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What is the difference between method and methodology in

teaching?
The difference between method and methodology in teaching?
English Language Teaching (ELT) terminology can be sometimes confusing. This post attempts to describe the difference between
method and methodology in teaching. Other ELT terms such as approach and syllabus are also discussed.
It is worthwhile mentioning that the following definitions are mainly based on works by H. Douglas Brown (1987) and Richards and
Rodgers (1986)
Methodology
A definition of methodology can be confusing. The word “methodology” is frequently used when “method” would be more accurate.
Methodology refers to more than a simple set of methods. It is the rationale and the philosophical assumptions that underlie a
particular study. It indicates the theoretical analysis of the methods. In language teaching, methodology means the study of
pedagogical practices in general, including theoretical implications and related research.  It includes what is involved in how to teach.
Approach
Citing the applied linguist Edward Anthony’s model1963, Richards and Rodgers (1986, p. 19) refer to approach as “the level at
which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified.” It also includes ways to apply these assumptions
and beliefs to language teaching.
Method
A method is “the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the
content to be taught and the order in which the content will be presented.” (Richards and Rodgers, 1986, p. 19) It is the plan for
organizing the presentation of language material. It is a plan whose parts do not contradict and which relies on an approach.
Syllabus
Simply put syllabus is a language program. This includes objectives of linguistic materials and how they are sequenced to meet the
needs of learners.

The Natural Approach

The natural approach developed by Tracy Terrell and supported by Stephen Krashen is a
language teaching approach which claims that language learning is a reproduction of the way
humans naturally acquire their native language. The approach adheres to a communicative
approach to language teaching and rejects earlier methods such as the audiolingual
method and the situational language teaching approach which Krashen and Terrell (1983) believe
are not based on “actual theories of language acquisition but theories of the structure of language
”
The Natural Approach vs the Direct Method
Although The Natural approach and the Direct Method (also called the natural method) share some features, there are important
differences. Like the direct method, the natural approach is
” believed to conform to the naturalistic principles found in second language acquisition. Unlike the direct method,
however, it places less emphasis on teacher monologues, direct repetion,and formal questions and answers, and less
focus on accurate production of target language sentences” (Richards and Rodgers, 1986:129)
Theory of language
Krashen and Terrell view communication as the primary function of language, and adhere to a communicative approach to language
teaching, focusing on teaching communicative abilities rather than sterile language structures.
What really distinguishes the Natural approach from other methods and approaches are its premises concerning the use of language
and the importance of vocabulary:
 •Language is viewed as a vehicle for communicating meaning and messages.
•Vocabulary is of paramount importance as language is essentially its lexicon!
This means that language acquisition cannot take place unless the acquirer understands messages in the target language and has
developed sufficient vocabulary inventory. In fact, it should be easier to reconstruct a message containing just vocabulary items than
one containing just the grammatical structures.
Theory of learning
Krashen grounded the Natural approach on a number of learning tenets.
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Krashen makes a distinction between acquisition and learning.
•Krashen defines acquisition as developing competence by using language for real communication. It is a natural way of
developing the abilty to speak a language, paralleling first language development in children and refers to an unconscious
process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using
language for meaningful communication.
•Learning, however, refers to formal knowledge of a language. It is the process in which conscious rules about a language are
developed. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of a language and the ability to verbalize this knowledge. Formal
teaching is necessary for “learning” to occur, and the correction of errors helps with the development of learned rules.
The Monitor Hypothesis
Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and repairs the output of the acquired system. The Monitor
Hypothesis states that we may use learned knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate, but that conscious learning
has only this function. Three conditions limit the successful use of the monitor:
1.Time. Sufficient time for a learner to choose and apply a learned rule.
2.Focus on form. Focus on the correctness or on the form of the output.
3.Knowledge of rules. Knowing the rules is a prerequisite for the use of the monitor.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order. Certain grammatical structures or morphemes are acquired
before others in first language acquisition of English, and the Natural Order Hypothesis claims that the same natural order is found in
second language acquisition. It is also believed that errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes. Similar developmental
errors occur in learners during acquisition (but not during learning) no matter what their native language is
The Input Hypothesis
The Input Hypothesis relates to acquisition, not to learning and states that people acquire language best by understanding input that is
slightly beyond their level of competence. Krashen refers to this by the formula L +1 (where L+1 is the stage immediately following
L along some natural order.) Comprehension is achieved through linguistic and extralinguistic context clues including knowledge
about the world, the context of the situation etc… Comprehension precedes the emergence of speaking as fluency appears only as a
result of the provision of sufficient comprehensible input. By comprehensible input, Krashen means the utterances that learners
understand based on linguistic and extralinguistic context and which consists of a sort of simplified code. He contends that when
there is such comprehensible input, language acquisition proceeds successfully. Krashen also claims that when there is enough of
such comprehensible input, L+1will usually be provided automatically and
Affective Filter Hypothesis
There are three types of emotional attitudinal factors that may affect acquisition and that may impede, block or freely passes
necessary input for acquisition. These are motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Acquirers with a high affective filter are less
likely to develop competence.
In a nutshell
Teaching according to the Natural Approach involves the following principles:
•Teaching according to the Natural approach focuses on communicative abilities.
•One of its objectives is to help beginners become intermediate.
•Vocabulary is considered prior to syntactic structures.
•A lot of comprehensible input must be provided.
•Use of visual aids to help comprehension.
•The focus is on listening and reading. Speaking emerges later.
•Reducing the high affective filter by
•focusing on meaningful communication rather than on form.
•providing interesting comprehensible input
•The technique used in this approach are often borrowed from other methods and adapted to meet the requirement of the
approach. These include:
•Total Physical Response command drills
 •The Direct Method activities mime, gestures and context are used to elicit questions, and answers.
•Communicative Language Teaching group work activities where learners share information to complete a task.
Conclusion
The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language acquisition where the naturalistic features of L1 acquisition are utilized in
the L2 acquisition. It is an approach that draws a variety of techniques from other methods and approaches to reach this goal which is
one of its advantages. But the originality of this approach does not lie in these techniques but on the emphasis on activities based on
comprehensible input and meaningful communication rather than on only grammatical mastery of language.

Communicative Language Teaching (The Communicative

Approach)
As the language theories underlying the Audiolingual method and the Sitiuational Language Teaching method were questioned by
prominent linguists like Chomsky (1957) during the 1960s, a new trend of language teaching paved its way into
classrooms. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages,
emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as the “Communicative
Approach”. Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM), and as an extension or development
of the Notional-Functional Syllabus. Task-based language learning, a more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in
popularity.
Shortcomings of structuralism and behaviorism
The theories underlying the audiolingual method and the situational language teaching were widely criticized during the 1960s.
Noam Chomsky, for instance, rejected the structuralist view of language and demonstrated that there is a distinction between
performance and competence.  The goal of the linguist is to study the linguistic competence native speakers are endowed with. He
also showed, rightly, that structuralism and behaviorism were unable to account for one fundamental aspect of language, namely the
creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences. A child is able to produce an infinite number of sentences that s/he has never
encountered. This makes the factors of imitation, repetition, and habit formation weak arguments to account for any language
learning theory.
A shift towards communicative proficiency
The increasing interdependency between the European countries necessitated a need for a greater effort to teach adults the principal
languages of the continent. New goals were set in language teaching profession:
•The paramount importance of communication aspects of language.
•The increasing interest in meaningful learning.
•The growing centrality of the learner in teaching processes.
•The subordinate importance of structural teaching of language.
Notional / functional dimension of language
Applied linguists and philosophers addressed another fundamental dimension of language: the functional and communicative
potential of language.  The speech act theory showed that we do something when we speak a language. We use language ( cf Halliday
1975)
•to get things,
•to control behavior,
•to create interaction with others,
•to express personal feelings,
•to learn,
•to create a world of imagination,
•to communicate information.
Besides applied linguists emphasized a teaching of language based on communicative proficiency rather than mastery of structures.
instead of describing the core of language through traditional concepts of grammar and vocabulary, they (Van Ek & Alexander, 1975;
Wilkins, 1976) attempted to show the systems of meaning underlying the communicative use of language. They described two kinds
of meanings.
•Notional categories: concepts such as time, sequence; quantity, location, frequency.
•Functional categories: requests offers, complaints, invitation …
In other words, a “notion” is a particular context in which people communicate. A “function” is a specific purpose for a speaker in a
given context. For example, the “notion,” of shopping requires numerous language “functions,” such as asking about prices or
features of a product and bargaining.
One language competence or numerous competences?
For Chomsky, the focus of linguistics was to describe the linguistic competence that enables speakers to produce grammatically
correct sentences. Dell Hymes held, however,  that such a view of the linguistic theory was sterile and that it failed to picture all the
aspects of language. He advocated the need for a theory that incorporates communication competence. It must be a definition of what
a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community.
Later Canale and Swaine (1980) described four dimensions of communicative competence.
•Grammatical competence: refers to what Chomsky calls linguistic competence.
•Sociolinguistic competence: refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place (role
relationships, shared beliefs and information between participants …)
•Discourse competence: refers to the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and how
meaning is represented in relation to the entire discourse or text.
•Strategic competence: refers to the coping strategies that participants use to initiate terminate, maintain, repair and redirect
communication

Learning theory
According to the the communicative approach, in order for learning to take place, emphasis must be put on the importance of these
variables:
•Communication: activities that involve real communication promote learning.
•Tasks: activities in which language is used to carry out meaningful tasks supports the learning process.
•Meaning: language that is meaningful and authentic to the learner boosts learning.

Acquiring or learning?
Stephen Krashen later advocated in his language learning theory that there should be a distinction between learning and acquiring.
He sees acquisition as the basic process involved in developing language proficiency and distinguishes this process from learning.
Acquisition is an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency while learning is the
conscious internalization of the rules of language. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of language and the ability to
verbalize this knowledge. Learning according to Krashen can not lead to acquisition.

Syllabus
Communicative language teaching syllabus organizes the teaching according to the notional and functional categories of language
rather than according to its structures.It concentrates on the following:
•Interactions: using  language to communicate,
•Tasks: using language to  perform meaningful tasks
•Learner: putting the learner’s interests, needs in the forefront.

Merits of CLT
There are many advantages in teaching according to the communicative approach:
•CLT is a holistic approach. It doesn’t focus only on the traditional structural syllabus. It takes into consideration communicative
dimension of language.
•CLT provides vitality and motivation within the classroom.
•CLT is a learner centered approach. It capitalizes on the interests and needs of the learner.
•In a world where communication of information and information technology have broken new considerable ground, CLT can
play an important role in education.

Criticism
•Notional syllabus was criticized as merely replacing one kind of list, namely a list of grammatical structures, with another list of
notions and functions.
•The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not systematically graded like the structures of the language.
•The communicative approach focuses on the use of language in everyday situations, or the functional aspects of language, and
less on the formal structures. There must be a certain balance between the two.It gives priority to meanings and rules of use
rather than to grammar and rules of structure.  Such concentration on language behavior may result in negative consequences in
the sense that important structures and rules would be left out.
•The approach relies extensively on the functional-notational syllabus which places heavy demands on the learners.
•A major principle underlying this approach is its emphasis on learners’ needs and interests. This implies that every teacher
should modify the syllabus to fit the needs of the learners.
•The requirements are difficult. Not all classrooms can allow for group work activities and for teaching aids and materials.
In spite of its critics, CLT has gained widespread acceptance in the world of language study. CLT can succeed, as long as teachers
don’t completely reject the need for the structure provided by grammar. Teachers must strive for moderation and shouldn’t neglect
the merits of other methods. CLT, in the hands of a balanced teacher, can bring new life and joy to the classroom. Its vitality makes it
an important contributor to language learning approaches.
The Dogme Approach to Language Teaching
Dogme is a communicative approach to language teaching that was initiated by Scott Thornbury in his article, “A Dogma for EFL”.
Dogme advocates a kind of teaching that doesn’t rely on published textbooks but relies on conversational communication that occurs
in the classroom between teachers and students. The name of the approach comes from an analogy to the Danish Dogme 95 film
movement which intended to “cleans cinema of an obsessive concern for technique and rehabilitate cinema which foregrounded the
story and the inner life of characters.” According to Scott Thornbury,
teaching should be done using only the resources that the teachers and students bring to the classroom – i.e
themselves and whatever happens to be in the classroom.

Key features of dogme

As an approach dogme has well grounded principles in language learning and learning theories as explained by Scott Thornbury
in this post blog. He explains that dogme considers
•learning as experiential and holistic,
•and language learning as an emergent jointly-constructed and socially-constituted process motivated both by communal and
communicative imperatives.
Key features of dogme include the following:
•Dogme has its roots in communicative language teaching
•Conversation is seen as central to language learning.
•Dogme also places more emphasis on a discourse-level (rather than sentence-level) approach to language.
•Dogme considers that the learning of a skill is co-constructed within the interaction between the learner and the teacher.
•The Dogme approach considers that student-produced material is preferable to published materials and textbooks, to the extent
of inviting teachers to take a ‘vow of chastity’ and not use textbooks
•Like task-based approach, dogme considers language learning to be a process where language emerges rather than one where it
is acquired.
•Scaffolded learning where learning is assisted by the teacher through conversations makes it possible for effective learning to
take place.
•The teacher’s role is to optimize language learning affordances, the environment where learners can potentially learn and direct
their attention to emergent language.
•The learners voice, beliefs and knowledge are accepted.
Criticism
•Dogme can be a real challenge for teachers in low resource contexts
•Many teachers question the appropriateness of dogme in situations where students are preparing for examinations that have
specific syllabi.
•Dogme creates problems for non-native and novice teachers who find in textbooks a safe guide.
•The initial call for a “vow of chastity” not to use textbooks is seen as unnecessarily purist and hinders the adoption of a weaker
version of dogme.
Merits
•Dogme is compatible with reflective teaching.
•More freedom for teachers and students to conceptualize and implement more appropriate material.
•Students are most engaged by content they have created themselves
•Dogme has the merit of creating a low-affective filter environment in the classroom.
•learners follow their own pace of learning assisted by the teacher through scaffolding.
•Learning is humanized through a radical pedagogy of dialogue.
•Learners are freed from the ideological load inherent in  textbooks generally published in the west and commercialized all over
the world.
•Dogme recognizes the legitimacy of learners needs and expectations.
•Dogme gives teachers and learners the possibility to free themselves from the models of teaching and learning imposed by
textbook writers.
•Conversations provide the opportunity for learners to analyze, internalize, and practice language.
•Communication is central in the dogme approach.

The Audiolingual Method

The Audio-Lingual method of teaching  had its origins during World War II when it became known as the Army Method.  It is also
called the Aural oral approach. It is based on the structural view of  language and the behaviorist theory of language learning.
The Audiolingual Approach to language teaching  has a lot of similarities with the Direct Method. Both were considered as a reaction
against the shortcomings of the Grammar Translation method, both reject the use of the mother tongue and both stress that speaking
and listening competences preceded reading and writing competences. But there are also some differences. The direct method
highlighted the teaching of vocabulary while the audiolingual approach focus on grammar drills
Structuralism
The structural view to language  is the view behind the audio-lingual method. This approach focused on examining how the elements
of language related to each other in the present, that is, ‘synchronically‘ rather than ‘diachronically‘. It was also argued that 
linguistic signs were composed of two parts, a signifier (the sound pattern of a word) and a signified (the concept or meaning of the
word). The study of language aims at describing the performance ,the“parole” as it is the only observable part of language.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism  is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking
and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors. It contends that leaning occurs through associations, habit formation and
reinforcement. When the learner produces the desired behavior and is reinforced positively, it is likely that behavior be emitted again.

