower sense) may occur in the context of I h,' III (II
In fact, there is no reason to disagree with those who argll(' t Ji"1 'il
in the pugilistic scenes we have to deal with serious gamcs /10' IIl1lil
the agones of classical times. And seeing that thc main P"'COC'('lll'iI!i
of the artists was with religious, or at any rate ritual subjCt'lnl"ll, I! I
becomes even more significant that the mercilessness of hu" I i II~ ,,' I'
or the tragic realities of battle are absent. But onc objectj(')1\ HIIlIIII" I
1 For lentoid bead seal in Candia Museum see Nilsson, loc, cit., 1(1'.,: Nil
notes that in neither of the sacrificial scenes does the uuuble l\XC Oq:llq WI' llin
fore need not assume that it was used to kill the bull.
2 G. R. Levy, The Gate of Horn, 229. It should be noted tlll.\t rLlt!aoulf" I I.,. I .. " I
ing of the horns and the jump ncrus::> the l.>Ulllllso oeem in '\.hc «:11"11111' I. I I
they are here the preliminaries of a violent assault on thc nninlll1. 'I'll" '''I,It, I""
of the story here is the killing of the bull. I fllitC!lr] flf lIHIJ'g I hiil II ~ (" /,1. '" I I, I
sacrificial sequel to the bull sports, it might uc uscrl to throw lIHl Illhd II II I I I"" ,
ter of the Cretan games into relief.
3 Nilsson, loco cit., 3~~.
~H:
'1\'.\ II(' III/III" lUll lI1I" /111' (#' 1'(1('1' 0 r I .lli'
unlt'fe'd. We SI.\,W lhu.t ill the lllilliaLlll't J'I'l'SC'(I('S IL j{1'l\IHI:-illllld (wei lL
mnss of spectators wcr.e pictured. A'L leILsl in one sct of fm~mcn'Lli till'
centre of the performance was a group of dancing womcn, but il Cl\" b(·
argued. that the same type of arena was used for bull sports and COlli
petitions. If these had a religious implication, is it conceivablc that the'
scene was pictured in a way which took in the spectators as well? 0/'
should one suspect here a kind ofji.n de siecle frivolity which no long"I'
laid the emphasis on the main acts? Here again all that is nccded I'm
our understanding is to stress the singularity of the phenomenon h.
taking it at its own specific value, which is radically opposed to what.
we have learned to take for granted in neighbouring countries. VOl'
elsewhere in the ancient Near East we find invariably in religious
scenes a careful rendering of single figures, in actions and attitlld\'s
traditional, prescribed, and most frequently a confrontation be'Lw('('1l
priest or king or god. The comparison with Egypt and MesopotarJlilL
is, however, misleading, for what was pictured in Crete reflects a di H('"
ent type of religiosity altogether. It is entirely justifiable to see ill
these festive gatherings something more in the nature of mysteJ"ic~ 1>1'
sacred mimes-for even games may have a mimetic character. In Llla,1
case they would be less acts of devotion than of participation ill I
numinous and beneficent event. In such-as in all dramatic pC'I'forJlI-
ances-actors and spectators mutually require each other; thc [orllln
may vicariously represent an occurrence of transcendent imp0l.'l:l.,wI',
the latter by their very presence affirm the signficance of who.t cu II
only be thus expressed and shared. The difference between ~uch "c-
ligious events and those which in Egypt and Mesopotamia nrc rdlc('Lcti
in the so-called 'dramatic texts'! (that is, texts recited and pmtly I\CLl'd
by priests within the temple enclosure on particular occasion/:<) ii
probably this: that the former are less articulate, less concerned with
dogma a:::ld more akin to magic-religious practices. It is 3. dirrcrcJlC'c
comparable to that which exists between the act and recitation of Ii
Catholic mass (which has a dogmatic connotation) and the sucred
procession or the mystery plays.
I
Some glyptic scenes bear out our assumption indirectly, allhough
the religious acts depicted do not pertain to ritual gamc!' in the nal'-
rower sense and may not have had the charactcr of a pul)lic cv('nl. In
fact, it may be significant that the particular scencs wc rcf'l'l' to ()Ill
occur in glyptic whereas on the whole the repertoirc of glyplic ltlld
painting shows great similarity. But ::ieals have, It])ltr!' f'l'flI11 I.ll(·ir
eminently practical function, scrved as II. kiJl(] of anlltlel nN wdJ. It. i
Kl1I't :::lethe, J)mmoti.~{'''c Tra'lc :om AI/(/('#lI]Jti,~II"/'1I JII/Ilitaif/l 8jJ""'rri
(Leipzig, 11128).
2)1
 '1'1'/(111 II'I /\ '.pl1(' t 'OIl/lll/I1I/()If linr! 1///' (,'/f/'I' '!/ "U"
therefore possible that SOI11(; pllJ'(~ly .l'l'ligious 1I11lLg'ny 1>114'1t Wi ! i 'vel'. ';Iwn:<! tr'f'CS d() ot.'cut' I..IIlL Ill'Vl'f do WI' loll'(' It goddcs,'1 IWllll'c1
epiphany of a god or goddess ot' nets not commonly Slllll"d Ilnqlrl unclcrnco.Lh. is llppnrcnUy one excepLion: 011 1\ Hltwll HClLl l'nllll
1'111;1'1;
only appear on these small objects meant .fOl" the pl'i val (' WH' ell" Ii Mochias both n. trce and what is presumably 0. goddcss tlrC pil'LuI'cd i.,
ous or semi-religious functionaries. 11 boat; no adorants are present.] This quitc cxccptiunnl !':ccnc /lilLY
It is obvious that in trying to interpret the gly})Ljc IWCIIl";. 11'1' "II. refer to some mythical event, but it cannot be comparecl with tit
only touch the fringe of the problems involved. Even ~o, WI' :,dlldl lir. scenes under discussion. Moreover, a closer examination of the MYCCII
to !1void a number of pitfalls; there is first of all thc (lallgl'I' III lIt;i" aean seal makes it clear that the stiff posture of thc standing JigUl'('s iN
later seals for the interpretation of earlier ones; sccolldly. 111101 definitely un-Minoan, that we have no parallel for the use ofpoppicl:i 1\1'1
treating contemporaneous but alien Mycenaean woxk Ml 11"11,, Itli religious offering except in classical times in the Demeter cult, and t.httl.