Situational Language Teaching (Oral Approach)

The Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching is an approach developed by British applied linguists between the 1930s and
the 1960s. While it is unknown for many teachers, it had a big influence on language courses till the 1980s. Textbooks such
as  Streamline English (Hartley and Viney 1979) was designed following the SLT approach principles.
The Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching is based on a structural view of language. Speech, structures and a focus on a
set of basic vocabulary items are seen as the basis of language teaching. This was a view similar to that held by American
structuralists, such as Fries.  However, what distinguishes the  Situational Language Teaching approach is its emphasis on the
presentation of structures in situations.
Vocabulary and grammar control
Situational Language Teaching is characterized by two major features:
1.Focus on both vocabulary and reading is the most salient trait of SLT.  In fact, mastery of a set of high-frequency vocabulary
items is believed to lead to good reading skills.
2.An analysis of English and a classification of its prominent grammatical structures into sentence patterns (also called
situational tables) is believed to help learners internalize grammatical rules.
Behavioristic background
The behavioristic view of language learning constitutes the cornerstone of Situation Language Teaching. The approach gives primacy
to the processes over the conditions of learning. The following processes are noted in this approach:
1.The act of receiving  knowledge or material
2.Repetition to fix that knowledge or material in memory.
3.The use of the knowledge or material in actual practice until it becomes a personal skill.
The behaviorist theory of learning is based on the principle of habit formation. Mistakes are banned so as to avoid bad habit
formation. Following the premises of behaviorism, a teacher presents language orally, then in written form.
SLT objectives
The objectives of  Situational Language Teaching involve accurate use of vocabulary items and grammar rules in order to achieve a
practical mastery of the four basic skills. Learners must be able to produce accurate pronunciation and use of grammar. The ultimate
aim is to be able to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations with an automatic control of basic structures and sentence
patterns.
The syllabus, techniques, and activities
Situational Language Teaching syllabus is designed upon a word list and structural activities. Grammar teaching involves a
situational presentation of new sentence patterns and drills to practice these patterns. The teacher moves from controlled to freer
practice of structures and from oral use of sentence patterns to their automatic use in speech, reading, and writing.
Typical lesson
According to Situational Language Teaching, a lesson starts with stress and intonation practice followed by a revision and a
presentation of new materials (mainly structures or vocabulary). The teacher then proceeds to oral practice and drilling of the
elements presented. Finally, the lesson ends with reading activity or written exercises.
Advantages
Situational Language Teaching is still attractive to many teachers who still believe in the structural practice of language. Its
practicality in the teaching of grammar patterns has contributed to the survival of the approach until recently. Besides, its emphasis
on oral practice still attracts support among language teachers.

Disadvantages
Many premises underlying the approach have been criticized. For example, Chomsky (1957) showed that the structural and the
behavioristic approaches to language are simply unfounded as they do not explain the fundamental feature of language learning: the
ability to create novel and unique sentences. Children do not acquire their mother tongue through repetition and habit formation.
There must be, however, an innate predisposition that leads them to a certain kind of linguistic competence.

The differences between Situational Language Teaching,

Direct Method, and Audio-Lingual Method
The audiolingual method and situational language teaching
Before looking at the differences between the SLT, Direct Method, and Audiolingual Method, let’s identify some similarities.
Both the audiolingual method and SLT rely on the same theories of language and learning, namely:
•Structuralism: language as a system consisting of interrelated structures.
•Behaviorism: language learning as habit-formation.
This overlap between the SLT and the audiolingual method led to the adoption of similar teaching principles that rely on an emphasis
on accuracy and habit formation.

The difference
Although they share the same theoretical foundations, the audiolingual method and SLT differ in some techniques and procedures.
The SLT focuses on the situational presentation of new sentence patterns. That is, while the audiolingual method relies on the
repetition and practice of language in isolation, learning in SLT occurs thanks to the presentation of new language in situations. For
example, the instructor may teach English vocabulary and sentence patterns in frequent situations through books, learning materials,
photos, body language, fictitious scenarios, etc. It should be emphasized, though, that situations in this sense are different from the
meaningful contextual use of language in the contemporary sense where contextualization is intended to be the meaningful use of
language for real communicative purposes.
Another difference between the two methods lies in the weight given to the teaching of language skills. While aiming at mastering
the four basic skills (Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing), SLT also seeks to enhance the aptitude to respond quickly and
accurately in different speech situations through an automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns. It is worthwhile
noting that although the audiolingual method also stresses the importance of accurate production of speech, the focus is mainly on
reading aloud dialogues, repetitions of model sentences, and drilling.

The direct method

The direct method (DM) was a reaction against the grammar-translation method whose main focus was on the written form at the
expense of the oral form.
There are basic differences between the SLT, the audiolingual method, and the DM:
•Unlike the audiolingual and the SLT methods, the direct method is not grounded on the structuralist theory.
•The learning principles characterizing the DM is that L2 learning should proceed like the way L2 is acquired.
•The method contends that as native speakers, we first learn by listening and speaking. Then comes the abilities to read and write.
Consequently, to learn a second or foreign language, oral teaching must come before any other kind of reading and writing
activities.
•Instruction in the DM is given solely in the target language with a focus on simple vocabulary.

Similarities
In spite of the above differences between the SLT, Direct Method, and Audiolingual Method, they share many characteristics:
•The focus is on correctness and practice of target language.
•The role of the real context is overlooked.
•Sentence-level grammar is the primary concern.
•Emphasis is on grammar at the expense of the communicative functions of language.
•The teacher is the sage on the stage.
Conclusion
As seen above the differences between Situational Language Teaching, Direct Method and Audio-Lingual Method are not related to
their theoretical foundations. For example, the SLT and the DM are both grounded on the structural and behaviorist approaches. In
addition, all the three methods focus primarily on accuracy and repetition without reference to the real context where language is
used to fulfill communicative and functional purposes.

Grammar Translation Method

History
The Grammar Translation Method is an old method which was originally used to teach dead languages which explains  why it
focuses mainly on the written form at the expense of the oral form. It was designed according to the faculty psychology
approach which was very popular during the 18th and 19th century. It contended that ” mental discipline was essential for
strengthening the powers of the mind”. The way to do this was through learning classical literature of the Greeks and Romans.
Method
•Use of mother tongue.
•Vocabulary items are taught in the form of word lists.
•Elaborate explanations of grammar.
•Focus on the morphology and syntax.
•Reading of difficult texts early in the course.
•Practice focuses on exercises translating sentences or texts from mother tongue to the target language and vice versa.
It is surprising to see that the Grammar Translation Method was still in use in some classrooms during the late decades of the 20th
century. May be, it’s  because it bears some advantages.
Advantages
•Translation is the easiest and shortest way of explaining meaning of words and phrases.
•Learners have no difficulties to understand the lesson as it is carried out in the mother tongue.
•It is a labor-saving method as the teacher carries out everything in the mother tongue.
Criticism
•What the method is good at is “teaching about the language” , not “teaching the language”.
•Speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the curriculum.
•Students lacked an active role in the classroom.
•Very little attention is paid to communication.
•Very little attention is paid to content.
•Translation is sometimes misleading.
Because of all these disadvantages, instructors  tried to find better ways to remedy the pitfalls of the grammar translation method.
The Direct Method was the answer.

The Direct Method

History
The Direct Method, also called Natural Method, was established in Germany and France around 1900. It appeared as an answer to
the shortcomings of the Grammar Translation Method. It is a method for teaching foreign languages that uses the target language,
discarding any use of mother tongue in the classroom. As teachers became frustrated with the students’ inability to communicate
orally, they began to experiment with new techniques. The idea was that foreign language teaching must be carried out in the same
way people learn their mother tongue!
The method
•Translation is completely banished from any classroom activity. Classroom activities are carried out ONLY in the target
language.
•Oral teaching comes before any other kind of reading and writing activities.
 •Use of chain activities accompanied by verbal comments like ‘I go to the door. I open the door. I close the door. I return to my
place. I sit down.’ (called the Gouin series)
•Grammar is taught inductively. (i.e. having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the
target language.)
•Use of  realia to teach concrete vocabulary. Abstract vocabulary is taught through association if ideas.
•Emphasis is put on correct pronunciation and grammar.
•Teaching through modeling and practice.
The teaching techniques rely mostly on:
•Reading aloud,
•Question answer exercises,
•Self-correction,
•Conversation practice,
•Fill-in-the-blank exercises,
•Dictation
•and Paragraph writing.
Advantages
Clearly the Direct Method is a shift away from the Grammar Translation Method. One of its positive points is that it promises to
teach the language and Not about the language. More advantages can be listed as follows:
•It is a natural method which teaches language the same way the mother tongue is acquired. Only the target language is used and
the learning is contextualized.
•Its emphasis on speech made it more attractive for those who have needs of real communication in the target language.
•It was one of the first methods to introduce the teaching of vocabulary through realia
Criticism
In spite of its achievements, the direct method fell short of fulfilling the needs of educational systems. One of its major shortcomings
is that it was hard for public schools to integrate it. As Brown (1994:56) points out, the Direct Method
” did not take well in public education where the constraints of budget, classroom size, time, and teacher background
made such a method difficult to use.”
After a short popularity in the beginning of the 20th century, it soon began to lose its appeal because of these constraints. It then
paved the way to the Audiolingual Method.

The Audiolingual method

The objective of the audiolingual method is accurate pronunciation and grammar, the ability to respond quickly and accurately in
speech situations and knowledge of sufficient vocabulary to use with grammar patterns. Particular emphasis was laid on mastering
the building blocks of language and learning the rules for combining them. It was believed that learning structure, or grammar was
the starting point for the student. Here are some characteristics of the method:
language learning is habit-formation,
mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they are considered bad habits,
language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in written form,
analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis,
the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context.
The main activities include reading aloud dialogues, repetitions of model sentences, and drilling. Key structures from the dialogue
serve as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds. Lessons in the classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by the
students. Not only are the students expected to produce the correct output, but attention is also paid to correct pronunciation.
Although correct grammar is expected in usage, no explicit grammatical instruction is given. It is taught inductively.  Furthermore,
the target language is the only language to be used in the classroom.
Advantages
•It aims at developing listening and speaking skills which is a step away from the Grammar translation method
•The use of visual aids  has proven its effectiveness in vocabulary teaching.
Disadvantages
•The method is based on false assumptions about language. The study of language doesn’t amount to studying the “parole”, the
observable data. Mastering a language relies on acquiring the rules underlying language performance. That is,  the linguistic,
sociolinguistic, and discourse competences.
•The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited. Many scholars have proven its weakness. Noam Chomsky ( “Chomsky,
Noam (1959). “A Review of B. F. Skinner’s Verbal behavior”) has written a strong criticism of the principles of the theory.
Total Physical Response
Total Physical Response is a language teaching method that is based on the assumption that the coordination of speech and action
will boost language learning. It was developed by James Asher in the 70s. He drew from a variety of areas,  including psychology,
learning theory, and humanistic pedagogy.
According to the trace theory of memory in psychology, the more often and intensively a memory is traced, the stronger the memory
association will be and the more likely it will be recalled. The retracing can be verbal through repetition and/or in association with
motor activity. This clearly reminds us of the behavioristic psychology which holds a Stimulus-Response model of learning. The
stimulus in the TPR method is verbal and the response is physical. In this respect, Total Physical Response has many similarities to
the Direct Method.
From developmental Psychology Asher draws the parallel, he contends exists,  between first language acquisition and 2nd language
learning. Children get language through a series of commands from their parents to which they react physically. It’s only later that
they can produce verbal responses ( cf  Jean Piaget works). Asher contends that humans are endowed with a sort of bio program
which follows this process of language learning and that, when teaching a 2nd language, we must follow the same process so that
learning can be successful. Asher in this respect adheres to a naturalistic method of language learning (cf Krashen’s Natural
Approach). Language learning must focus on comprehension and the teaching of speaking must be delayed until comprehension
skills are established. Asher also thinks that the skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills and that meaning precede
form.
Asher’s method relies on three assumptions about language. First Asher thinks that a lot of the grammatical structures of language
and many vocabulary items can be learned from the skillful use of the imperative form. In his view, verbs in the imperative are
primordial forms upon which language learning can be organized. Command drills can be a vehicle for the internalization of a lot of
language structures and vocabulary. Another TPR assumption about language is the one that distinguishes between abstractions and
non-abstractions. According to Asher, abstractions are not necessary to teach language to beginners. On the other hand, non-
abstractions can help build a detailed cognitive map and grammatical structure of language. The third assumption about language
states that language can be internalized not only as single items but also as wholes or chunks. This is an idea that will be later
developed by Michael Lewis (1993) in his Lexical Approach.
Relying on humanistic pedagogy, TPR also stresses the importance of a stress-free environment. In fact,  second language learning
often causes a lot of stress and anxiety. However, if teachers focus on meaning transferred into physical activity rather than on
abstract language forms students are freed from stress and anxiety.

Features of Total Physical Response

In a nutshell, here are the most salient features of the TPR:
•The coordination of speech and action facilitates language learning.
•Grammar is taught inductively.
•Meaning is more important than form.
•Speaking is delayed until comprehension skills are established.
•Effective language learning takes place in a low-stress environment.
•The role of the teacher is central. S/he chooses the appropriate commands to introduce vocabulary and structure.
•The learner is a listener and a performer responding to commands individually or collectively.
•Learning is maximized in a stress-free environment.

TPR Activities
Activities in the TPR method rely on action-based drills in the imperative form. In fact, the imperative drills are introduced to elicit
physical/motor activity on the part of the learners. The use of dialogs is delayed. Typical classroom activities include:
•Command drills
•Role plays in everyday situations (at the restaurant, at the movies …)
•Slide presentations to provide a visual center for teacher’s narration, which is followed by commands or questions
•Reading and writing can also be introduced to further consolidate grammar and vocabulary and as follow-ups

Criticism
•Asher doesn’t really give a detailed account of his distinction between abstractions and non-abstraction. For example, as
Richards and Rodgers (1986: 88)  state, are tense, aspect, and so forth abstractions, and if so, what sort of detailed cognitive map
could be constructed without them?
•TPR deals with only the beginning stages of language learning
•TPR syllabus and the utterance and the sentences within it are questionable as far as their communicative relevance  is
concerned

Advantages
•When used in association with other methods and techniques, TPR can yield tremendous results.
•For many teachers, TPR represents a useful set of techniques and is compatible with other approaches to language teaching.
 •The focus on comprehension is another appealing feature of TPR.
•The method is compatible with new approaches to language learning as it stresses the importance of meaning rather than form.
•Learning highly benefits from TPR’s emphasis on stress reduction.

The Lexical Approach

Since the publication of the “Lexical Approach” by Michael Lewis in 1993, Language teaching practices have been widely reviewed
and discussed. So what are the features of the  Lexical Approach? Is it a revolution in the profession of language teaching or just an
evolution? What are its claims?  How can it be implemented in the classroom?
Theory of language
The Chomsky’s notion of a native speaker’s output consisting of an infinite number of “creative” utterances is at best a half-truth. In
fact prefabricated items represent a significant portion of a native speaker’s spoken and written output. Native speakers have a vast
stock of these lexical prefabricated items or chunks and are vital for fluent production. Fluency does not depend so much on having a
set of generative grammar rules and a separate stock of words as on having rapid access to a stock of lexical chunks. It would seem,
then, that speakers need both a prefabricated, automated element to draw on as well as a creative, generative one.
Once the importance of prefabricated language is acknowledged, The grammar/vocabulary dichotomy becomes obviously false. In
fact, language has long been analyzed as consisting of grammatical structures and a set of usually single vocabulary items. Grammar
has been given priority over vocabulary. The latter has been seen as secondary in importance, merely serving to illustrate the meaning
and scope of the grammar. In the lexical Approach this dichotomy is irrealistic and considered to be based on false assumptions about
language. Language is basically its lexicon. The key principle of a lexical approach is that “language consists of grammaticalized
lexis, not lexicalized grammar.” In other words, lexis is central in creating meaning, grammar plays a secondary role in managing
meaning. When this principle is accepted, the logical implication for teachers is that we should spend more time helping learners
develop their stock of phrases, and less time on grammatical structures.
Nature of the lexis
There is a distinction between vocabulary, traditionally thought to be constituted of single items, and lexis, which includes not only
the single words but also the word combinations that we store in our mental lexicons. Lexical approach advocates argue that language
consists of meaningful chunks that, when combined, produce continuous coherent text, and only a minority of spoken sentences are
entirely novel creations. Michael Lewis present this taxonomy of Lexical items:
•words (e.g., book, pen)
•polywords (e.g., by the way, upside down)
•collocations, or word partnerships (e.g., community service, absolutely convinced)
•institutionalized utterances (e.g., I’ll get it; We’ll see;That’ll do; If I were you . . .; Would you like a cup of coffee?)
•sentence frames and heads (e.g., That is not as . . . as you think; The fact/suggestion/problem/danger was . . .) and even text
frames (e.g., In this paper we explore . . .; Firstly . . .; Secondly . . .; Finally . . .)
The Lexical Approach pays attention not only to single words but more importantly to collocations and institutionalized utterances
and sentence frames. Michael Lewis states that
“instead of words, we consciously try to think of collocations, and to present these in expressions. Rather than trying
to break things into ever smaller pieces, there is a conscious effort to see things in larger, more holistic, ways”
(1997a, p. 204).
Collocations
A collocation is the readily observable phenomenon whereby certain words co-occur in natural text with greater than random
frequency and is not determined by logic or frequency, but is arbitrary, decided only by linguistic convention. Some collocations are
fully fixed, such as:
•to catch a cold
•rancid butter
•drug addict
Other Collocations are more or less fixed and can be completed in a relatively small number of ways, as in the following examples:
•blood / close / distant / near(est) relative
•learn by doing / by heart / by observation / by rote / from experience
•badly / bitterly / deeply / seriously / severely hurt
Lexis in the classroom
Central to the lexical approach is the focus on teaching real English and a shift away from the artificial language found in ELT
textbook and which is drawn from the intuition of textbook designers. In fact, the approach contends that the language course books
teach is “not what people really say.”  That is why it is urgent to avoid distorting the language with course book writer intuition and
access the authentic language via corpora (a large amount of written and sometimes spoken material collected to show the state of a
language). Intuition often fails to accurately reflect the real use of language. Corpora, however, can instantly provide us with the
relative frequencies, collocations, and prevalent grammatical patterns of the lexis in question across a range of genres. In addition,
light is shed on lexical variation. This leads to the collection of thousands of vocabulary items that cannot be taught in the traditional
PPP (Present-Practice-Produce) framework. So how does the Lexical Approach deal with the teaching part? Even if the approach
doesn’t present a clear theory of learning there are some  hints about how the teaching looks like within the approach.
•Successful language is a wider concept than accurate language. Emphasis is on successful communication not grammatical
mastery.
•Language is not learnt by learning individual sounds and structures and then combining them, but by an increasing ability to
break down wholes into parts. We can also use whole phrases without understanding their constituent parts.
•Noticing and recording language patterns and collocations.
•Grammar is acquired by a process of observation, hypothesis and experiment. That is, the Observe-Hypothesise-Experiment
cycle replaces the Present-Practise-Produce Paradigm.
•Grammar exploration instead of grammar explanation.
•Intensive and extensive listening and reading in the target language.
•First and second language comparisons and translation—carried out chunk-for-chunk, rather than word-for-word—aimed at
raising language awareness.
•Repetition and recycling of activities.
•Guessing the meaning of vocabulary items from context.
•The language activities consistent with a lexical approach must be directed toward naturally occurring language and toward
raising learners’ awareness of the lexical nature of language.
•Working with dictionaries and other reference tools.
Conclusion
The Lexical approach is not really a revolution but an evolution as it tries to develop principles already known by communicative
language teachers. The aim of ELT is still the teaching of communicative abilities by focusing on successful language rather than
accurate language. The originality of the approach lies in its claims about the nature of language. The distinction between grammar
and vocabulary has become less valid and a more realistic view about language, based on the supremacy of lexis over grammar is
advocated. The challenge that the approach is facing is how to convince teachers to change their mindset in favor of this new vision
about language.

Suggestopedia
The origin of Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia is a language teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychologist, Georgi Lozanov (see picture on the right.)
Like Community Language Learning and the Silent Way Method, Suggestopedia is an innovative method that promises great
effective language learning results. Lozanov claimed that by using this method one can teach languages approximately three to five
times as quickly as conventional methods.
The name of Suggestopedia is from the words “suggestion” and “pedagogy.” It is a set of learning recommendations derived from
Suggestology, which Lozanov describes as “a science … concerned with systematic study of the nonrational and/or non-conscience
influences” that human beings are constantly responding to.  The method also draws from insights from yoga and Soviet psychology.
From yoga, it draws the importance of relaxation of mind for maximum retention of material. From Soviet psychology, Lozanov 
took the idea that:
“all sudents can be taught a given subject matter at the same level of skill.” Jack C. Richards and Theodore S.
Rodgers (1986)
The main features of suggestopedia are:
•The use of music to relax learners.
•The furniture, decoration, and the arrangement of the classroom.
•Teacher’s authority. The teacher plays a central role and he/she is the source of all information.

In the classroom
The arrangements and the physical atmosphere in the classroom are paramount for making sure that the students feel comfortable and
confident. The use of various techniques including art and music are used by trained teachers. In the beginning, the lesson based on
Suggestopedia used to consist of three phases: deciphering, concert session (memorization séance), and elaboration.  Later, it has
developed into four phases as lots of experiments were done: introduction, concert session, elaboration, and production.
1.Introduction: The teacher teaches the material in “a playful manner” instead of analyzing the lexis and grammar of the text in
a directive manner.
2.Concert session (active and passive): in the active session, the teacher reads with special  intonation as selected music is
played. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher, and listen only to the music as the teacher pauses in
particular moments. The passive session is done more calmly.
3.Elaboration: The students sing classical songs and play games while the teacher acts more like a consultant.
 4.Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without interruption or correction.
Criticism:
Suggestopedia has been criticised for a number of reasons:
•It is not  a practical method as teachers face the problem of the availability of music and comfortable chairs.
•Lozanov refers in a number of occasions to the importance of memorization, excluding any reference to comprehension and
creative problem solving. In fact, language is not only about the power of the mind to memorize. It’s about understanding,
interacting, and producing novel utterances in different unpredictable situations.
Advantages
In spite of all these disadvantages, some tenets of Suggestopedia have been accepted and adapted by teachers worldwide.
•Through Suggetopedia we learn to trust the power of the mind.
•We also learn that deliberately induced states of relaxation can be valuable at times in the classroom.
•We can also benefit from the use of music to get students to it back and relax.
These are some of the  contributions of Suggestopedia that teachers may weigh and adapt to different situations.

Ecological Approach to English Language Teaching

Ecological approach
The Ecological Approach to Language Learning highlights the comprehensive development of language skills within context.  Like
organisms living in an environment, speakers interact in a context
“to integrate into and to influence their discourse  community.” Thornbury
In this perspective, learners are not viewed only as brains to be filled with structures and vocabulary, but also as whole persons living
and moving in a specific environment.
To learn more about this approach check out:
•This book by Larsen-Freeman about the Ecological Approach to Language Teaching. (Larsen-Freeman describes complex
systems and their relation with applied linguistics.)
•Or this interesting post by Scott Thornbury: E is for Ecology

Community Language Learning

Background of the Community Language
Learning
As the Chomskyan linguistic revolution turned linguists and language teachers away
from the audiolingual method which focused on surface structure and on rote practice of
scientifically produced patterns to a new era where the deep structure is paramount, 
psychologists began to see the fundamental importance of the effective domain. So
innovative methods of language teaching were developed during the 70s to redress the
shortcomings of the audiolingual method. One of these methods came to be known as
Community Language Learning.
CLL differs from other methods by which languages are taught. It’s based on an approach  modeled on counseling techniques that
alleviate anxiety, threat and the personal and language problems a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages. The
method was originally developed by Charles Curran who was inspired by Carl Rogers view of education.  in In this “Counseling-
learning” model of education, learners in a classroom are seen as a group rather than as a class, a group in dire need of certain
therapy and counseling . The social dynamics  occurring in the group are very important and a number of conditions are needed for
learning to take place.
•Members should interact in an interpersonal relationship.
•Students and teachers work together to facilitate learning by
•valuing each other,
•lowering the defense that prevent interpersonal interaction
•reducing anxiety
•and constituting a supportive community.
•Teachers role is that of a true counselor.
•They are not perceived as a threat
•They don’t impose boundaries and limits
 •They concentrate on the learners needs

Stages in Community Language Learning (CLL)

Learners  go through 5 stages in their learning process.
1.“Birth” stage: feeling of security and belonging are established. Dependence on the knower as learners have little or no idea of
the target language.
2.“Self stage”: As the learner’s ability improve and starts to gt an idea of how language works, they achieve a measure of
independence from the parent although they still seek help from the knower.
3.“Separate existence”: Learners can speak independently.
4.“Adolescence”: The learners are independent although they are aware of gaps in their knowledge and feel  secure enough to
take criticism and being corrected.
5.“Independence”: Complete independence from the knower. The child becomes an adult and becomes the knower.
Community Language Learning Class
Here is what you may find in a CLL class:
•Students determine content.
•Clients/learners establish an interpersonal relationship and trust in their native language.
•They sit in a circle with the teacher/counselor on the outside of the circle.
•Learners start a conversation.
•Learners speak in their native language.
•The counselor provides translations and explanations.
•Learners repeat the utterances as accurately as they can.
•The conversation goes on and my be taped for later use.

Advantages of CLL
•CLL is an attempt to overcome the threatening affective factors in EFL and ESL.
•The councelor allow the learners to determine type of coversation and to analyze the language inductively
•The student centered nature of the method can provide extrincic motivation and capitalize on intinsic motivation.

Disadvantages
•The counselor/teacher can become too non directive. Students often need directions .
•The method relies completely on inductive learning. It is worthwhile  noting that deductive learning is also a viable strategy of
learning.
•Translation is an intricate  and difficult task. The success of the method relies largely on the translation expertise of the
counselor.

The Silent Way Method

The Silent Way
The Chomskyan criticism of the theories upon which the audiolingual method was founded led to an interest in  not only the affective
factors but also in the cognitive factors.  While Community Language Learning, drawing from Carl Roger’s philosophy, focused on
the importance of the affect, new methods were developed in the 70s to highlight the cognitive domain in language learning. The
Silent Way is one of these innovative methods. In Fact, Caleb Gattegno, the founder of the Silent Way,devoted his thinking to the
importance of problem solving approach in education. He contends that the method is constructivist and leads the learners to develop
their own conceptual models of all the aspects of the language. The best way of achieving this is to help students to be experimental
learners.

Features
The Silent Way is characterized by its focus on discovery, creativity, problem solving and the use of accompanying materials.
Richards and Rodgers (1986:99)  summarized the method into three major features.
1.Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. The Silent way belongs to the tradition of teaching that favors
hypothetical mode of teaching (as opposed to expository mode of teaching) in which the teacher and the learner work
cooperatively to reach the educational desired goals. (cf Bruner 1966.) The learner is not  a bench bound listener but an active
contributor to the learning  process.
 2.Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects. The Silent Way uses colorful charts and 
rods (cuisenaire rods) which are of varying length. They are used to introduce vocabulary ( colors, numbers, adjectives, verbs)
and syntax (tense, comparatives, plurals, word order …)
3.Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned. This can be summarized by Benjamin
Franklin’s words:
“Tell me and I forget
Teach me and I remember
Involve me and I learn”
A good silent way learner is a good problem solver. The teacher’s role resides only  in giving minimum repetitions and
correction, remaining silent most of the times,  leaving the learner struggling to solve problems about the language and get a
grasp of its mechanism.
Disadvantages
•The Silent Way is often criticized of being a harsh method. The learner works in isolation and  communication is lacking badly
in a Silent Way classroom.
•With minimum help on the part of the teacher, the Silent Way method may put the learning itself at stake.
•The material ( the rods and the charts)  used in this method will certainly fail to introduce all aspects of language. Other
materials will have to be introduced.
Advantages
•Learning through problem solving looks attractive especially because it fosters:
•creativity,
•discovery,
•increase in intelligent potency and
•long term memory.
•The indirect role of the teacher highlights the importance and the centrality of the learner who is responsible in figuring out and
testing the hypotheses about how language works. In other words teaching is subordinated to learning

Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

What is Task-Based Language Teaching?
Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is a type of instruction that relies on the use of authentic target language to do meaningful
tasks. TBLT is also referred to as task-based instruction (TBI) and can be considered a branch of communicative language teaching
(CLT). The notion of tasks is central to this type of instruction. The assessment of learning is mainly based on task outcome and not
only on the accurate use of the target language. For this reason, TBLT is believed to be effective in learning target language fluency
and developing student confidence.

Theoretical foundations
The following are some of the most important theoretical premises of TBL according to Richards & Rodgers (2001, p. 227-229).
Theory of language
•Language is primarily a means of making meaning: TBLT considers meaning as a central focal point in language teaching. The
approach is concerned with the outcome of tasks.
•Multiple models of language inform task-based instruction: Structural, functional and interactional models influence TBLT
adherents.
•Lexical units are central in language use and language learning: TBLT considers vocabulary items to include not only individual
words but also phrases, sentence frames, collocations and prefabricated routines.
•“Conversation” is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition: Learners are required to produce and
understand communicative messages. That is exchanging information is crucial to language acquisition.

Theory of learning
•Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language acquisition: If Krashen stresses the importance of
comprehensible input, TBLT advocates have argued that comprehensible output is also of equal importance.
•Task activity and achievement are motivational: Tasks appeal to learners’ learning styles and may involve physical activity,
collaboration, and partnership.
 •Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for a particular pedagogical purpose: Tasks may be designed in such a way
that they meet learners’ level of proficiency. That is, providing the appropriate target input is crucial to facilitate language
acquisition.
As it is evident from the above theoretical premises, the notion of task is central to TBLT.

What is a task?
Here is a definition by Prabhu:
“An activity which required learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought
and which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process was regarded as a task.” (Prabhu, 1987:24)
Examples of tasks include:
•Preparing a meal.
•Ordering food in a restaurant.
•Making an appointment with a doctor on the phone.
•Solving a problem.
•Designing a brochure.
•Making a list of the qualities of a good husband/wife.

Criteria for tasks in TBLT

Rod Ellis defines tasks in terms of four key criteria:
1. Meaning
Tasks are language teaching activities where meaning is central. Tasks require learners to produce and understand communicative
messages.
2. Gaps
Tasks should involve gaps. There are three types of gaps:
1.Information gap: one person has information that another person does not have.
2.Opinion gap: learners have the same shared information but they use that information to try to convey their feeling about a
particular situation.
3.Reasoning gap: learners are asked to use reason and logic to decide what information to convey and what resolution to make
for the problem at hand. Like information gap, the activity necessarily involves understanding and communicating information.
Where the information and reasoning gaps differ is in the information conveyed. The latter is not identical with the one initially
understood. It changes through reasoning.
3. Use of learners’ own resources
Learners have to use their own linguistic and nonlinguistic resources to complete the task. That is, they have to use whatever
knowledge of the language they have in order to participate in the task. Learners may also use nonlinguistic resources such as
gestures. This criterion is what makes TBLT unique. In traditional language teaching, the teacher provides the language resources and
the students have to master these resources when they do a task. They are not asked to produce communicative messages using their
own linguistic resources.
4. Communicative outcome
Tasks must involve some sort of nonlinguistic outcome such as drawing a route on a map or agreeing on a plan to solve the problem
of pollution in the learners’ neighborhood.

Typical procedure
Pre-task
At this stage, the topic is introduced through activities such as:
•Prior knowledge activation
•Brainstorming
•Visual Aids
•Games
•Discussions
•Vocabulary activities
•Reading

Task activity (cycle)

The teacher gives clear instructions about the task.
 •The learners do the task, in pairs or in groups, using their own linguistic and nonlinguistic resources.
•The teacher’s role at this stage is to monitor, support, and encourage the learners.
•The teacher does not have to intervene to correct accuracy mistakes.
•The emphasis is more on meaningful communication, fluency and confidence building than on accuracy.
•The learners draft or rehearse what they want to say or write.
•They report briefly to the whole class to compare findings.

Post-task
This stage provides an opportunity for learners to compare their products with a similar product by a native/ fluent speaker.
•The learners listen to a recording by a native/fluent speaker.
•Comparison between the two versions constitutes a chance for learners to learn from their mistakes.
•Based on the analysis of the learners’ products, more work on specific language points may follow

Advantages of TBLT
Implicit learning
The aim of TBLT is to help learners develop implicit knowledge of the language that will enable them to participate easily and
naturally in communication. The learners get the form and use of the target language without being explicitly being taught. The role
of the teacher is to design tasks by replicating and creating the conditions for language learning and for communication that exists
outside the confines of the classroom. The aim is that the learners’ interlanguage will gain implicit language knowledge while doing
tasks.
Incidental learning
Much of our everyday learning is incidental. TBLT provides opportunities for unplanned learning. Completing a real-world task
allows the acquisition to take place without any deliberate intention on the part of the learner or the teacher.
Meaningful learning
TBLT allows meaningful communication to occur during the accomplishment of tasks.

Disadvantages of TBLT
•Some teachers criticize TBLT for focusing mainly on fluency at the expense of accuracy.
•TBLT requires a high level of creativity and initiative on the part of the teacher.
•TBLT requires resources beyond the textbooks and related materials usually found in language classrooms.
•Evaluation of task-based instruction can be difficult. The nature of task-based learning does not allow it to be objectively
measurable.

Content Based Instruction

Content based instruction (CBI) is a teaching approach that focuses on learning language through learning about
something. Although CBI is not new, there has been an increased interest in it because  it has proven very effective in ESL and EFL 
programs around the world.

What is Content based Instruction?