1
Minoan and, finally, such prejudices as that in Cretan ul'l. ;1.1: (,I", \\ h, , it is strange, to say the least, that the epiphany of the god Or godu('ss
a god or goddess can be expected to preside over all ritual ,..('1,'1. behind the shield in the left top corner should occur behind thc Ime}< lit'
As regards the dating difficulties, it is well known tha~ sl.,,, I iplIl,,,,
cal evidence is particularly unreliable in the case of SIIjn.1I 1''' c '"I'
objects which get easily lost and may have been handed 011 1'..., gr'll 1'1
tions. Since there exists to date no critical re-examillal illll III I j.
material, Sir Arthur Evans' admittedly rough chronologie:d g'lrlllj,l!1
is all we have to go by. We would like, however, to ma,l,e 1\VI! Ie,;,',
vations: rigid antithetical grouping is not only conspicuously III "., Id ill
earlier seals but so alien to the stylistic character of the besl, 1\ III Ii I hI!
it seems warranted to call them late, especially since in al; "'11'11 fill
instance (Fig. 44) the figures thus arranged are lions, whic'h, 1111I1I1d, FIG. 47.' Religious Scene, Mycenae
common in Asiatic and mainland imagery, do not, as we saw, lI,'('11i I.i
the adorants. In fact, if we were to characterize the scene we could dll
the Cretan fauna. Similarly we should be inclined to date III!' " 1.1
no better than use the words of Nilsson, who called it a kind ('Ie pUll
which show a tribute scene (that is, an ad?rant holding a I'hylroll fI'
theon,2 the summing-up of a religious repertoire. Now if such n rC(lI'('
other vessel and facing what is probably a goddess) to a f/li..ry 1111
sentation were made for the ruler of a related but not an idcli Lielll
period, firstly because the fresco of the well-known cup-hear'c'I', .1111,.1
cultural community-and we discussed this possibility before-then j
by Evans to Late Minoan I, already shows definite signs of (h~('llIf, III C
would of necessity have to be fairly explicit and might wcll IJC ill-
secondly, because the rigidity of the confrontation is Cha1'(tl'II,,'i"'1I , I
Late Minoan and also more explicit ritual scenes. coherent. It is, however, exactly in the matter of pictorial cohCt'cll('('
and of a peculiar lack of explicitness where the divine figures 1\1:
Both the second and third difficulties, howevcr, make UIf'III~pl\',.,
concerned that the character of the Cretan seals proper shows up mONt
unpleasantly felt at the beginning of our discussion, fOl' it; liltS ,,1"I,,~j
clearly.
become a habit among scholars to take as starting point:t IlHlg'"lhll~'"1
The Cretan material is admittedly scanty but remarkably homo-
Mycenaean ring bezel (Fig. 47) contemporary with thl; uCHt WltI I iii
geneous if we consider those specimens which belong stylistically to LII('
Crete which represents a goddess seated under a tree and i'aci"l~ Ill" tI 'lli
best period. In it we included the seal found on the rnrl.inlllnll whieh w(
or acolytes presenting poppies. Above the scene but guitc III1C" >1111' , II d
discussed before (Fig. 46) because both in thc drawing of the singk'
with the main activity is the figure of an airbornc divinity ill 11,1' ",' iii
figures and in their spatial disposition it has striking Minoan pHI'III1I·IN.
descent. That the drawing of the seated figure is Cretan ilt slylOI'" "IIi
We exclude, however, a ring bought by the Natiollal Mllseum PI'
would deny, but for the scene itself we find no pUl':.dlt:l in CI'('/" \\ I. i I
Copenhagen, since the doubt expressed by Nilsson about its g('\llIlilH'
1 Even Karo, loco ci~" 331 sq., maintains that the lIlu'krill! is iIHliH"III~III~'ItII,',

: Here the matter IS somewhat Ie:>:> ccrtmu Ut:CUll:>O 'Lllere (''KINtH lL 11'11,,,," til III
ness seems fully justified. s The figures kneeling in ndoNLLioli ILI't' indcl'(/
a steatite vase of fairly good worklllfl.lIship whir'IJ ShvwR 1\ tlh"lhll' 1'1('('111' (/'/1/", a serious anachronism in what must be judged otberwise It devel' fal«('.
Minos, II, 752, :Fig. 4,86). The frugm('nL jil, .how('vcr, 1.00 1'11111111 til /'11111,1, "I" I
1 Palace ofMinos, n, Fig. H7u,
judge the style of tho scell~.
" Nilsson, Minoan-MY('C1laCa7'Llll'li~iol1.IHB. u Nih~HOII, tip. rit., l,l,ld. n I,
.) I ~
21/
 'I'/' I (1/1 "I
Now if thc scenes wc hnvo frpw<!I1('('d ill ,.'i/{l1l'('S I,ll, I, L /11101 III I
been considered by lbcmsclvcfl, then 1 douht if 1I1I"IIl'wdi III
would have attempted to identify nny onc of the fit~III'('S II" Ik !,,'pi
sentation of a goddess, for there is nothing in ('i tll,'1' liI/,f!, Hi'!iI iii
posture or attribute which would single them out. W(' SI'" II 11111,,1,('1
figures engaged in a ritual dance or act which in SOIHr I'''~' ~"II'\lf'(II''' I
culminate in a violent gesture with which a su.cn"t tl,,'I'IOJ l"Il' I.