Content-based teaching differs from traditional language classes because language comes second to the content. In other words, the
teacher runs a course on current affairs, or American history, or fiction writing, through which students also learn English. It’s
important to note that English ends up as subordinate to the material, although the teacher must recognize and be prepared to help
students with language skills.
Types of content based instruction:
•The Sheltered Model: It is used at university where the goal of teachers is to enable their ESL students to study the same content
material as regular English L1 students. Sheltered CBI is called “sheltered” because learners are given special assistance to help
them understand regular classes.
•The Adjunct Model: Undertaken by ESL teachers.  The aim of Adjunct classes is to prepare students for “mainstream” classes
where they will join English L1 learners.
•The Theme Based Model: These classes can be taught by EFL teachers who create content material based on the needs and
interests of the students.
Other types of teaching may fall within the realm of CBI. English for Specific Purposes and Task based instruction are both examples
of CBI.
Content based lesson:
Because of the nature of the content, all four skills get integrated. It’s important to note that the content continues through the whole
course, not just a handful of lessons. A course on shopping one day, using the bank on another day, and making hotel reservations in
English at a different class session is an example of a CBI class.
An example of  CBI lesson can be approached following these steps:
•Preparation
•A subject of interest is chosen.
•Finding suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the subject. These could be websites, reference books, audio or
video of lectures or even real people.
•The lesson
•Using small groups
•Assigning each group a small research task and a source of information in the target language to use to help them fulfil the
task.
•groups sharing and comparing information.
•A result in the form of an end product such as a report or presentation of some kind.

Advantages
•Language learning becomes more interesting and motivating.
•CBI offer a wide educational knowledge to learners in the form of the different topics instructed.
•It helps students develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarizing and extracting key information from texts.
•Developing collaborative skills, especially when using group work, which can have great social value.

Disadvantages
•CBI implicit language instruction can confuse learners and may give them the impression that they are not actually learning
language.
•Overuse of native language can be a problem in some parts of the lesson.
•Finding information sources and texts that lower levels can understand can be difficult.
In a nutshell, although CBI is a challenging approach for both teachers and students, the outcome of its implementation can be
rewarding and motivating.

Teaching receptive skills to ESL and EFL learners

This post is about teaching receptive skills to ESL and EFL students. The following points will be covered:
•What are the four language skills?
•What approaches are used to teach language skills?
•How are the receptive skills taught?
•What is meant by bottom-up processing?
•What is meant by top-down processing?
•How is the receptive skills lesson plan designed?
•Why should the focus be on the reading and listening strategies?
•How should the comprehension tasks be sequenced?
•How to deal with potential difficulties?

What is meant by skill?

A skill is commonly defined as an ability to do something well or with expertise. In education, skill refers to an ability acquired
through planned, deliberate, and systematic effort. Students reach automaticity and become skilled after extensive practice. Richards
and Schmidt (2010, p. 532) define a skill as:
“An acquired ability to perform an activity well, usually one that is made of a number of coordinated processes”
In language teaching, language skills are categorized into two categories: receptive and productive skills. Reading and listening are
part of receptive skills. The productive skills, however, comprise speaking and writing.

Receptive and productive

Receptive skills
In language teaching, the receptive skills are those skills where meaning is extracted from the spoken or written discourse. These
skills are listening and reading, respectively.
Productive skills
The productive skills, on the other hand, refer to the skills where the students are invited to produce language in written or spoken
forms, that is in (i.e. speaking and writing.)

Teaching language skills

Teaching language skills differs considerably from the approaches adopted in teaching the other language components, such as
grammar, vocabulary, and functions. Grammar, vocabulary, and functions are usually taught using PPP (i.e. Present, Practice,
produce), TBL (i.e. Task-Based-Learning), or OHE (i.e. Observe, Hypothesize, Experiment) approaches. Teaching language skills
follows quite different procedures.
In the following sections, we will deal with the procedures followed in teaching both receptive skills.

Teaching receptive skills

Three important things should be taken into account when teaching receptive skills:
1.The aim of teaching receptive skills is to help the learners develop the necessary skills to understand and interpret spoken or
written materials. Consequently, the teacher has to avoid focusing only on testing the learners’ performance in getting the
meaning of the texts and aim, instead, at training them to use the reading and listening strategies that enable them to deal with
any type of text.
2.People read or listen for a purpose. This can be to get specific information or to get a general idea of the text. Sometimes,
listening and reading are done just for pleasure as when we read poetry or listen to a podcast.
3.The receptive skills are not passive. Listeners and readers make use of important cognitive processing while listening or
reading. Two of the most important activities that occur in the mind while processing a text are top-down and bottom-up
Top-down processing
Top-down activities refer to the activities where the learners are asked to get a general view of the passage. Here are some examples
of top-down processing activities:
•Using pictures to predict what the topic will be about.
•Providing three or four titles and asking the students to listen to or read the passage to decide about the most appropriate title for
the passage.
•Providing headings and asking the students to match them with the different sections of the passage.
•Providing different pictures to be matched with the different sections.
•Putting a series of pictures or a sequence of events in the right order.
•Listening to conversations and identifying where they take place and the people involved.
•Asking the students to infer the type of relationships between the people involved.
•Providing students with a set of information to be studied. They then have to listen to or read the main passage and decide
whether or not the same points are mentioned.
Bottom-up processing
Bottom-up activities are concerned with things such as individual words, phrases, and sentences. These activities guide the students
to construct a better text meaning. For example, these activities help the learners to retain information while it is being processed,
identify word and clause boundaries, recognize key transitions, locate referents, understand grammatical relationships between
syntactic elements in an utterance or sentence, and identify sentence functions. Examples of such activities include:
•What do some underlined words refer to? Or who/what does a pronoun refer to?
•Identify the order of a set of words in the discourse.
•Recognize linking words or sequence speech markers.
•Recognize the parts of speech of a set of words.
•Identify the tense of verbs.
•Identify synonyms or antonyms of a set of words in the text.
The receptive skills lesson plan
The comprehension tasks involved in the receptive skills should normally follow a sequence of activities from getting a general view
of the text (i.e. top-down processing) to studying the more specific and smaller bits/elements that constitute these texts (i.e. bottom-
up processing).
The receptive skills lesson plan starts with preparing the students through warm-up and lead-in activities. Then, the teacher focusses
on the strategies (e.g. predicting, inferring meaning from the context, locating referents, etc.) needed to understand the spoken or the
written text.  This is followed by comprehension tasks that aim at, first general, then, detailed comprehension of the content of the
text. The lesson ends with a follow-up activity that summarizes the text, connects it to the leaners’ daily life experiences, or pushes
them to react to it.
Figure 3 shows the procedure adopted to sequence the reading and listening activities:
 The receptive skills procedure
Figure 3 Receptive skills procedure
The procedure commonly adopted to teach receptive skills can be summarized in the table below. The steps in this sequence are
referred to as pre, while and post stages:

Stages Procedures

Any activity that will put the students

in the mood of learning (e.g. riddle,
Warm-up chanting, tongue twister, etc.). It
shouldn’t take a lot of time. Five
minutes maximum.

Preparing the students to the topic

through:
The activation of the schematic
knowledge about the topic (e.g. using
related pictures or graphs, discussion of
related quotes, etc.)
Pre-stage Lead-in
Vocabulary pre-teaching (i.e. pre-
teaching a limited set of key
vocabulary.)
Grammar pre-teaching (e.g. the plural
forms, time expressions, form of
certain verbs, etc.)

Explicitly teaching the learners about

how to use a reading or listening
Strategy teaching strategy (e.g. using prior knowledge,
skimming, scanning, locating referents,
etc.)

While-stage The learners apply the strategy. They

Strategy practice do the task first individually, then they
compare answers in pairs or groups.

Comprehension True/false exercise

 Matching
tasks Wh-questions
Sentence completion

Locating referents.
Matching words with their definitions.
Finding in the text synonyms or
antonyms of given words.
Text work
Inferring the meaning of words from
the text.
Identifying verb tenses.
Identifying linking words.

Recalling information from the text.

Re-telling the story.
Reviewing Summarizing the text.
Completing a chart with the main ideas
Post-stage discussed in the text.

Connecting the text with other texts.

Connecting the texts with the learners’
Connecting
lives.
Connecting the text with the world.

Using the text as a springboard for

Follow-up Using the text teaching other components such as
writing, speaking, or grammar.
 
Comprehension
Teaching reading or listening comprehension is not testing comprehension. A receptive skill lesson aims at training the learners to use
the necessary tools to understand any type of text. In other words, the teacher should initiate learners to make use of different
strategies to get meaning from written or spoken text.  These strategies are related to either top-down or bottom-up cognitive
processing. Ideally, the teacher should start with a general understanding of the text (i.e. top-down processing) and end up with a
more detailed understanding (i.e. bottom-up processing).
Strategies
As readers or listeners, we never start reading or listening completely from a “zero starting-point.”  We always use our prior
knowledge to predict what the text will be about or to make sense of what is said or written. In addition to that, we always look for
contextual clues to help us in our quest for making sense of the text. We also often recall and connect the information in the text to
other texts, to ourselves and the world.
As teachers, we have to train our learners to make use of strategies such as those described below so that they can become better
readers and listeners. Here are short descriptions of some of these strategies:
Predicting
Using information or elements from a passage (e.g. title, headings, pictures, diagrams, words in bold type,…) and personal
knowledge to anticipate what the text is about.
Skimming
Reading a text quickly to get its general idea (i.e. to get the gist) of the content.
Scanning
Reading a text quickly to locate a specific fact or piece of information. This may be a date, a name or a figure… This strategy is also
referred to as reading for specific details
Previewing
Previewing or surveying consists of having an idea about the content and goals of a reading text before starting to read. To do so,
readers look at the title, sub-titles, a picture or read the first sentence of each paragraph, …
Questioning
Generating questions about the text and the writer’s intentions. This helps learners get engaged actively with a text instead of reading
it passively.
Making connections
Readers relate the content of the passage to self, to other texts or to the world. Good readers take advantage of the connections they
make between the current passage with:
•Their personal experiences (text-to-self),
•The content from other texts (text-to-text),
•Their knowledge about the world (text-to-world).
Making connections enhance deeper insight and understanding.
Inferring
Making meaning of the text by reading between the lines and using personal knowledge. The aim is to construct meaning beyond
what is literally expressed. By inferring, readers are adding information that is not explicitly stated.
Summarizing
Summarizing consists of giving a brief statement of a text (using one’s own words) by identifying the most important points. This
strategy helps learners integrate the main ideas in a meaningful way.
Using background knowledge
Using what is already known to better understand something new. By activating prior knowledge, readers try to make sense out of
what they read by seeing how it fits with what they already know.
Locating referents
Identifying the antecedents of some words in a text.
Recalling
Relying on memory to retrieve a specific piece of information or a general idea from a text/ retelling the content of a text without
going back to it
Evaluating
Critically reflecting on and judging the author’s purpose, attitude, opinion, etc.
Comprehension questions
The comprehension question aims to get both an overall and a detailed understanding of the text. These may be in the form of:
•True or false questions.
•Wh-questions – questions that start with what, when, why, how…
•Sentence completion
•Matching
General to specific tasks
Teaching receptive skills follows a sequence that starts from general to more specific understanding. The following table provides
examples of tasks that can be assigned in each stage in this sequence.
Table 1 General to a specific understanding of texts
Overall understanding More detailed understanding Language focus
How many people are speaking? What are the words that
What are they talking about? describe Jane’s health
Why are they in the hospital?
Where are the speakers? problem?
What happened to Jane?
Choose an appropriate title. Underline the words/
What was the doctor’s
Match the headings with the expressions that describe her
prognostic?
different sections parents’ feelings.
  What tenses are used?
Authentic texts
Some teachers prefer to use authentic texts. Their rationale is that the students have to be confronted with real language although they
might miss some words.  This can be challenging. It is true that learners sometimes work harder when they are challenged with real
language, but this can be counter-productive and might demotivate them. One way to overcome the problems that may arise when
using authentic texts is to provide some scaffolding (i.e. fine-tuned help when needed) while they are doing the task. Another way is
to redesign authentic materials to fit the learners’ level without affecting the naturalness of the language. Simplifying the texts does
not mean that we should sacrifice the elements that give a natural pigment to the text.
Dealing with potential difficulties
Sometimes, the students find difficulty understanding the spoken or written text. This generally happens because of the presence of
some difficult words or complex grammatical structures. In this case, it is advisable to pre-teach these language elements through
brief presentation and explanation before starting the comprehension questions. However, teachers should be cautious not to explain
every difficult word or structure when we want our students to make an effort to get the general meaning of the text. When it is the
case, we have to warn our students that they have to get the general meaning in spite of the presence of difficult language that they
might not know.

Teaching Productive Skills | Speaking and Writing

Teaching productive skills to Second Language Learners
The procedure of teaching productive skills involves different steps. The following article provides answers to the following
questions:
•What is meant by productive skills?
•Why are they important in English language teaching?
•How to structure a productive skills lesson plan?
•What elements should be considered in teaching productive skills?

What are productive skills?

Productive skills refer to the skills that enable the learners to produce language in written or spoken forms (i.e. speaking and writing.)
The importance of productive skills in language teaching
Productive language skills, speaking, and writing, are important because they are the observable evidence of language acquisition.
The more the speaker or the writer produces appropriate and coherent language the more we have proof of the progress in the
learner’s language system.
Teaching productive skills is also important because written and spoken communication are basic life skills. In real life, people
generally may need to inform, convince, or share ideas. They are also sometimes required to take notes, fill in forms, and write
emails, letters, reports, or stories.
The productive skills lesson plan
Unlike the receptive skills lesson plan, in addition to understanding and interpreting the discourse, a productive skills lesson aims at
helping learners produce appropriate and coherent messages either in spoken or written forms. It is true that making sense of, and
being able to process, the input is important, but what is essentially involved in the productive skills is the ability to convey
information, convince or share ideas and feelings.
The productive skills lesson plan should take into consideration the following points:
1.The lesson aims at helping the learners communicate.
2.It is unhelpful to provide a topic and ask the learners to speak or write.
3.Some preparation is needed before setting the task.
4.Generally, we cannot talk or write about something we know nothing about.
5.The choice of the topic is important. The learners should be familiar with it.
6.Before asking the learners to produce language, we have to equip them with techniques and strategies to facilitate their efforts
to speak or write effectively.
7.Communication breakdowns may happen.
8.When difficulties arise, learners have to be able to use specific communication strategies.
Since the aim of teaching receptive skills is to produce language that makes sense to the listener or reader, the lesson should be
designed systematically to include stages that prepare the learners for the main activity (i.e. speaking or writing), activities that help
them to actually produce appropriate messages and finally some sort of feedback that is either peer or teacher regulated.
Ideally, teaching a productive skill procedure involves the following steps:
•Providing a model text
•Comprehension and model analysis (e.g. studying the genre’s distinctive features)
•Practice
•Working on the language needed to perform the task
•Task setting
•Understanding the topic/situation (what is the desired outcome)
•Planning
•Structuring the output
•Production
•Preparing for the spoken task.
•Going through the process of drafting, revising, and editing
•Feedback
•Self or peer-regulated feedback using a checklist or teacher-regulated.
 Productive skills procedure
Procedure to teach productive skills
Teaching productive skills involve the following steps:
1.Provide a model of the target genre we want our students to produce.
2.Work on the model; focus on the meaning and form. The teacher should guide the learners to analyze the text so that they can
discover by themselves its linguistic and formal features.
3.After isolating the different linguistic and formal features of the model text, the learners have to work on accuracy activities.
The objective at this stage is to practice the form and use of the language that will help them produce accurate messages in terms
of pronunciation, spelling, verb tense, sentence structure, and text layout, etc…
4.After we feel that the learners can use the target language satisfactorily, they are introduced to a similar task where they have to
personalize the language and produce effective messages.
5.Some planning or preparation is needed before production.
a.In the case of the writing skill, the learners have to go through a specific process that involves them to collect ideas, plan,
write the first draft, revise it, and edit it.
b.In the case of the speaking skill, the learners have to structure their discourse, individually, in pairs, or in groups before
actual production.
6.Feedback can be given by the learners themselves or by the teacher.
7.To give much more value to the learners’ productions, it is advisable to post the video recording of their conversations or their
writing on social media such as YouTube, Facebook, or on the class blog if there is any.
What elements should be considered in teaching productive skills?
When teaching productive skills, the teacher should also take into consideration other essential communicative aspects. These can be
categorized as follows:
The task:
It should be to the point and should include a purpose, the target audience, and information about the genre. Here is an example of
inappropriate productive tasks:
What are the advantages and drawbacks of using smart mobile phones?
The above task can be assigned more appropriately as follows:
You have noticed that your school mates are addict to their mobile phones. Write an essay about the advantages and
drawbacks of using smart mobile phones to be published in the school magazine.
The above task includes information about who is writing what to whom and why?
•Who? – You.
•What? – An essay about the advantages and drawbacks of mobile phones.
•To whom? – Your schoolmates.
•Why? – Because they are addicted to their mobile phones.
The audience
An important aspect of communicative competence is to be able to adjust our language according to the status, sex, and age of the
audience. The way we communicate with a child is different from the way we communicate with adults. Responding to a formal
letter is different from the way we respond to a personal letter. Moreover, we adapt our interaction according to the social status of
the participants. Addressing a person with higher status – such as a judge during a trial – differs from addressing a friend. Language
output may also be adjusted according to whether we are interacting with a male or a female participant. Consequently, in any type of
communication, the elements that constitute the audience should be taken into account. Otherwise, the communication might not be
appropriate and may even be flawed.
Genre
If the audience refers to the external variables (e.g. age, sex, social status) that contribute to the meaning of the discourse, the notion
of genre is text-based. It focuses on the internal formal and linguistic elements that are socially agreed upon.
Genre theory has gained so much attention recently in the teaching of productive skills. It is grounded on the ‘view that texts can be
classifiable and have understandable and predictable forms, structures, and purposes’ (Knapp 1997: 113. Cited in Adolphs, 2002).
Different texts have different features and different purposes. An application letter, for example, has certain distinctive features both
at the level of the language used and at the level of its form.
Purpose
What is more, different genres have different purposes. An application letter aims at applying for a job. However, a personal letter
may have other purposes such as informing, inviting, asking for help, etc. Knowing the conventions for producing different types of
texts is important for effective production.