Where, as on the ring of Isopata (Fig. 48), no trce VCI'III'I', 1111 111('
ment is more restrained. If we do not arbitrarily Sill~II' ,,111 I,!!,,,
from what are pictorially coherent groups engaged in Si/lllll1l 1,'Iilll
then we must admit that however elusive the meaning (')1' 1.111'11 W "ji
however indefinite their actual relationship, what j:-; l't'IIt11 It d ;
concrete, not a symbolical situation. It may be objected IllItI ill r"jlli
cases the epiphany of a divine person has been unmistnknll1y t't 1111. I' ,I
namely, where the small rigid figure of an armed YOllth lll'I"",l"
hunter not a warrior-appears in the act of descending 1'1'1l11I 1111 .. I,
above the actual scene. 4 It is uncertain if the tiny figl1l't ill " Ilf!!
shaped skirt at the top of the ring from Isopata (Fig. 4:;) IlIlIlll Ii
considered a female equivalent. If so, this strengthens our ('<lIII'I":i"
that the divinity does not take part in the action of the SCCIlt' I "II 'I" i I
literally transcends it.
One must admit that it would be difficult to conceive a 111111'" oI.\'l!jl
mic representation of a religious event, nor one in which till' 1',llIliii!!
between the human and the divine world is further removed f""III,d'
known Near Eastern conceptions. Here usually the god loonls I/I'B'-' i'l
symbolical acts or as the focus of sacrifice and worship. HilI, III I!II'I
Cretan seals the pictorial emphasis is entirely on the h1llll/lil jll.'~111
the actual presence of the god may be manifest in sacred 1.1'I"'If, 1111111
or stones, or in a vision of his airborne descent, but it is UYIIIII " 11'1.11
revealed in the swaying of the worshipping figures, their rai/H'd 1t"I!d
divine presence means here a mystic relationship which CIlII1I),1 i'ii'i'
munion, ecstasy, sometimes epiphany.
It has often been a source of astonishment that in the vns', ."d\[i
of luxurious palaces, such places of worship as could be idClrl.ilil'd \\('j,
insignificant and the sacred objects found there are almost U 111'/1 I III 1
primitive-for the more elaborate faience figures holding HIlUkl". 1111')'
well have been priestesses or votaries. Centres of' worship ill ('1111,
were mountain tops and caves, as a profusion of votivc oujectH NIl,,\\
In fact, one is, in dealing with Cretan religious phenomclJ1\, f",,'d"~
reminded of what characterizes mystery religions clscwhcl"t·: I hI' \'1'111"11 I Xl'IV,\. II, COI.I) (I'I'S, V \1'1110
figure is both elusive and ubiquito~l$, the worshippers CXP/ll,if'lIl'j- I hi
• NilR50n, OiJ. cit., GOO.
n J 'L
 II) ',\ I /I ('0111 """1/0/1 (f 1/(/ 1//1 (,' /tIl '( OJ / '1/
diviJl(: l're~s(,llc(l Lh"oug'h I~Cl.iOll, dYIII~lldl',dly. I II I hill ('1l~1! th c' /IY!l"I'1
nee neeJ not htl.VC been orgil\sLh:; il !l\.;('tllll'vcr hlLVl.' IH('kl'd ill ('1'('11'
the dignity and the restraint of fmitl. (;ompnrisolls, in t\,ny
dangerous, for whereas the mnttcr of denth an.d the I'cllcwu,l
at the root of nearly all mytitery religion, here the central conccl'n Ill/l
have been more the mystic intensification of the experience of Ii fc thall
the transcendence of death, as we shall see.
We said that the central figure was elusive; now it cannot be acnic'lI
that in Crete the image of a goddess does occur in tribute scenes (evl:ll
if on stylistic grounds we have to assume that this was fairly 111lc) ltlld
that such a formal confrontation of man and god is incompatible willi
the notion of mystery religion. It is, of course, conceivable thnL gmd\l
ally in Crete-in art as in worship-a change in the direction (If III\'
formal took place. But if we compare these tribute scenes with similll
ones in Egypt and Mesopotamia the difference is very strikjng. III I hI'
Cretan scene goddess and tribute bearer or adorant, the one a powe'l'l'lIl
and vital presence, the other in an attitude which holds the bnl'l"i'"
between pride and awe, between self-assertion and self-ahlLndollll'll'll
(see Fig. 45 right), are united in a situation which recalls the IllyNI ii'
experience of an epiphany and which perhaps for that reasOn could MI
often dispense with symbolical trappings. For it shollld be Hol,... 1 I hal
the goddess lacks qualifying attributes or emblems. In flL('L, 1l1LIICl\lgh
Nilsson's scepticism as regards the concept of the Cretan 1111)1 lin
goddess may go too far, he gave timely warning against msh conlpl1,'i
sons with Near Eastern goddesses whose attributes nte known lilltl
whose character is often more or less circumscribed by myl,h. 'l'lll'
Cretan goddess is unlike the rather savage hunting goddess CILI'I'y;1I
her quarry which is found on Greek mainland seals.! If she WIIN I'VI'"
conceived as a life-giving mother it is striking that no in I'll Ill. ('VI't'
accompanies her-for any attempt to associnte with IH'I' I he IHlIIlII
figure ofamale god is unwarranted on the basis or 1.110 Mln01l1\ Illl1li"lIIl
alone. Only on a Mycenaean ring of poor and JlClL typicllllly Milllllill
workmanship are these two figures confJ"onl.cd 1I11t1 lippe'III' III hllll II
hands. Nor is she associated with the PCI'CII II ill I C'lIn. III 1111,·1'1 111111
harvest in this geographically sheltered, clirnltlklllly ill\1I1111 ,I UIHw)
If therefore on a late seal she appears Jlnll k('d hy HIIII.. II III''''~ ii.fi .i I
Asiatic and mainland influences had ousted CILI'IiI'" I "II I Ui'/! ryl lIn d Idpi
Thus the meanings of the various rcligiuus /'It'WI('
in one direction and the absence in the repertoire' of /I/olInd d. 111,
'The apparent exception of a late MinOtlU beud R('l\1 (/'itl/lr" o! 1\1//111', " I I
517) is un-Cretan in that the figurc shows olle pendultlllH 111('1\"" 11111" III I 1111
Mycenaean example, Karo, Scll.ocht{;racbcr , , • 1(01'0 lI"illlf h iJy 11111. lid
peculiar feature with the eqltuUy IUI-Cretun myth (}fthl) AIIIIlIf:IIIII'Il,
~'5
 ('n'/fll/ II/
()f n sOJILI' god Ill'cd no lon~cr II.sl, Ildlih liS. II. i'l jmd illl-li lip I" II I" .lId I
interpret this as 11 peculiarly pl'imitive l'l'nil, sill('(' (·Isc·wl" II III Ii
ancient Near East speculative thought and u ~UI\('('I'1I Wll!lttllll 'd Iti
political problems developed ulmo~t exel.1JF<ivcly ill IIl1d III1Illlid
theology preoccupied with sky and solar deiticA, as l~l'illlltllJ.ill~' tl'l'"
cendent order. 'Ve do not know the politicnl it),,,li,,", I""~ III' jill
Cretan 'primitiveness' because the structure oC whul, \VHfl 1'111/,,,1.1 Index
hieratic social organization must so far remain obscun·.
'Vhat concerns us here is not the possibly negative' IIHpc'C'l III , '11
sided religious orientation but its bearing on a uniq lie ad.i·111l' Iii \ ~ III!
Numhers in italics refer to pages on which or opposite to whichjipurc.9
ment. Cretan art ignored the terrifying distance bcLwc"1I 1111 "llli,lij or plates are to be found
and the transcendent which may tempt man to 1;('I·k II II III
abstraction and to create a form for the significant 1.'CI11f)(.(· 1'111111 '!!I' 'absolute mobility', 198 seq., 204 AJnon,79,81,110,114
Abu Simbel, 120, 131, 133, 137, 137, 138 priesthood of, 119
and time; it equally ignored the glory and futility of singl,· Ialllll.lll'[ I temple, 116
Abydos, 64, 120
time-bound, space-bound. In Crete artists did not givI' t'H1h',llltll'(1 [ ivory figurine of king from, 28 AmonRe,139
the world of the dead through an abstract of the world of t 111'111 IIiVoI i1111 reliefs, 121 amulet, 211
temple, 135 . Andrae, W., 171
did they immortalize proud deeds or state a humble cJHi,1t fill oIi\·iii action, depiction of, 41 animal rendering, 7, 41, 180
attention in the temples of the gods. Here and here alolll' I'lf "lilt] 'actuality', 7,10,19,52,56 seq., 60, 65, Antefoker, 78
70,75,76,85,87,89,97,115,121, anti-functional character of Egyplillll
bid for timelessness was disregarded in the most complete' """1 1'1," 129,151,158,160,163 seq. art, 37 seq.
of the grace oflife the world has ever known. For life mCLLII~ 11111\' III iii and transcendent significance, 160 antithetical grouping, 155, 10', I h;,
as a pregnant moment, 93 170,173,200,202,204,212
and the beauty of movement was woven in the intricate W,·" III' Ii ";11 aquatic scenes, 132
dramatic, 10, 42 seq., 92, 116, 139
forms.which we call 'scenes of nature'; was revealed ill 11111111111 lliliii historical, 137 architectural features, BO, 76, flO, K. I
01,105,112
acting their serious games, inspired by a transcendent P)'('~('Iil't • mock, lUI
Assiut,64
pictorial, 87
in freedom and restraint, unpurposeful as cyclic time itr:;d f. adoration scenes, 166, 167, 171 Assur,171
Aegean influence in Egypt, 84 Assurbanipal reliefs, 172, 17tl, 17'l)
Ahmes,107 Assurnasirpal reliefs, 169, 172, 17IJ
Akhenaten, 97 seq., 110, 111,119,132 atectonic coherence, UI2
Akkad, dynasty of, 158 Aten, 98, 99, 103, 105,110
Akkadian period, 163 seq., 169 Atet,32
AI Ubaid, see Ubaid Ay, 98, 109
Amarna, 96, 98, 100 seq., 132
Amarna art, 88, 93, 110, 111, 118, 120, Babylon, 168
122,135,138 background,4,5,39,56,77
historical setting of, 97 scen.ic, 174, 175
northern tombs of, 101 Balawat, bronzc reliefs, 171J,
paintings, 51 battle scenes, 1l:S, 1\,3, II,l), 88, 11 II, II tI.