Genres Purposes
Fiction Narrating…
Application letter Applying for a job…
Lecture Explaining, informing…
Essay Arguing, explaining …
Casual conversation Telling a joke/ an anecdote – recounting…
Job interview Hiring the most suitable candidate for the job – getting an advertised job…
Debate Arguing, convincing…
Cohesion and coherence
Coherence and cohesion are closely related concepts
Coherence is a broad concept and is achieved when one feels that a text is semantically meaningful and the content follows a logical
line of reasoning. The linguistic features that make a text coherent are classified under the concept of cohesion.
Cohesion is achieved through the links between sentences. These links hold a text together and give it meaning. There are two types
of cohesion: lexical and grammatical.
•Grammatical cohesion occurs when the link between sentences is achieved through grammatical features such as conjunctions,
reference, ellipsis, substitution.
•Lexical cohesion, however, differs from grammatical cohesion it is concerned with the semantic relations between the words of
the text. That is, the link is achieved through meaning and not through grammatical features.
Giving feedback
After the task is done, a stage where feedback is delivered is designed. This feedback can be self, peer, or group-regulated. The
teacher might intervene at some point to help and guide the students in the accomplishment of the task.

Summary
The procedure can be summarized in the table below:

Stage Procedure

• Lead-in to set the scene for the main task:

• Preparation (e.g. discussing quotes, pre-teaching vocabulary, …)
Opening • Reading/listening to a model text.
• Meaning focused activities (comprehension tasks)
• Form focused activities. Formal and linguistic text analysis.

• Introducing the topic

The task
• Understanding the topic: Who is writing/saying what to whom and why?

Practice • Activities that provide guidance and help learners perform the task:
•  Vocabulary needed (e.g. collocation, useful phrases/expressions…)
• Cohesion activities: (e.g. linking words)
 • Formal activities: (e.g. layout of a letter/email, formal characteristics of an
essay, narrative, structure of small talks, conversations, interviews…)

Doing the task individually, in pairs, or in groups.

• In the case of written tasks, learners have to:
• Plan, write the first draft, revise, edit, and write the final draft.
Performing the
• In the case of spoken tasks, learners have to:
task
• Plan for the task first in written form, in groups, or in pairs. They might
want first to think individually, share in pairs, in groups or with the whole
class.

• Individually, in pairs, or with the whole class.

Feedback • The teacher might also note the areas where more remedial work is needed.
• The teacher might assign a similar task.

Classroom interaction
This article tries to define classroom interaction and how different approaches dealt with interaction to provide learning and teaching
opportunities.

A shift in perspective
Gone are the days when the teacher was considered the sage on the stage whose job was to fill students’ heads with knowledge.
Learners are not recipients to be filled, but humans with their own personal needs who want to initiate their own learning and develop
their skills in a threat-free environment.
This shift in perspectives has its manifestation in the classroom. Classroom interaction has become of paramount importance in the
teaching and learning process.

Definition
The term “interaction” is made up of two morphemes, namely inter and action. It is a mutual or reciprocal action or influence. In
English language teaching, interaction is used to indicate the language (or action) used to maintain the conversation, to teach, or to
interact with participants involved in the teaching and learning processes in the classroom.

Different perspectives
Classroom interaction can be seen from different perspectives according to the approach adopted in teaching.

Behaviorism
From a behaviorist perspective, classroom interaction is reduced to modeling, repetition, and drills. The most salient feature of
classroom interaction in a behavioral model is the use of techniques that bring students’ behavior under stimulus control. This model
focuses mainly on the transmission of the right behavior to students by means of stimulus, response, and reinforcement. This
approach to teaching is mainly teacher-centered. Students are mere recipients whose control over interaction is reduced to the
minimum. The interaction flows, most of the time, in one direction, from the teacher to the students. They rarely work collaboratively
to construct their knowledge.

Cognitivism
The cognitive model of classroom interaction is based on the learner’s processing of what’s happening in the classroom to make
sense of the world. Here, the learner is actively involved in the learning by means of two processes, namely assimilation and
accommodation. These are complementary processes through which awareness of the outside world is internalized by learners. The
input that the learner receives is processed and adapted to learners’ prior knowledge. Learners are actively engaged in the learning by
questioning and making sense of the world. The students are invited to make hypotheses, ask questions, and experiment. The aim is
to auto-regulate their learning and find a state of equilibrium between the prior knowledge and the new one. The interaction flows
freely between the teacher, the students, and the language taught.
Social constructivism
Interaction is at the heart of the social constructivist theory of learning. Learners make sense of the world not only by means of
internal processes (what happens in the mind) but also through the social dimension of learning. This theory contends that human
development is socially situated and knowledge is constructed through interaction with others.

Types of classroom interactions

Taking the different main participants in classroom interactions, namely students and teachers, one can think of the following
possible patterns:
•Teacher-students.
•Students-teacher.
•Students-students.
One may argue that the more the initiative comes from students in classroom interaction, the more learning is taking place. In other
words, the more students are free:
•to ask and answer questions,
•to make decisions about the learning process,
•to participate in discussions,
•to initiate conversations,
the more they contribute to the learning process.

Teacher-centered vs. student-centered classes

It is worthwhile noting that there is a huge difference between classes where the focus is on teaching and classes where the focus is
on learning:

Teacher-centered classes:
•The focus is on teaching
•They are lecture-focused
•Students’ talking time is low.
•Students have little say on what’s happening
•The students have to listen, take notes, and memorize what they are being taught
In these classes, teachers do not provide an opportunity for interactions among students. Most of the classroom interaction is teacher-
student oriented.

Student-centered classes:
•The focus is on learning.
•The focus is not on lectures but on tasks.
•Students work collaboratively in small groups to answer tasks.
•Tasks are designed in such a way that they have the potential for more than one answer.
•Students talking time is high.
•Students are provided with sufficient time and opportunity to listen and consider the ideas of others.
•Critical thinking is promoted.

PPP approach to language teaching

What is the PPP approach to language teaching?
This post tries to explain what is meant by the PPP approach to language teaching. A brief explanation is provided followed by a
description of the advantages and disadvantages of this model of teaching.

Definition of PPP
PPP stands for Presentation, Practice, and Production. It is referred to as a procedure, model, paradigm, or approach to teaching
language components. The procedure is straightforward. The teacher presents the target language. Then students are asked to practice
it, first in well-controlled activities, then in freer activities. It is only later that the students are allowed to produce the desired
language. The process starts with the input and ends with the output. What happens in between is practice.
The origin
The PPP model of teaching has always been considered to originate from a behaviorist approach to language teaching.
The audiolingual method, which is based on Behaviorism, puts much stress on slicing language into smaller bits and on the
importance of practicing these language bits until perfection.

Merits
The PPP paradigm has its proponents in the classroom although it has been proved to originate from weak learning theory. Teachers
still stick to the same procedure in delivering their lessons. This is mainly due to the following points:
•It is thought to reflect a so-called ‘logical’ or ‘plausible’ procedure of learning. Production comes only after presentation and
practice.
•It is easy to implement. Teachers who still use this model of teaching start by slicing bits of language, sequencing them from
easy to difficult. Then, they proceed by presenting, practicing, and asking their students to produce.
•Although Scott Thornbury believes that the PPP model does not reflect how learning actually takes place, he saw in it the
possibility to prime language for later use.

Criticism
Learning a language is not the sum of smaller bits
The first criticism addressed to the PPP model is that it considers language as a sum of smaller bits that can be taught separately.
Language is holistic and learning is organic (very much like a seed growing) and recursive. It is not linear. That is, language can’t be
sliced into smaller chunks and taught discretely. We don’t learn one bit of language and then proceed to the next bit and so on and so
forth. When learning a new language point, one may go back in his/her learning to previously met language features to check
consistency with present learning situations. What is taught to students is rarely retained in an individual lesson in spite of seeming to
be mastered in the course of that lesson.

Depriving learners of learning opportunities

A second disadvantage of the PPP approach to teaching English is that it limits learners’ encounter with learning opportunities. In
fact, when presenting a bit of language in isolation, we strip away other important features of language. This leads to depriving
students:
1.from comprehensible input, which might be of use to them
2.and from the opportunity to notice other language items that might be implicitly ‘acquired’.
Most of the time, learning is incidental. While helping learners to learn, we do not know for sure what they have actually learned and
what is still in the process of being acquired.

Production
The audio-lingual method, however, doesn’t care much about the last P of the PPP procedure which is production. After mastering
language structures, students in the audio-lingual method are not given free vent to produce anything. The aim is only to
imitate/repeat, apply/practice, not to produce.

Personalization
The PPP paradigm lacks another (fourth) P: Personalization. We learn the language to talk about our knowledge, experience, and
feelings. The aim is to be truthful and meaningful. This stage helps learners own, or better appropriate, the content and relate it to
their lives. Students need to connect to the material taught. Unfortunately, this is missing in the PPP approach to teaching.

Drilling in English Language Teaching

Drilling
This article is about drilling in English language teaching, a technique that is still being used by many teachers although it has been
discredited in modern methods. The article will try to discuss the following points:
1.definition of drilling,
2.types of drills,
3.the reasons why drilling is now discredited,
4.drilling and fluency.
 What is drilling?
Drilling refers to a type of audio lingual technique based on students repeating a model provided by the teacher. The focus is on
accuracy rather than fluency. They are used to practice:
•grammar,
•vocabulary,
•pronunciation.
This technique is still used by many teachers in many parts of the world although the theory -behaviorism- which is the basis of such
a technique was discredited a long time ago.
Types of drilling
There are different types of drills:
Repetition or imitation drills
Basically a teacher says a model and the students repeat it.
Example:
Prompt: I didn’t like the TV program, so I went to sleep.
Response: I didn’t like the TV program, so I went to sleep.
Substitution drills
Teachers use substitution drills to practice structures or vocabulary items. The idea is to practice one or more words change during
the drill.
Example:
Prompt: Leila is a very beautiful girl (intelligent).
Response: Leila is a very intelligent girl.
Prompt: John is helpful (modest).
Response: John is modest
Question and answer drills
Question and answer drills refer the use of questions as prompts. Students provide the answer in a very controlled way.
Example:
Prompt: Is there a teacher in the classroom?
Response: Yes, there is.
Prompt: Are there any desks in the classroom?
Response: Yes, there are.
Or:
Prompt: What’s the matter?
Response: I have a (backache).
Prompt: What’s the matter?
Response: I have a (toothache).
Transformation drills
Students are given a structure to be transformed.
Example:
Prompt: Nancy made tea?
Response: Tea was made by Nancy.
Or:
Prompt: I like orange juice. She?
Response: She likes orange juice.
Or:
Prompt: New York is the capital of the USA. (not)
Response: New York is not the capital of the USA.
Chorus drills
Teacher asks the whole class to repeat the model all together.

What’s the problem with drills?

Drills are not appreciated in modern methods because:
•They are not meaningful.
•Focus is on accuracy.
•They are mechanical.
•They don’t convey much meaning
•They are decontextualized.
 •Drills help fix structures in memory only for a short period of time.

Drills and fluency

As it can be seen from the examples above, drills focus on accuracy and are mechanical. However, many teachers, think that drills
may have some advantages in ELT, especially if the focus is shifted from accuracy to fluency.
Drills may be exploited in learner-centered activities to help students gain fluency. In such fluency-based drills, students may have a
chance to try and say things without hesitations, at the right speed, and without undue pauses. To reach that objective teachers
provide short formulaic language (or chunks) for students to practice. But instead of repeating these chunks meaninglessly, students
have to be given a context and enough time to process and internalize these chunks at their own pace and using their own strategies.
A kind of “mumble drill” or “mutter drill”:
whereby learners repeat under their breath (i.e. sub-vocalise) the targeted segment, in their own time, so as to get
some kind of ownership of it.

Meaningful drills
Yes, drills can be made more meaningful. For instance, giving students choices in their replies to prompts may provide more freedom
and creativity. If you allow students to choose from different options, this means that they have to think before they answer. Drills
mustn’t provide more control than is necessary (although they are by definition techniques that exert some control over students’
production to minimize errors). This is an example of a meaningful drill to practice the modal should:
Student 1: I’ve got a bad toothache.
Student 2: you should see a dentist.
Student 3: you should brush your teeth regularly.
Student 4: you shouldn’t eat candies.
Here is another example to practice could:
Prompt: I’m so bored.
Response 1: You could watch a movie.
Response 2: You could go jogging.
Response 3: You could hang out with your friends.
Response 4: You could go to a the theater.
Response 5: You could listen to your favorite music.
Response 6: You could read a book.
The above exchange is more meaningful because responses are unpredictable and they give students opportunity for some creativity
in spite of the controlled aspect of the drill.

Chain drills
Chain drills can be also made more meaningful by personalizing them:
Student 1: My name is Ann, and I mad about watching TV. What about you?
Student 2: My name is Clara, and I love surfing. And you?
Student 3: My name is John, and I like reading. What about you?
Student 4: My name is Lisa, and I  am crazy about playing the guitar. And you?
Student 6: My name is Alan, and I  am fond of …… And you?
Of course these drills may be made more challenging according to the level of the students.

Conclusion
In a nutshell, over drilling structures and vocabulary items may not be helpful in language teaching. Drills must be integrated in
meaningful activities if they are to be of any use. Accuracy-based drills that focus on meaningless repetition have been discredited
since the advent of communicative language teaching. Nowadays, the role of controlled oral practice is being reconsidered. The idea
is to make such practice more communicative; the aim is to reach fluency and natural communication.

ICT tools and English Language Teaching

Introduction
This article tries to review ICT use in English Language Teaching (ELT). First, the rationale behind using ICT in ELT will be
discussed. Then, a list of ICT tools that are currently used will be introduced.

Advantages of working with ICT tools

According to Pete Sharma and Barney Barret (2007), there are several reasons for using technology in language teaching. In addition
to the fact that technology can be motivating, it offers the possibility to work autonomously or interact and collaborate with others.
Technology also provides instant feedback on language performance in various tasks and exercises. Technology can also be an
extension of the classroom and can be time saving. Finally, technology can promote language learning with fresh authentic and
motivating materials directly usable from the Internet.
Using blended learning, which they define as “a language course that combines a face-to-face classroom component with an
appropriate use of technology”, Pete Sharma and Barney Barret (2007: 7) suggest that “positive learning outcomes are most apparent
when clear roles are assigned to the teacher and to the technology.”
In the following section, we will be reviewing the ICT tools that are used in ELT. The categorization of the tools presented are
adapted from Erben et al., (2009).

ICT tools classification

ICT tools have been reported to yield positive results in ELT classrooms. in fact, judicious use of ICT tools to teach English boosts
learning in terms of attitudes, autonomy and authenticity. In this section, we will list several ICT tools, classified according to their
functions. To this effect, we will use Erben et al., (2009) classification which focuses on the functions of the different ICT tools.

ICT tools for teachers

E-creation tools
Those tools enable English language learners to be creative. They involve playing with and using language to create, explore, and
discover while producing content and learning performances that can be measured. Examples of these tools include web publishing,
presentations software, exercise creating tools, podcasting, camera, moviemakers, and audio makers.