period, 29, 36, 38, 50, 58, 60,64,87, 121, , ltlj, , ~5, 128 ,qrq., I :1II. I fili,
90,91,95 seq., 114, 116, 121, 127 ]59, l(H, 172
royal reliefs, 99 Bedawi,12
secularization of art in, 100 bed scenc, 58
southern tombs of, 100, 101 Delli lIaslIn, 011" 05, 7G, 7<1,17'
AJnenemheb,80 ejo. hCl'dA\lWI1, 117'
Amenemhet I, 63 biogl'aphicnJ ,,(·~'r\l'A. 7'rs, 7H 1/('1/., I 11
AmenernhetIII, 29, 67,80 uusellcc of, 3~, aa, 'LU, 1\1
Amenmose, General, 79, 88 bird cutchin~, (1,;5
Amenhotep-se-se, 79 ismttyu, lfHl
AnlenophisI,EJng,112 Bhlclunnn, A. M., H
Amenuser,87 Blftll monlUlI(·nI.H, I[,7, lUll
'amoebic' rendering, 8 UOl'scr, all, ,tl
217
2lU
 ,/((,' " I m(I' I
1I111-INI,tH.r. I1vo, lUI, 11ItI, I
IJC)ul.. (If (:lllt'N, '1'11\", till IklllJl'rrle',A"lr.n rlllll'fI\l~11 1111 .•'""1011,
'Ilook of till' J)Clld', fUl, 11~ /)1·1011/.\11'1,. I'., I rlll·",II~, tI I, IIlI
)1("+1.0", ,~I'I' NlcyllJH'
10
lI"rr(}r'I)II/'"i, HIl,
'Dook of What i~ in thc NcUlcrworl!l. Dt'lIU'II'r. ~ III \('lUp1l'H, ll,iI, 114, lI5 horses, drttwinf;: of, "'Solyrillll, 17:$
The',81l dcplh.77 "'urtwi\n~lcr, A., 188 posture of, 118, 110, J 22,12
Breasted, J. II., 96,114,132,130, ]72 D<;Ahnshl'h, 00. II'~, IU" Horus, 98, 11.'1, 121
Budge, E. A. Wallis, 172, 175 dJllgollnl, 00, 70, 711, lilli, III Gardiner, Alan H., 63 Huizinga, J., 186
building inscriptions, 171, 172 , 171:1, 1I1~, '2c/ll Gauthier, Henri, 98 human body, representation of,,,.
bull catching, 209 composition, 11m, 111'1, 111\1 'genre', 19, 81, 90 seq., 103, 166 hunter's palette, 152
jumping, Cretan, 196,208,210 distemper pninl.l0f.{, IIf, 'geometric' patterns, 146 hunting scenes, 40, 53, 54, 70, 86, HII,
bullfights, 209,210 Djehutihotep, (H, 74,71' geradansichtig vorstellig, 24 95,139,172,180
Billlirn, Miriam Schild, 4 Djeserkarcsonh, HOCII,' "111/11 , ... ,,,. III gesture, depiction of, 42 seq., 52, 54, 84,
absence of, Crellin, 208
Byblos, 53, 114 documents, em'ly 'MI'HII,,,IIIIIIIII'II 93,103,112,122 Mycenaean, 200
ten, 148 selJ. Gilgamesh epic, 210 Huy, 101, 111
Calverley, A. M., 120 dragon, 165 Gizeh,80
Capart,Jean,41,110 Glotz, G., 188 Ibisin ofUr, King, 165
Carter, Howard, 116, 119 Eannatum, 158 SCI]., I(W, 1111" I illl glyptic, 149 seq., 153, 161, 165, 168,
169,172,189,193,201,204 ideogram, 17, 49
catacombs, praying figure from, 8 Edgerton, W. F'., H)~ 'ideoplastic' art, 7
cavalier perspective, see perspective Egypt, proto-historic, ~ I, I IH Akkadian, 166 Inanna, marriage of, 151
ceramics, 16 Eighteenth dynasty, IN, H I, A8syrian, 168, 170 Indo-European influence, 170
Champollion, 120 Elamite art, 155 Cretan, 191, 195, 198, 199,202,209, Intermediate period, first, 56, (lU
Charbonneaux, 188 El Bersheh, 64, 05, 75, 7 211,212,213 Ishtar, 166, 207
Chariot battle, 125 Eleventh dynasty, 50, Ii I, Kassite, 170
Childe, V. Gordon, 188 Elysian fields, 90 Mesopotamian, 154 Isis, 121
Isopata, 201,214
Chinese and Japanese art, 197 Enene, 00 Mitannian, 170
circular design, 200 epic art, 121, 132, 17(1 god and worshipper, 52, 160, 161, 167,
Jacobsen, Thorkild, 151, 163
grouping, 201 epiphany, 46, 213, 2]4, ~11r 168 JemdetNasr, 147, ISS, 101, 109
coherence, dynamic, 202 Erman, A., 67 in Cretan art, 198 Jequier, G., 47, 54
pictorial, 213 Ernutet,81 groillldline, 5, 19, 36, 38, 40, 53, 70, 75,
scenic, 10,105,176 seq. Evans, Sir Arthur, 189, ~1l7 11"'1 77,89,91,93,106,174,177,180,
Kagemni, 58
colossus, 27, 66 expression in Egyptian (11'1 ..." ."" 204 Kaemankh, 57, 58
transport of, 176, 177 87, 93 seq., 103 seg. absence of, 59,73,120,132,137,153,
'Kamares' ware, 192, 193
colour, 88 seq., 204 Mesopotamian art, 1Ii I 175,201 Kantor, HeleneJ., M, l{)ll
combat, see battle scenes Gudea, 166, 167 Karnak, 64, 81, 98, n6, 120, 121.1711
conceptual rendering 17 Falkenstein, A., 21, 148 GilllD, B., 63 Karo, G. H., 188 seq., 207, 2014, ~I~,
void, 3, 4 famine scene, 50 215 .