E-communication tools
Software that promote communication among students and teachers may be divided into two kinds of tools. First, there are those
types of software that allow for in real time interaction (i.e. synchronous) such as telephone conversations, a board meeting, voice
conferencing, and instant messaging. The second type of software includes those that occur with a time delay (i.e. asynchronous)
such as email, text messages transmitted over cell phones, and discussion boards.

Reading/ writing-facilitative e-tools

Some ICT tools can facilitate and boost teaching and learning of writing and reading skills. Examples of these tools include online
boards, online journals, blogs, wikis, and e-books.
Blogs, wikis, boards and journals can be used to create digital material or portfolios online are spaces where learners work in
collaborative projects. They can also be used for professional development or to summarize learners’ work. Examples of these tools
are blogger, wikispaces and Penzu. They can be accessed by following these link:
•https://webwhiteboard.com/
•https://penzu.com
•https://www.wikispaces.com/content/classroom
•https://www.blogger.com/
Similarly, E-books have many functionalities. Learners can use them to develop their reading skill. For instance, e-books have added
audio, interactive tasks and built-in dictionaries. Another advantage of this tool is that learners can access e-books on several devices
such as tablets, mobile phones, and laptops.

Listening/speaking-facilitative e-tools
The listening skill can be developed through ICT tools such as:
•Video and audio files;
•Podcasts (syndicated audio files) and vodcasts (syndicated video files);
•Audio Video sharing libraries like YouTube.

E-assessment tools
Tony Erbe et al., (2009) list three basic performance types of assessment, namely, performances, portfolios, and projects. The main
difference between these types of assessment and standardized traditional tests lies in the fact that with the alternative assessment
tools, the leaner “produces evidence of accomplishment of curricula objectives”. This evidence is put in the form of a performance,
project, or portfolio and can be “archived and used at a later date with other pieces of learning evidence as a compilation of proof to
demonstrate achievement.” Erben et al., (2009: 153)
Virtual learning environments
Virtual Learning Environments (VLE) are Web-based platforms that allow teachers and learners to manage and organize their work
electronically. Some of the benefits of these online spaces are as follows:
•Both parents and learners can access these spaces to assess progress.
•All participants may have their say on the discussion forums or conferencing sections
•VLEs reduce the social distance between all participants.

Conclusion
This article has attempted to review the rationale behind ICT use in education. We have also tried to classify ICT tools and their use
in ELT. Some of these tools are designed for communication while others are made to help learners be creative. Language skills can
also be developed through ICTs

How to teach speaking using a discovery approach

How to teach speaking using a discovery approach
This article is about how to teach speaking. First we will identify some characteristics of spoken language. Then, we will see how it
is taught using a discovery approach where students notice salient patterns and try to make sense of them and how these patterns have
to be practiced to attain automaticity and self regulation. The approach described in this article is largely adapted from Thornbury
(2005) “How to teach speaking”

Speaking
Speaking is one of the four language skills, the others being reading, writing and listening. It is referred to as a productive skill.
According to Chaney (1998), speaking is “the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal
symbols, in a variety of contexts” (Chaney, 1998, p. 13).

Characteristics of speaking
Speaking…
•is interactive;
•requires the ability to cooperate in the management of speaking turns;
•takes place in real time with little time for planning;
•requires the capacity to marshal a store of memorized lexical chunks;
•involves linguistic, socio-linguistic and pragmatic knowledge.
To teach speaking teachers need to take into consideration the knowledge required for fluent speaking and the skills needed to
automate this knowledge. In addition to this, teachers should be aware that learning occurs in low anxiety environment.

Teaching Speaking
Decisions should be taken about the following:
•Which approach?
•Which materials?
•What to focus on?
•What kind of activities?
•How to assess speaking performance?
Teaching speaking approaches
There are different approaches to teach speaking:
1.The traditional Present, Practice and Produce (PPP) approach.
2.The Test, Teach, Test (TTT) approach based on the task based instruction.
3.The discovery approach, based on awareness raising, appropriation, and automaticity.
This article focuses on the discovery approach to language teaching which is also called the Observe Hypothesize and Experiment
approach. This approach encourages learners to use an inductive reasoning to notice and discover recurrent patterns or rules. The role
of the teacher is to guide and provide examples of a language item and help them find the rules themselves. The speaking lesson goes
through three stages:
Awareness Raising
1.Awareness raising (other-regulated – assisted/scaffolded)
2.Appropriation (other-regulated – assisted/scaffolded)
3.Automaticity (self-regulated – unassisted)

Awareness raising
The teacher starts by raising learners’ awareness. The starting point should be a recorded spoken text: a conversation. The choice of
the conversation is of paramount importance. Should one opt for an authentic or an artificial conversation?

Which materials?
Let’s look at an example of an authentic material reported by Scott Thornbury (2005):
Authentic conversation
Speaker 1: I went in and bought some stupid things this morning in boots, twenty five p, [laugh] for twenty five p you
could be a s silly as want to, couldn’t you? Silly aren’t they? Oh what fun! Silly green nonsense. Children bead
earrings.
Speaker 2: You got green?
Speaker 1: I’ve got green jumper which I wear in winter.
Speaker 2: Yeah, that’s fine.
Speaker 1: So I thought I would. I’m – am very fond of my green jumper. silly green earrings to go with it.
Speaker 2: Why not?
Speaker 1: It’s a laugh. There was another lady there looking through all the stuff where I was and she said to me
‘isn’t it fun?’ [laugh] and I said ‘yes, only twenty five p, [laugh]. Absurd!
Now here is the same conversation but rearranged (fabricated/artificial) to fit pedagogical aims.
Fabricated conversation
Speaker 1: What nice earring!
Speaker 2:I bought them this morning.
Speaker 1: Where did you buy them?
Speaker 2: I bought them in boots
Speaker 1: How much did they cost?
Speaker 2: Only twenty five p.
Speaker 1: What a bargain!
Speaker 2: I am going to wear them with my green jumper.
Speaker 1: What a good idea!
Comparison between the two scripts
•Clearly, the first script is authentic, but it is difficult to understand as it contains too many features of spoken language that may
hinder comprehension.
•The second script is very easy to understand, but it looks a far remove from naturally occurring speech.

A compromise
Speaker 1: What nice earring!
Speaker 2: Do you like them? Silly, aren’t they? Silly green nonsense. I bough them in Boots this morning. Twenty
five p.
Speaker 1: What a bargain! Have you got something green that goes with them?
Speaker 2: I’ve got green jumper which I wear in winter.So I thought I’d get some silly green earrings to go with it.
Speaker 1: What fun!
Speaker 2: I know. It’s a laugh. Only twenty five p.
The conversation above is a brushed up version of the authentic script.  Although it includes many features of spoken language, it
does not sacrifice its pedagogical utility.
Stages of awareness raising
Using recorded and transcripts like the third one above learners are invited:

Awareness Raising
1.to pay attention,
2.notice consciously to register the occurrences of some event ,
3.and understand a general rule, principle or pattern
Learners will have to do tasks such as:
listening and reading, identifying, matching, classifying, connecting, filling the gap, comparing and contrasting,
noticing the difference etc.

Speaking Awareness Raising-activities

These tasks are meant to raise learner’s consciousness about salient patterns in preferably well-chosen recorded materials.
Focus
The focus should be on spoken features such as organization, socio-cultural rules, topic shift, performance effects, communication
strategies, speech acts, discourse markers, spoken grammar, vocabulary, lexical chunks, stress and intonation or noticing a gap.

Focus in speaking activities

Going back to the conversation above, one would opt for features of spoken grammar such as:
•Exclamation
•Tag questions
•Intonation
Appropriation
Appropriation is the second stage in a speaking lesson. Scott Thornbury (2005: 63) states that appropriation is the “act of taking over
the ownership of something.” In line with social constructivism, this stage is other regulated. Through collaborative work and
interaction, appropriation aims at self-regulation by the end of this stage. Instead of controlled practice Scott Thornbury suggests
practiced control activities:
“Practiced control [as opposed to controlled practice], on the other hand, involves demonstrating control of a skill
where the possibility of making mistakes is ever-present, but where support is always at hand” Scott Thornbury
(2005: 63)
Examples of the activities suggested are drilling, chants, memorizing scripts, task repetition, writing, reading aloud, and
communicative tasks.
This practiced control attempts to foster the spoken language features highlighted at the awareness-raising stage. These features can
be some discourse markers, lexical chunks, stress, intonation…

Autonomy
After the appropriation stage, learners reach a level where they have to use the language with minimum intervention on the part of
the teacher. Autonomy is thus the result of “the increased automaticity of the learner’s language production”. In fact, the skill to
automatize the more mechanical features of a task contributes to freeing attention for higher-level activities. According to Scott
Thornbury, the following features characterize autonomy activities:
•Productivity
•Purposefulness
•Interactivity
•Challenge
•Safety
•Authenticity
The autonomy stage includes activities such as presentations and talks, stories, jokes, and anecdotes, drama, role play, simulations,
discussions, debates, conversation and chat. This stage is meant to give free vent for learners to use the language to carry out a task.

Conclusion
To sum up, speaking is a very important skill for EFL learners and teaching it necessitates being acquainted with the different
characteristics of the spoken language. It also requires the knowledge of what learners need in order to develop their speaking
fluency. It is very important for teachers to devise appropriate communication classroom activities and find ways to involve learners
in an anxiety-free learning environment. Lesson plans should vary the modes of interaction and activities to cater for learners’
learning styles and preferences. It should be framed within a learner-centered approach where the teacher is just a guide on the side
and where learners work collaboratively to notice and discover regular patterns in spoken language. The aim is to appropriate and
automatize these patterns in well-devised communicative activities.

Input and output in second language acquisition

Input vs. output
The input refers to the processible language the learners are exposed to while listening or reading (i.e. The receptive skills).
The output, on the other hand, is the language they produce, either in speaking or writing (i.e. The productive skills).
The input is multidimensional. It comes from the teacher, the coursebook, and the students themselves. It may also be derived from
sources outside the confinement of the classroom (e.g. TV, podcasts, social media, etc.).
There is an interaction between the input and the output – between the receptive and the productive skills.
 Figure 1 The input and the output in language teaching
As figure 1 shows, there is an interdependence between the input and the output. The four skills are interconnected to serve the
learners’ interlanguage development.
The Input Hypothesis
The input that the students should be exposed to has to be comprehensible and should provide enough information to help them
construct, consciously or unconsciously, their knowledge about the system. According to Krashen, comprehensible input is a
prerequisite to language acquisition. It is more than enough for the internalization of the target language.  The condition that Krashen
attaches to his Input Hypothesis is that the input should be pitched a little above the learner’s present state of competence. (i.e. Input
+ 1 or I + 1).
The output Hypothesis
On the other hand, Merrill Swain (1985) suggested that the input is not enough for language acquisition. According to her, there is a
need for an Output Hypothesis. The learner needs to be pushed to produce language that is conveyed precisely, coherently and
appropriately.  One argument in favor of pushing students to produce comprehensible messages is that the learners by doing so will
notice the ‘gaps’ in their language knowledge, which will urge them to improve their existing interlanguage system. Another
argument for Merrill Swain’s Output hypothesis is that, as Scott Thornbury (2010) suggests, when the learners are pushed to produce
language in real time, they are ‘forced to automate low-level operations by incorporating them into higher-level routines’. This may
contribute to the development of fluency and automaticity.
Input, Intake, uptake
As mentioned above, the input is the processible language that the learners are exposed to. It is the accessible data that is not
necessarily understood yet.  It is only when the language data has been noticed, attended to and processed that the input
becomes intake.  Sharwood Smith (1993) explains the difference between input and intake as follows:
“The input is the potentially processible language data which are made available, by chance or by design, to the language learner.
That part of input that has actually been processed by the learner and turned into knowledge of some kind has been called intake.
It is important to note here that being exposed to a new language doesn’t mean that this input will necessarily become intake.   This
input will be internalized and will become part of the learners’ knowledge only if it is noticed, attended to, processed and used in
authentic situations. When language is learned in that way, it becomes uptake. 

Input Intake Uptake

Processible
Processed language. Learned language.
language.
Language noticed, attended to Language that has become part of the
Accessible language
and processed. learners’ interlanguage system.
data.
Affordances and emergence
Traditionally, as mentioned above, the input refers to the language the leaners are exposed to. It should be slightly above the leaners
level. Without comprehensible input, language acquisition does not take place. In the ecological approach to language teaching,
instead of input and acquisition, new metaphors have been adopted, namely affordances and emergence.
Affordance
Affordance is a term borrowed from ecology. It refers to what the environment offers to living things. It implies that organisms and
the environment are complementary. As Scott Thornbury (2006) says:
“A leaf, for example, affords food for some creatures, shade for others, or building material for still others. It’s the same leaf, but its
affordances differ, depending on how it is regarded, and by whom.”
In psychology, affordances are related to perception and action.  Menezes (2011) explains that:
“Animals, including humans, perceive what the niche offers them (substances, medium, objects, etc.), interpret the affordances and
act upon them. Some actions are done automatically (e.g. drinking water) and others require complex cognitive processes (e.g. 
finding the solution for a problem).” Menezes (2011, Page 2)
Emergence
According to the Dogme approach to language teaching, learning opportunities offered by real talk in the real-world offer affordances
for language to emerge rather than being merely acquired. As Leo Van Lier (2004, p 5) suggests emergence ‘happens when relatively
simple elements combine together to form a higher-order system.’ Real interactions provide learning opportunities and it is only in
this environment that language emerges.  This is a shift away from the traditional view of acquisition as a linear process.

Seven characteristics of young learners

Characteristics of young learners
This article deals with the most important characteristics of young learners. First, we will consider how age determines
the methods we use to teach languages. Then, we will see the characteristics that distinguish young learners from older ones and the
implications that these characteristics entail for English language teaching.
Before presenting the characteristics of young learners, it is worthwhile mentioning that by young learners, we mean students that are
under twelve years old. Those that are over twelve are considered as teenagers. Adulthood is commonly thought of as beginning at
age twenty.

Age as a determining factor in language learning

Age is a very significant factor in language learning. The first fact that teachers should take into consideration is that young learners
differ from older ones in the way they learn new languages. First, young learners learn better through play while adults are
comfortable with abstract learning and are more analytical. Second, young learners get bored more easily. Generally, they lose
interest after ten minutes or so. Young learners are also more egocentric and need individual attention. However, contrary to the
common belief, young learners are not better than older ones in language learning. They may be better in imitating the exact
pronunciation of their teachers, but they are generally less successful in learning abstract concepts. According to Lightbown and
Spada (2006), older learners are not less effective in language learning. They may have difficulty approximating native speakers’
pronunciation, but they are better at reaching high levels of proficiency in second or foreign language learning (Lightbown and
Spada, 2006 p 73, cited in Harmer, ).

What are the main characteristics of young learners?

As mentioned above young learners differ from older ones in language learning. what follows is a list of seven of the most important
characteristics of young learners.
Before listing these characteristics, it is important to note that these learners are still developing. Many aspects of their cognitive
capacities get better while they are growing up.
1. Young learners get bored quickly.
If the activities are not interesting and engaging enough, young learners get bored easily. This is because they have a limited attention
span. Generally, after ten minutes, they can get disinterested in the activity at hand, especially if it is taught directly and is devoid of
the elements of play.
2. Young learners are meaning-oriented
They may understand what is being said without necessarily understanding every individual word. They may not only guess and
interpret what is being uttered but they also respond to it with whatever language resources they have at their disposal.

3. Young learners like to discover things

They are characterized by curiosity and enthusiasm. They like to make sense of the world around them through engaging and
motivating activities where they have to discover by themselves rather than being told. They also often learn indirectly from
everything around them – not necessarily focusing on the topic being taught.

4. They prefer concrete activities

According to Piaget’s cognitive development theory, young learners are still developing. That is, they are still making their way from
concrete to abstract thinking. Unlike adults who are more analytical, they are not yet well equipped to learn abstract concepts such as
grammar rules. In addition to that, they are more inclined to understand based not only on explanation but more importantly on what
they hear, see and touch (Harmer, 2001 p. 82).

5. They are more egocentric

They prefer to talk about themselves. Activities that focus on their lives are their cup of tea. In addition to that, children under the age
of 12 need individual attention and approval from the teacher.

6. They are imaginative

Young learners are imaginative. Activities that are full of imagination is a source of enjoyment for them. It is sometimes difficult for
them to distinguish reality from imagination.

7. They imitate
They learn by imitating adults. It is amazing how humans imitate and discover things from a very young age. Children acquire
communication skills through social interactions. Consequently, because imitation functions as a learning tool, it is rewarding to use
it to teach children new skills and knowledge.