conical form, 27 Fechheimer, 40, 42 Hagia Triada, 210 Kassite murals, 168
Contenau, G., 161 fertility, god, 151, 167 mural paintings from, 188, 192, 205
Kayser, Hans, 27
contour lines, 53, 70, 89 rites, 171 vases, 196, 204 Kees, H., 26, 31, 59, (j(l
contracts, 148,157,159 Fifth dynasty, 34, 35,411,411, rill Hall, H. R., 155, 179, 180 Kenamun, 85, 89, 95, no
conversation scenes, 105, 204 figures, as related to deHiMlI, II I jll 'Hall of Foreign Tribute', 106 hilllting scene, 86
Copenhagen, National Museum of, 213 154 seq. Harnmurabi stele, 52, 168 lChaernhat, 8,79,80
corporeality, 3, 6, 18, 84, 93, 145, 151, Firth, C., 46 'haptic' rendering, 37, 38, 84, 105
lChafaje, 157,158,l fi
174,198 'flying' gallop, 84, 12~, 1'1,/'1,1 \' Harernhab,110,119,120
scene from tomb of, 112 Khafra,46
Cretan and Mycenaean art, relation- 208 Khnumhotep, 65, 76
ship between, 188 seq. foreshortening, 3 Hatshepsut, 114 seq. Khorsabad, figure of "om'tit'r frolll, /j
religion, 205 seq. form, pure, 147 Heliopolis, 46 Khufu, 30, 46
cubism, Egyptian, 25 Forsdyke, Sir John, 188 Hellenistic relief, 8 King, L. W., 157, 17·t
Curtius, Ludwig, 9, 197 Fourth dynasty, 30, 35, (11'1 heraldic design, 17,122, 148 kingship, 23,26,46,52, GO
cylinder seals, see glyptic Frankfort, H., 23, 24, 4Ci, \Ill. 1'/1 III friezes, 155 conception of, 7{), 1)7
106, 116, 120, 14Ci, lL:I, Ifl f I grouping, 155,162,204 diviuc, 63, 115, 11\2
Davies, N. de Garis, 32, 33, 35, 39, 40, 159,161,165,166, 17U ,~f", Hereafter, 28 seq., 34, 49, 56, 99, 112
hero-and-beast motif, 155, 169 Egyptian, 44
59, 77 seq., 87 seq., 101, 105, 107, fTescoes, Cretan, 189, IlJl.l, 11111 Mcsopotamiau, 157
111,118 'miniature" 203, 201, ~II Hesire, 8, 29, 30 theology of, 26,
Deonna, 188 friezes, continuous, 153111'1/" I ill 'hiatus', 4, 6, 39, 150, 154
death,109 Hierakonpolis,17 lGsh,1119
mural,204 Klcbs, Lui!-;e, 32, atl, II
terror of, 82 seq. frontal position, 15 hieroglyphs, 76 knife handles, 152
de Buck, A., 63 full-face, 8 seq., 93, 105, II historical epic, 180 J{1I0~S()S, ] {)~
dedication ritual, 158 functional ren,ll'ring, 2, II, r., '111. I' 1,"iI historic event, rendering of, 76, 87, 128 nntl Myceunc, .. dt'Llqll~hlp 111'\ w,'j II,
Deir el Bahri, 64, 114, 115 funerary nrt, 21:l ,~('((., HtI, 11M, II I, lit, J 1111 133 seq., 138,163, 160, 171
l!IO
Deir el Gcbrawi, 85 mctnpltyHiw of,:ll ,ql'fl., ". Hittites, 120, 138
2H)
2l~
 /1(/( ' I
hOIl l c1 "11111l~1', 1H /Ild
J\"yl '\'llil \' IIl1d hIlOH NII/(,
(rl1h mcr , G., 7, ~,1, 1~'llltl"'1 ,hi" I, '11111'1,'d ,·IH'hIHIII·'·"'. ~I' I
LWl" 'II, I II/) "I'fIl H,II. \ I I \" • "1111
Kris tens en, W. B., 21 1"1'\ rIC • W 1\1 1"111101, I _, H,Lh tln', II I" :Ili, IL7,I1M. l'i~, nll.
Kue ntz, Cha rles, 132 Myccnucon unl1 Millo,", 1111. "I '.t, "1\.11'.:,111 1 Cit" MI, '70,
MyC Cllll Cflll \vOl '· IIIHI 11111 1"(.t,IlI'II, 1\111111" I, 10\" - I I'~
11," l'IIl\(·~,t~I~, /1/;' HI~qlll\l'llh, (1\), (JJ
Lag ash, 160, 167 207 ,208 Slll'gon (of Akk(IO), IOU, )(\1) , 1'1l'i
ring beze l, 21:t Phll rlW, 1//'1' loy,, 1 11/04"11' SI'I[,
land scap e,5, 27,5 3,55 ,73, 89,1 lC)hilililil\l'~, ::lance, 1"., dc, U;'1
78,1 96 seal s,20 V 1111)
Lan gdo n, S., 159 Phy luko pi, mlJl'oll1uinUlIg from scal y patt ern, 175 , 1.77
Leg rain , L., 109 shaf t grav es, 18\1 , 789
styl e, 189 pict ogra ms, 51,1 15 scen e, con stitn tion of, 10
Lev y, G. R., 15, 210 pict ogra phic conc eits, 33 Scha efer , n., 7,24 ,39, 1J,1, 103
Lloy d, Seto n, 147 mys terie s, Crct rlll, 21 I
myt hica l scen es, 2:1, pivo tal mot ion, 191 seq. Scha rff, A., 29, 168
loca lity, rend erin g of, 80, 116 I 1<1.. I J I. III plas tic, Egy ptia n, 24 seq. Schw eitze r, B., 188
'loo king back ', 43 165 seq. Scor pion , Kin g, 19 I>eq., ~/j" 30,
deco ratio n, 153, 155 !H, l/'il)
Lux or,1 19,1 31,1 33 port raits , 110 seal s, see glyp tic
Nak ht, 69, 77, 92, 0:1, 1M
Nar ams in stele , 22, lOll, /1:", 11111 pom peia n blac k foil, 5 Seb ckho tep, 68,9 0
Maa t,98 Pras cbn iker , C., 188 secu lar mot ifs, absc nce of, CrcL
Mac e, A. C., 119 Nar mer , Kin g, IV S(:I/. ,:ttl ,w"" tlll. ~(I'.
pres enta tion scen es, 166, 167, Sed festi val, 47,1 9 seq., (II., tlO
mac ehea ds, 150 pale tte of, 20, 21, :t~ 169,
narr ativ e,10 V 171 Senb i, 70, 72,7 3
mag ic,3 0 prof ile, rend erin g, 174, 175 Sen eb,3 3
mag ical form ulae , 82 art, 19, 33, 58, (;0, ()~, W' Itlli.
1111 effe ct of, 3 seq. Sen nach erib ,178
Mah u, 102 ,103 ,104 ,107 ,111 172 seq.
natu ralis m, 105 ,178 , HiM, I \HI proj ecti on, 3, 9,89 pala ce of, 177
Mar aghi anni s, G., 207 shad owy , 1 relie fs, 176, 17!J
:Mari, 159, 168 Nav ille, E., 114
Neb amu n, 80, 91 prot olite rate peri od, 147 seq., Sen nod em, 112
Mas pero , G., 27 135, '
seen e from tom b of, 8'/,! 169 Seso stris I, U4
Mat z, Frie dric h, 188, 191, 192, Ptah hote p,34 ,37, 43,5 2 Seth e, Kur t, 211
208 Neb ema khe t, a5
Med um, 30, 32 Pun t, expe ditio n to, 114 seq. Seti 1,11 9, l:tO, .122, JU, /ilJ,I~8
Med inet Hab u, 138, 139 Nef erho tep, 98, 112, ]J , Illl,
Nef erm aat, 30, 32 Puy mre , 80, 84 132, 133, 135, 11\,( 1, 17a, HIO
Mek hetr e, scen e from tom b of, Sha lma ncsc r, 1701,sl'q.
64 Nef erro hu,6 3
Melanges Maspero, 63 Qad esh, batt le of, 131 seq., 132 , 134, Shama~h, 52
Mei r, 35, 40, 56, 64, 65, 67, 68,7 Nek hbe t, 117
1,73 Nels on, Har old H., laH, I au 135 ,136 ,137 Sha wab ti figu res, OS
Men es, see Nar mer Quib ell, J., 29, 46 signifiel1I1t voidli, 1 , 181
Men khep erra sonb , 80, 81 neol ithic art, 16
Ne- Use r-Re , 50, 53, 54" liO silh ouet te, ] , 2, 17, 1,~'
Men na, 79 Rah otep , 30, 32,4 2 Silsi leh, \l8, ) ~O
Men tuho tep Neb hep et-R e, 50, Nils son, Mar tin P., IS!), 1 !UI, '-'III

64, 115 Nin etee nth dyn asty , 1)0, I I", I Ram esse wn, 1HH, 135, 137 sim ulta neit y, 0, 1\,'2. 52,UO
Mer eruk a, 40 seq., 44, 57 seq., 61 It Ram cssi d relie fs, 128, 129, 132, Sixt h dyn asty , a!l, 57, (1O, (18
Min, 64 Ning irsu , tem ple of, J 57, I Mol 133
non func tion al renderill/-{. 7, II H" Ram ose, 105, 112 skyl ine, ~, as, 5:1, !l5, 7lJ, 110. L711
Mit ann ian rule , 170 Ram ses n, 120, 129, 130, 131 seq. Smi th, Sidn cy, 171
Moc Wos , 213 Nub ia, 79
Ram ses III, 120, 128, 129, 137, Smi th, W. Stev cnso n, :34, 11,(1,1':11
Moh r, Her tha, 9, 39 Nut , 81 138,
140 ,141 Snij dcr, G. A. S., 24, 1~8, 1{Iii,
Mon tet, Pier re, 31 107. 11114
obel isks , tran spor t, 11.", I II' Re, 98 spac e, amo rpho us, HI, 105, I ~O
mon ster s, wing ed, in Mes opo tam real ism, 65, 96, 135 dept hles s, 1
ia, 172 obli que patt ern, 11)2
mon stro us form , 51, 155, 172 rece ssio n, 5, 20, 59, 73, 93, 106, dram atic , 5 scq., 10, ali ,ql'(J., n:J
mon ume ntal art, abse nce of, 22, omi na,4 9 160, 11/'/1·
44, 50, Ope t,11 9 174 ,175 ,177 seq., 201 75,1 79, l81
65,1 10,1 86,2 07 Rek hmi re, 79,8 4,85 ,88. 89,9 2 prob lem atio , 7 .w·"., no, ali, IlI\I
char acte r of, 22 seq., 23 seq. orga nic form , 5, .~l, HI. lua, III
I regi sters , 20, 30, 59, GO, 70, 75, scen ic, luG
in Egy pt, 127 seq., 138 orga nic mov eme nt, t'r"'" 11 1111 76, 105
orie ntat ion, 15, 16, 8n, IlIlI seq., 109, 132, 135, 146, 151, 15~, stag e, t1,
in Mes opo tam ia, 22, 158 seq., 154 ,159 ,164 ,175 ,178 ,204 threc-lIillll'IIHiollnl, '17
160, Osir is, 81, 98, 114" 1.21
164 seq., 174 as hori zon, 173 two-dimclli-llolllll, I
mon ume ntal ity, 26, 65, 68, 78, over lapp ing, 3,10 ,77, (l1.1I;1. II,'\,
165 II as grou ndli ne, 88 sP::LCc-tiuw, Ii, '21, I,~, I'll), ur., Hll,
Egy ptia n, 161, 186 til, 00, 117. Hili, IlIn, 1()7, II '-A, H••
HL.