Implications for the teacher

The above characteristics of young learners provide useful insights for teachers. The main implications for language teaching are as
follows:
•Activities shouldn’t normally take more than ten minutes to complete. Asking children to make an effort to concentrate more
than that is counterproductive. They will get bored and disinterested easily.
•The content should be interesting and motivating. The topics of activities should preferably focus on the students’ lives.
•Praising the children’s performances is of paramount importance.
•Since children try to imitate the teacher, the latter should be a good model of language use and social behaviors. The teacher’s
pronunciation, for instance, matters enormously. Children imitate it perfectly well.
•Children respond to meaning and are better at picking up the language through listening and speaking.
•Since children like playing, discovering and using their imagination, the activities that focus on making things, drawing,
problem-solving (e.g. riddles), singing, playing games can be very helpful.
•The classroom should be ideally colorful and spacious enough to be able to move around without any problem.
•Children should work in groups and the activities should be taking place in stress and anxiety-free atmosphere.

Conclusion
One of the reasons why teaching young learners requires highly skilled teachers is that these learners have difficulty understanding
abstract concepts. Moreover, while teaching them, an appropriate learning atmosphere should be provided, where the children may
move and interact in a stress-free environment. Young learners are, however, more imaginative. They also like discovering things,
and easily respond to meaning-based activities. Finally, children are also good at imitating the teachers’ language use
(e.g.pronunciation) and social behaviors.

Teaching English without Teaching English

Teaching English through the content not only the form
When teaching English, have you ever had the experience that your students can answer written tests and quizzes perfectly well
without any problem and, strangely enough, at the same time, these same students fail to maintain a comprehensive conversation?
This situation is not uncommon.
How can we address such a problem?
What about moving away from the focus on form a little bit towards a balanced approach to teaching language that takes into
consideration meaning too?
In other words what about focusing on both form and meaning.
Striking a balance between accuracy and fluency-based activities means that we should engage learners in meaningful tasks where
they have to interact to negotiate meaning, think critically, synthesize, analyze and evaluate – a mixture of critical pedagogy and
the Dogme approach
The following talk deals with these ideas.
The talk is given by Roberto Guzman at a TEDx event. Roberto presents in this talk his three-phase system which he uses to teach
English without teaching English. Roberto’s aims are twofold:
•To improve the learning experience for students.
•To improve the teaching practice for teachers.
Roberto Guzman talks about a ‘system’ that consists of three steps:
1.Developing critical thinking by asking questions;
2.Identifying and neutralizing logical fallacies to distinguish what is true from what is fake;
3.Identifying levels of cognition which start from remembering and end up with analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating.
All this is done through a focus on content/meaning, where the form is just a by-product.
So if teachers want their students to be able to use and enjoy the language, not just pass an exam, they had better adopt a
conversational type of teaching where the students are involved in the learning process. ‘They should be able to know how to cook,
not just how to read a recipe book’.

Who is Robert Guzman?

Robert Guzman is a full professor at the University of Puerto Rico, Aguadilla Campus. Guzman teaches undergraduate English
courses in which he stresses the development of critical thinking skills and hands-on language development skills. He’s also a
freelance writer and political commentator on the WPRA 990 AM radio show Comunicando with host Toti Figueroa.
Guzman has already published several books including:
•The Devil’s Advocate Reader.
•Tropical Tales of Terror.

What is assessment for learning?

What is Assessment for Learning?
Assessment for learning (AFL) refers to the process of collecting and interpreting evidence about learning to be used by the teacher
to determine the learner’s current situation, what they know and what they can do. With AFL, instructional decisions are supported by
evidence. Using the information teachers gather about their learners, they try to devise activities that are intended to guide learning
towards the intended goals.
AFL is ongoing and occurs at all stages of the learning process. It usually starts with a diagnostic test and relies on formative
assessment to support instructional decisions. Different tools are used to get informed about the progress of the learners. This
includes portfolios, works in progress, teacher observation, conversation, homework, etc. The objective is not to attribute grades or
scores, but to get informed about the learning progress. Teachers may also use the feedback they get from summative assessments as
an assessment for learning (if it is used to adjust instruction.)

What is the difference between assessment for learning,

assessment of learning, and assessment as learning?
It is important to distinguish the assessment for learning from the assessment of learning and the assessment as learning:
•Assessment of learning refers to the assessment that is normally administered at the end of a unit or course to evaluate students’
understanding. Assessment of learning is often referred to as summative assessment.
•Assessment as learning can be also considered as a kind of formative assessment. It focuses on teaching students the
metacognitive processes that help them to evaluate their own learning and make adjustments. This implies that the students set
goals, monitor their progress, and reflect on the results. This type of teaching encourages learners to take responsibility for their
learning.
To further clarify the above types of assessments, we can categorize them as follows:

Assessment before learning Assessment during learning Assessment after learning.

(also called a diagnostic (also called formative (also called summative
 assessment or pre-assessment) assessment) assessment)
The purpose is to assess the
Checking learning progress to
Assessing the students before a learners’ progress at the end of
determine the next steps and
new unit or course to identify an instructional unit by
adjust instruction accordingly.
what they know and what they comparing it against some
The feedback can be used by
need more instruction on. For the standard or benchmark. It is a
teachers to improve their
teacher and learner, pre- periodic evaluation of how
instructions and by learners to
assessment can be time-saving. children are generally making
improve their learning.
progress in their learning
On the one hand, both the assessments before learning and during learning can be considered as part of any assessment for learning
since both of them inform instructional decisions. On the other hand, one may venture to say that summative assessments can be also
used as a tool for gathering information about learning, and, therefore, they may be used by teachers to adjust their teaching
objectives, methods, and content.

Formative assessment
Assessment for learning is closely related to formative assessment. The latter is used for day-to-day instruction to adapt teaching to
meet students’ needs. It helps teachers to monitor their students’ progress and to modify the instruction accordingly. Students also
have the opportunity to monitor their progress as they get feedback from their peers and the teacher and to revise and refine their
thinking.

Summative assessment
Summative assessment can be used to inform both learners and teachers to support learning and instructional decisions. It is done
periodically (i.e. after a chapter, unit, term, year, etc.) and is a means to measure, at a particular point in time, students’ learning
relative to content standards. Hence the importance of summative assessment as a tool to help evaluate the effectiveness of programs,
students’ learning, and school goals achievement.

Learner-centered teaching
Both assessments for learning and assessments as learning are learner-centered. Learners are actively involved in their learning
process and are encouraged to think about their current situation, their learning goals, and the means to achieve them.
The objective is to produce self-regulated learners – learners who are confident to continue learning throughout their lives.
The role of teachers is to determine, from the beginning of the course, their students’ current level of learning. Then, they have to
continuously check their progress through well-tailored assessment tools (i.e. formative, summative, alternative assessment, etc.).
The feedback they get from their students is used, first, to identify any learning gaps and, second, to guide them towards the expected
outcomes.
 Assessment

What are examples of assessment for learning?

In addition to formative and Summative assessments, AFL relies on a number of tools to get feedback from the learners.

Questions
Teachers ask questions to get information about what their learners already know and can do on the one hand, and areas where they
need to work on.

Peer assessment
Learners get feedback from each other using established success criteria about the areas they have made progress in and the areas
where they need to improve.

Self-assessment
Self-assessment is the perfect way so that learners take responsibility for their learning. The purpose is to make learning self-
regulated by urging them to reflect on their learning and to find out what they need to do to make progress. Self-assessment is mainly
used as an assessment as learning.
KWL Chart
At the beginning of a lesson, learners create a chart with three columns:
What I know What I want to know What I learned
They start by filling in the first two columns. The last column is left until the end of the lesson.
Summarizing
The learners are invited to summarize what they know about a topic either at the beginning or at the end of the lesson.
One question
It is interesting to invite your learners to prepare a question about what they learned at the end of the lesson. Collecting these
questions and adjusting your next lesson accordingly can be helpful.
Journals
Learners are invited to keep a learning journal to write down their thoughts about what they are learning.
Portfolios
By documenting their progress during their learning through a systematic collection of samples of their work, students provide
helpful insight for both themselves and the teacher for further adjustment of learning. Portfolios may include classroom work,
assigned homework, test results, self-assessment, and feedback from peers and the teacher.

What is Grammar? Defining Grammar for Teachers

What is grammar?
This article tries to investigate how grammar has been defined during the history of language teaching. We will start with the
traditional view of what grammar is all about. Then, we will see that traditional definitions of grammar do not really reflect language
reality.

The traditional view of grammar

Traditionally, studying a language was grounded on the principles of Greek and Latin grammar. During the renaissance era, the Greek
and Roman literature were held in high regard and Latin was taught as a language mainly for reading and writing.  Mastering Latin
grammar rules became an educational goal. The invention of printing machines and the development of local languages around
Europe increased the need for second or foreign language learning. Grammar was central in language teaching and language teachers
adopted the Grammar Translation Method which was based on traditional Latin teaching. The underlying principle of the method
was that the target grammar should be described in the student’s native language. Grammar was viewed as ‘a set of rules that
govern how sentences should be formed.’ This view about grammar has been challenged with real data. Having a set of rules that
distinguish the right sentences from the wrong ones might, at first glance, seem to account for what grammar is all about.  However,
we will see later in this article that grammar is not only about the rules that distinguish the ‘correct’ sentences from the
‘incorrect’ ones. But let us first analyze the definition given above. To illustrate it, let’s take some concrete examples:
Grammatical Ungrammatical
I like horror films I am liking horror films*
They arrived yesterday They arrive yesterday*
We are at home right now We are at now home right*
Table 1 – Prescriptive grammar distinguishes grammatical from ungrammatical sentences.
According to the traditional definition, grammar rules help us differentiate the grammatical sentences on the left from the
ungrammatical ones on the right. Grammar, seen in this light, misses important aspects of language use as we will see in the next
sections. But, let us shed light on how the above definition is fraught with pitfalls:
1.The context is not specified. Using sentences in isolation deprives language analysis of their appropriateness within specific
situations.
2.Meaning can be derived not only from the sentence’s constituent but also from the speaker’s or writer’s intentions. These can
be hard to guess from isolated sentences.
3.The above definition focuses on grammar at the level of each sentence, that is, the well-formedness of sentences according to
prescriptive grammarians (more about prescriptive grammar later). Actual data suggest that sentence-level grammar does not
account for many instances of real communication.
4.Some sentences can be perfectly grammatical, but they may convey no meaning at all. Chomsky’s example – ‘colorless green
ideas sleep furiously’ – exemplifies this perfectly well. Although this sentence is grammatical, it is nonsensical.
5.Grammar is not absolute and fixed. Grammar rules may change not only diachronically, through historical linguistic evolution,
but also synchronically, through dialectal variations (see the discussion about ‘going to’ in below).
That is why the above strict view of grammar has attracted considerable criticism from the advocates of Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT). This approach has stressed the importance of interaction, meaningful tasks, and the centrality of the learner in
teaching processes. Instead of focusing only on grammar teaching, CLT has adopted a theory of language that considers the
grammatical competence as just one aspect of communicative competence.  Accordingly, Canale and Swaine (1980) described four
dimensions of communicative competence:
•Grammatical competence refers to what Chomsky calls linguistic competence.
•Sociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place (role
relationships, shared beliefs, and information between participants…)
•Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and how
meaning is represented in relation to the entire discourse or text.
•Strategic competence refers to the coping strategies that participants use to initiate terminate, maintain, repair, and redirect
communication
Grammatical competence includes different aspects of language, namely:
1.The sound system (phonology),
2.The system of meaning (semantics),
3.The rules of word formation (morphology),
4.The rules of sentence formation (syntax),
5.The words of the system (lexicon).

Grammar and context

As mentioned above, a grammar about the rules that distinguish the correct sentences from the wrong ones may not stand in front of
real language data.  Let us take the last example from table 1 above “we are at home right now.” This sentence is perfectly
grammatical, but as Scott Thornbury (1999) rightly demonstrates, if we put it in its proper context, it will become nonsense. Let us
suppose it is taken from an answering machine message:
This is 06123456. We are at home right now. Please, leave a message after the beep.
Is the above message really appropriate? We normally would expect a message from an answering machine to be as follows:
This is 06123456. We are not at home right now. Please, leave a message after the beep.
This example shows that while the sentence “we are at home right now” is grammatical when it stands alone, that is, when it is
isolated from its context, once the context is specified, it becomes meaningless. This leads us to say that grammar has a meaning-
making potential when it is related to the rules of use, the rules that consider the context in any linguistic analysis. Contextualizing
grammar gives a communicative value to the language taught. The pedagogical implication is that instead of using isolated
meaningless sentences to teach grammar, teachers have to provide life-like situations where language is used appropriately to convey
meaning.
To clarify more the importance of context in grammar teaching, let us take another example from Scott Thornbury (1999, p. 3). Let
us imagine that a train inspector addresses a passenger:
Tickets!
 Copyright Martin Addison and licensed for reuse under this Creative Commons Licence.train inspector checking tickets
Is ‘tickets!’ a sentence? No! It is just a word – There is not much morphology or syntax. Does the fact that it is not a sentence, in the
traditional sense, make it meaningless? No, the utterance makes perfect sense. The inspector is asking the passengers to show him
their train tickets. The question that might arise here is the following: what makes a one-word utterance meaningful?
The answer is CONTEXT!
Let us look at another example. This is a blind date conversation:
A: Beautiful!
B: Thanks.
A: A drink?
B: Please.
By using just a few words in a specific context, it seems we do not really need a lot of grammar. Vocabulary items carry meaning and
may function pretty well without the need for grammar rules. It seems that the more context is specified, the less grammar is needed
(Thornbury 1999, p. 4).

Grammar and functions

As demonstrated in the previous section, language use does not rely only on having a set of grammar rules. Context is undeniably a
prerequisite for effective language communication. It is a factor that determines how effective our communicative acts are and plays
a role in meaning construction. Reference to contextual clues has an impact on how we understand and respond to utterances. Let us
look at the following utterance:
“It’s cold in here.”
Is it an affirmative statement?
Well! It depends. It can be just an assertion that it is cold in the room. But, providing additional contextual clues may suggest that it is
an indirect speech act uttered by –let’s say- a prince who requires a servant to turn up the heat in the room.
This is exactly what the philosopher Donald Davidson refers to when he states:
What matters to successful linguistic communication is the intention of the speaker to be interpreted in a certain way, on the one
hand, and the actual interpretation of the speaker’s words along the intended lines through the interpreter’s recognition of the
speaker’s intentions, on the other. (Davidson, 2005, 311. Cited in Jaque, 2017)
And this is what led Scott Thornbury to say that:
“When we process language, we are not only trying to make sense of the words and the grammar; we are also trying to infer the
speakers’(or the writer’s) intention, or, to put it another way, the functions of what they are saying and writing.”
Scott Thornbury (1999, p. 6)
The point that Thornbury wants to make is that, in addition to grammar rules, meaning construction relies also on the intention of the
speaker and how the hearer interprets the message.  Utterances may function differently depending on these factors.
Since language functions are about what the speaker or writer intends to say, one cannot have a fully clear idea of what is being said
or written unless some contextual clues are provided. For example, depending on the context, the following conditional sentences
mean different things:
Utterances Functions
If you do that, you’ll be in trouble. Warning
If you lie down, you’ll feel better. Advice
 If it rains, I’ll take a taxi. Planning
If you pass the driving test, I’ll buy
Promise
you a car.
Table 2 Language functions
The pedagogic implication is that while teaching grammar, the focus should be not only on grammar forms but also on the language
functions conveyed in specific contexts. Isolated sentences are not helpful. It is through all the information available through the
context that meaning is constructed appropriately:
“By dealing with related units of information rather than isolated bits, more efficient processing becomes possible” (McLaughlin,
Rossman, McLeod, 1983, p.138. Cited in Mart 2013).