Sum eria n, 161 pala eoli thic art, 1 Rieg l, A., 37 nH
pan thei sm, Far Hns t!'I'II . III ritu al acts , 186 187, HI7 I ~O I,
Moo rtga t, A., 170 sptU; C-tiI lH.\ 11/·t\l1l II I.y , III,
'par atac tic' figlu'C, ;HI • •W art, 172 \1111
Mor gan, J. de, 146 spatitLi COIIl'I'\'II('/I, 170
rend erin g, 7, 10, au, :17, III play , 187
mot her- god dess , 206 robo t-lik e rend erin g, 9, 25, 29, illlls ioll, lI, '1, H
mou rnin g ritua l, 95 patt ern, 6, 149, ] (12, ~()() 10 :;eq.,
PCh sllcb cr, 8~ 52,5 4 rela tion , I ~H, I
mov eme nt and cou nter mov eme Rod enw aldt , G., 185, 188 J'cn dnin g•• 1, L, 'TIl. 7U, 77, HH. 1lI11,

nt in Pen dJeb ury, S. D. S., lUI, HII 11111

Cre tan art, 199 seq. roya l figu re, l'end erin g of in Egy 1'111,,1711,1711
Mue ller, Kur t, 207 Pep i II, 5,1, pt, ]
pers pect ive, fI, IOU, III seq., 23 seq., 52, 63 seq., V9 seq., lOG, rt.'1 In,j,ll ' II 1,1\1 11111. 1111>
Mul ler, Hel lmu th, 43,5 9 116, 122 seq., 1l35, 141 Hcl,l illj.(, ~()II
Mul ler, Vale ntin , 107 '<'J\vnliel", 1 Ill. l:lli, IHII
in Mcs opo tam ia, 157 scq., 1(1f1 t'ph imc .27
rill', 1()7, 1711 , ](1
168 ,173 ,171 ),18 0 Hpi( '~d. J., III
22
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 fir//' I

flpinll t1t'/jIHII, Cr\'lllll, 1\)1 LI'I'I'N, "('lull'I'jlll-( or-, I \"

SpychcrL, A., 1010 N",CI'.·\I, l71. :t lH
staccato rendering of movcment, 7", l'iUIIHlllur grollplt l /{, I (I,
76,122 TuklllLi Ninurta, '171
'static space', 24 TutankhamuIl, Ill, llA, II"
'stereometric approximation', 24 Ty, Quecn, 101, 1(1)
surface, diaphunous,a, 4, 9, 38 Tylor, J. J., 59
depthless, 15, 56
texture of, 96 Ubaid culture, 147
Susa pottery, 2, 6, 146, 147, 191 Ukhhotep, 73
symbol and actuality, 120, 127 Unas, King, 50, 56, 60, lOll
symbolical gesture, 78 'unending rapport', ID2.11H'
symbolism, 175 Unger, E., 167
'unorganic structure', 24
Tell Asmar, 161, 164 Ur,158,160,166,169
Tell Billa, 149 Urnammu, 167, 168,169
Tell el Amarna, see Amarna Urnanshe, King, 157, 159
Telloh, see Lagash Uruk period, 147, 155
temples, funerary, 44, 49,57 Uruk vase, 40, 145
'tensional space', 150, 154 User, 84
Thanuny,88 Userhet, 76, 77,113,118
Thebes,64,78,83,115,120,131 Userkaf,85
Thessaly, 209
Thoth,26 Vaphio, 203,208, 209, 214
ThothmesIII,114,116,131 Verwom, Max, 7
Thothmes IV, 116, 117, 118 seq. viewpoint, 4, 178
three-dimensional space, 3, 18, 70, ambiguity of, 177
77 vignettes, 120
~1,32,83,34,37,39,40,42,44,45,52, visual memory, 197
91 Von Bissing, F. W., 32, 50, 98
Tiglathpilesar 111,175,176 Von Salis, A., 188
tomb decoration, significance of, 31 seq., Von Soden, W., 148
35, 64 seq., 79 seq., 100 seq., 105,
III Warka,145,149,150,153,155
tomb owner, portrayal of, 30 seq., 39, 'whirling movement', 192
42,57,73,75,81,91,103 seq., III Wilson, John A., 35, 132, 133, 13
topography,164,174 'window of appearance', 105, 111
topographical detail, 89, 106,112,122, Woelfflin, H., 83
128,128 Wolf, Walter, 119
clarity, 132 seq. Woolley, Sir C. Leonard, 158
coherence, 174 word lists, 148
recession, 173 Wreszinski, W., 32 seq., 43, 55, Gtl, ~II,

scenes, 175, 178 79,80,88 seq., 112, 116, ]17, l~m

'torsion', 192 seq., 131, 137, 138

transcience, problem of, 76
transcendent significance and actuality, Zakro seals, 207
160,163 Zeserkaresonb, 79, 81
trees, planting of, 80 Zoser, 45, 46

2~2