Grammar and lexis

In addition to the context, effective language communication depends also on having access to a stock of lexical items. According to
Michael Lewis, by teaching vocabulary items, we endow our students with the underlying grammatical patterns that language is
made up of:
“language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar.” Michael Lewis (1993, p. 34)
Grammar, according to the Lexical Approach developed by Michael Lewis, is secondary to lexis and by teaching lexical items such
as words (e.g., book, pen…), polywords (e.g., by the way, upside down,..), collocations, or word partnerships (e.g. community
service, absolutely convinced…), we help learners internalize grammar patterns/constructions that contribute to language use. It is an
approach that focuses first and foremost on lexis as a basis for grammar internalization. With the advent of Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT) and corpus linguistics, a shift occurred from teaching structures per se to teaching how strings of words that go
together convey meaning in specific contexts. For example, teaching ‘I’d like’ as an instance of the conditional tense might not be
helpful. Instead, it has become evident that teaching that structure as a chunk to express desire is much more productive. The
realization that some grammar forms can be taught as lexical items has contributed to their introduction earlier in the syllabus with no
structural analysis or explanation. This is more like a lexis-first, grammar-second approach to language teaching. Accordingly, it is
argued that vocabulary item-learning precedes rule-learning.
Quite similarly, according to the emergentists point of view of language learning, grammar has emerged historically through
processes through which lexical items have become:
“‘grammaticalized’ to perform certain needed functions, and then, through repeated use, become established in a speech community.
According to this view, ‘grammar is seen as … the set of sedimented conventions that have been routinized out of the more
frequently occurring ways of saying things’
Thornbury (2017)
The structure ‘going to’ is an example of how grammar evolves through language use. During the 16 th century, ‘going to’ used to
have only a literal meaning, namely, moving physically towards the intended place. Later, this structure has gained another meaning
denoting future intentions. During the 20th century, ‘going to’ has evolved into the short form ‘gonna’.  As teachers, it might be more
helpful to teach the structure ‘going to’ as a lexical item meaning future intention rather than go into a lengthy grammatical
explanation about this form.

Prescriptive and descriptive grammar

The definition provided in section 2.1 is prescriptive. It stipulates that grammar is about differentiating the wrong from the right
sentences. Put differently, ‘prescriptive grammar’ refers to a set of norms governing how sentences should or should not be formed
rather than describing how language is actually used. It is concerned with what the grammarians think to be right and wrong.
Prescriptive grammar, which differentiates between good and bad language users, is contrasted with descriptive grammar. The latter
focuses on describing the language as it is actually used, not as it should be used. It is based on the language used by its speakers.
Descriptive linguists try to analyze real language data so that they can formulate rules governing its use. The aim is not to distinguish
good from bad language users. Many forms of language that prescriptive grammarians consider ungrammatical may be included in
the data the descriptive linguists analyze. Here is an example of a form that prescriptive grammarians believe to be wrong:
John is older than her.
Although the above form is actually used by native speakers, prescriptive grammar considers it an example of bad language, claiming
that the right form should be:
John is older than she.
Prescriptive grammarians believe that the word ‘than’ is used as a conjunction that should be followed by a subject pronoun. The
correct form according to this approach should be:
He is older than she (is).
However, according to descriptive grammar, since the above form (i.e. ‘John is older than her’) is used by actual language speakers
and writers, it should be included in the data and studied. The word ‘than’ in this analysis is viewed as a preposition, and for that
reason, it can be argued that the sentence ‘John is older than her’ is also correct and that ‘her’ in this case functions as the object of
the preposition.
Descriptive grammar describes language forms objectively and nonjudgmentally. The aim is to study the principles and patterns that
underlie the actual language use.

Pedagogical grammar
After reviewing what prescriptive and descriptive grammars are, the question that might arise is:
Do prescriptive and descriptive grammars meet the needs of English language learners?
Practically, many teachers think that both prescriptive and descriptive grammars are hard to teach. Hence, the need for a more
teachable grammar – a pedagogical grammar. The latter can be defined as the presentation of information about the grammar of the
target language for teaching or learning purposes. It is selective and need not deal with all the facts about language. Only those facts
that are relevant to language learning are presented. This should be done without losing the truthfulness and reliability of the
grammar rules. Pedagogical grammar can be also contrasted with reference grammar which is designed to teach someone about the
language not how to use a language.
So that grammar becomes teachable, it should meet some requirements, namely, meaningfulness, simplicity, truth, and grading.
Meaningful:
Grammar should be contextualized and should make sense. Instead of focusing only on form, grammar rules have to take into
consideration meaning and use as well. When and why to use a structure are as important as how to use it.
Simple:
Lengthy explanations of grammar rules may be counterproductive. Short and simply formulated rules can be more effective.
True:
The simplicity of grammar rules should not be at the expense of truthfulness. Many teachers explain the use of the indefinite articles
‘a’ and ‘an’ by stating that ‘a’ is used before consonants while ’an’ is used before vowels. This rule is simple, but it is not true. There
are many instances of the articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ used before a vowel letter (cf. a university, an umbrella). A more appropriate and true
formulation of the above rule might be as follows:
‘a’ is used before consonant sounds while ’an’ is used before vowel sounds.
This is because the vowel letter ‘u’ can be pronounced both as a vowel (c.f. ‘umbrella’, /ʌmˈbrɛlə/) and as a consonant or more
precisely as a glide (c.f. ‘university’, /juːnɪˈvəːsɪti/).
Grading:
Grammar rules have to be sequenced in such a way that easy structures should be taught before complex ones. For example, one
cannot teach the past perfect tense before teaching first the simple past tense. It is generally agreed among syllabus designers that
grammar points that are easy to teach should have precedence over more complex ones. Common topics you can find in a core
grammar syllabus for beginners are: be, can/can’t, going to, articles, adjectives, adverbs, etc.

Redefining grammar
How can one now redefine grammar in the light of what has been said so far? The above discussions about the deficiencies inherent
in the traditional definition of grammar clearly show how difficult it is to define it. Grammar is related to the entire structure of a
language, including not only its syntax and morphology but also its phonology, semantics, and possibly also its pragmatics.
Here is a definition by Larsen-Freeman:
“Grammar is a system of meaningful structures and patterns that are governed by particular pragmatic constraints.”
Larsen-Freeman, 2001
Grammar should be viewed as a system governed by rules of form, meaning, and use (Larsen-Freeman 2003:34-35). In other words,
not only does it refer to a description of the rules governing sentence structures, but it also involves a reference to the meanings that
these structures express as well as when and why they are used. Furthermore, appropriate language use relies on both the pragmatic
context and the linguistic context where this language is used. Thus, sentence structures may be interpreted differently according to,
not only, the linguistic surroundings of these structures, but to individuals’ beliefs and their knowledge of the world as well.
Therefore, it is safer to think of grammar structures as only one layer of meaning construction, the other layers being the situational
context where these structures are used and the linguistic links these structures have within sentences. Werth (1999) summarizes this
as follows:
The context of a piece of language (…) is its surrounding environment. But this can include as little as the articulatory movements
immediately before and after it, or as much as the whole universe with its past and future.  (Werth 199 9: 78 – 79. Cited in Porto,
2009)
On a different level, as we have seen in the previous sections, sentence grammar, which was traditionally the focus of language
teaching, fails to account for features that pertain to how meaning is constructed at the level of texts. Language knowledge involves
not only how structures are organized into sentences, but also how these sentences make meanings in texts. As shown previously, a
sentence may be perfectly grammatical but may fail to contribute to the production of a meaningful text.

What are the implications on grammar teaching?

Taking into consideration the above considerations of what grammar is, we can safely identify several pedagogical implications to
grammar teaching.
 1.Grammar teaching should be contextualized because language is context-sensitive. Without context, it is hard to get the
intended meaning of utterances, whether they are one word or multi-word utterances. Contextualizing the target structures can be
done by providing real-world situations, videos, texts, etc.
2.It is not helpful to teach grammar in isolated sentences.
3.By taking the linguistic and pragmatic context into consideration rather than dealing with isolated elements of language,
learners will be able to process language more efficiently.
4.Traditional prescriptive sentence grammar focuses on how language should be used instead of reflecting how language is
actually used. This can be confusing when confronted with real-life language that contradicts the pre-set rules of prescriptive
grammarians. One way of helping learners to internalize grammar is by adopting an inductive way of teaching that relies on
providing the necessary contextualized examples of actual language use and asking the students to discover the rules. This can be
done through providing data (e.g. examples from corpora) and creating opportunities for guided noticing. The idea is that when
the learners discover the grammar rules by themselves, this will help them to remember the rules better because they have been
active in discovering them. In addition, by training the learners to use a discovery approach to learning grammar, they will tend
to become anxiety free when faced with other unfamiliar grammar structures they might encounter in the future. (More on
Discovery Learning in section 3.3.2.)
5.Pedagogical grammar should abide by some essential criteria such as meaningfulness, truthfulness, simplicity, and grading.
Grammar teaching has to focus on meaning, be true, and account for exceptions without losing simplicity. Some sort of
sequencing – from easy forms to complex ones – should also be taken in consideration.
6.By providing a context, language learning may occur incidentally. The learners’ knowledge about the world can help them
figure out meaning and consequently learn new patterns implicitly.
7.Any grammar teaching should involve some sort of controlled practice followed by some meaningful communicative activities
where the learners will have to produce expanded output using the target structures.
8.It is sometimes more productive to teach chunks – blocks of language – than go into lengthy explanations. Lexical chunks like
‘Would you like…?’, ‘I’d like’, and ‘how do you do?’ are cases in point. This will help learners become engaged in making links
between vocabulary and grammar and see that some language patterns can be used to fulfill communicative acts without
necessarily being explicitly taught by the teacher.
9.Teaching grammar should take into consideration how language is used to serve a communication purpose. Sometimes, even if
the sentences we use are grammatical, they fail to serve their communicative purpose if we overlook the functions they express.
The imperative form of verbs (as in ‘Don’t press that button’) may express either a warning or a command depending on the
context. Similarly, conditional sentences may express different functions like warning, advice, or promise as we have seen in
table 1 above.

What is the difference between prescriptive, descriptive and

pedagogic grammar?
What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive
grammar?
In this post, we will try to look at the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar. We will also try to highlight some
examples that show this difference. As teachers, you will be also interested in what pedagogical grammar is and the criteria syllabus
designers use in the selection of grammar topics.

Prescriptive vs descriptive
To see the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar, let’s first start with a definition of grammar as commonly used
by traditional grammarians. The following definition stipulates that grammar is about distinguishing correct from incorrect sentences.
This is exactly what prescriptive grammar is all about. Put differently:
‘prescriptive grammar’ refers to a set of norms governing how sentences should or should not be formed rather than
describing how language is really used.
Prescriptive grammar is concerned with what the grammarians think to be right or wrong, that is, it differentiates between good and
bad language users.
Prescriptive grammar is contrasted with descriptive grammar:
Descriptive grammar focuses on describing the language as it is actually used, not as it should be used. It is based on
the language used by its speakers.
Descriptive linguists try to analyze real language data so that they can formulate rules governing its use. The aim is not to distinguish
good from bad language users. Many forms of language that prescriptive grammarians think are not grammatical may be included in
the data the descriptive linguists analyze.
Here is an example of a form that prescriptive grammarians believe to be wrong:
John is older than her.
Although the above form is used by actual speakers, prescriptive grammar considers it an example of bad language, contending that
the right form should be:
John is older than she.
Prescriptive grammarians believe that the word ‘than’ is used as a conjunction that should be followed by a subject pronoun. The
correct form according to this approach should be ‘he is older than she (is)’.
However, according to descriptive grammar, since the above form is used by actual language speakers and writers, it should be
included in the data and studied. The word ‘than’ in this analysis is viewed as a preposition, and for that reason, it can be argued that
the sentence ‘John is older than her’ is also correct and that ‘her’ in this case functions as the object of the preposition.
Descriptive grammar describes language forms objectively and nonjudgmentally. The aim is to study the principles and patterns that
underlie the actual language use.

Pedagogic grammar
But are prescriptive and descriptive grammar appropriate to the needs of English language learners?
In most classroom practices, both prescriptive and descriptive grammars are hard to teach. Hence, the need for a more teachable
grammar – a pedagogic grammar. This grammar is helpful in teaching language and takes into consideration the level and needs of
the learners and the nature of the classroom.
To be effective, this grammar should meet some requirements.
The grammar rules should be:
Meaningful:
Grammar rules should be contextualized and should make sense.
Simple:
Lengthy explanations of grammar rules may be counterproductive. Short and easy to formulate rules can be more effective.
True:
The simplicity of grammar rules shouldn’t be at the expense of truthfulness. Many teachers explain the use of the indefinite articles
‘a’ and ‘an’ by stating that:
‘a’ is used before consonants while ’an’ is used before vowels.
This rule is simple but it is not truthful. There are many instances of the article ‘a’ used before a vowel (cf. a university). Similarly,
there are many examples of the use of ‘an’ in front of a consonant (cf. an umbrella.) A more appropriate and true formulation of the
above rule is the following:
‘a’ is used before consonant sounds while ’an’ is used before vowel sounds.
This is because a vowel letter like ‘u’ can be pronounced as a consonant as in ‘umbrella’.
Grading:
Grammar rules have to be sequenced in such a way that easy structures should be taught before complex ones. For example, one
cannot teach the past perfect tense before teaching first the simple past tense. It is generally agreed among syllabus designers that
grammar points that are easy to teach should have precedence over more complex ones. Common topics you can find in a core
grammar syllabus for beginners are: be, simple present, present continuous, articles, adjectives, can/can’t, going to, etc.

Conclusion
Prescriptive grammar provides a set of rules to distinguish good from bad language usage. Descriptive grammar, however, focuses on
language as it is used by actual speakers and attempts to analyze it and formulate rules about it. Pedagogical grammar, however,
helps in teaching language. Pedagogical grammarians have in mind the constraints of the students’ level of proficiency and the
special characteristics of the classroom. Important criteria, such as meaningfulness, simplicity, truthfulness, and gradation, have to be
taken into consideration in syllabus design.

Criteria for a good writing topic (Teaching Writing Tips)

It is not easy to design a good writing topic task for English language learners. Not any topic can trigger learners’ appetite for
producing an acceptable piece of writing. Because writing is a productive skill, some effort is required by writers and if the topic is
not well chosen and formulated, the learners will undoubtedly be inhibited.

The following tips are meant to guide teachers to design good writing tasks.

Writing skills
To start with, learners have to be initiated to writing skills:
•They have to be trained to distinguish the distinctive features of different genres (e.g. story,  email, reports, essays, etc.)
 •They have to be trained to go through specific steps (c.f. Process Writing which includes planning, drafting, editing, revising,
and writing the final draft)
In addition to the above, teachers have to design writing topics that are contextualized and that reflect life-like situations.

Writing and context

The context in writing tasks is the setting within which a work of writing is situated. Contextual elements provide meaning and
clarity to the intended message. one way of thinking about context is to see it as a frame where the intended message is delivered.
This frame can be clearly identified in the following definition of writing:
Writing is a purposeful human activity whereby the writer intends to communicate content – represented with
conventional signs and symbols – to an audience (i.e. reader).
In the above definition five elements are of paramount importance:
1.The writer (who)
2.The content (what)
3.The purpose (why)
4.The audience (for whom)
5.The medium (signs and symbols)
The writing topic
The topic of writing should be contextualized. One way of contextualizing the topic is by asking the following question:
Who is writing what to whom and why?
Let’s look at some concrete examples:
Example 1:
Write about what you did last weekend.
PROBLEMS:
•What? – what’s the format of the final product? Is it an email, an essay, a letter?
•To whom? – who is the audience? A friend, the writer’s mother?
•Why? – what’s the purpose? What’s the intended purpose? To inform, to complain, to tell a story?
Example 2:
Write an email to your friend about what you did last weekend.
PROBLEM:
•Why? Again, the purpose of the writing is absent!
Example 3:
You had a terrible weekend. You are so disheartened that you want to share your experience with your English pen
friend in an email.
•The above topic includes all the elements needed to set the context of the writing task. Answering the questions about who is
writing what to whom and why can help learners get a precise picture of what they are expected to do.

Teaching Very Young Learners

Teaching very young learners, those considered to be between three and five years old, may be a challenge because of many reasons.
To start with, it is usually very hard to keep these learners 100% concentrated. They may easily feel bored and you will have to find a
way to keep them focused.  In addition, an EFL or ESL teacher will find it daunting teaching a language to very young learners in the
same way older learners are taught.

Characteristics of very young learners

•They need to feel safe.
•They have short concentration span.
•They need concrete experiences in order to understand.
•Their first language is still developing.
•Their writing and reading skills are still rudimentary.
•They are readily engaged in play.

Tips to teach very young learners

•Young learners need a lot of recycling and repetition.
•They cannot comprehend abstract ideas, so go for concrete examples, practical instances of language in use to be able to
understand them and reproduce them.
•Younger learners need to be taught meaningful English.
•It is useless to teach them grammar since they still struggle with grammar in their mother tongue.
 •It is preferable to help very young learners to memorize whole chunks rather than go into detailed descriptions of structures.
•Teaching chunks of language in context may be a great idea.
•Using songs, games, fairy tales, stories, short conversations, dance, play… provide good exposure to language.
•Using a lot of visual aids, colors and music can be fun and enhance retention.
•Focus must be on fluency rather on accuracy.
•Very young learners need to learn by doing.  Use of their motor skills to cut out shapes and glue them might be fun and helpful
to L2 acquisition.

Why Dictation?
Dictation is one of the oldest language teaching activities. It is perhaps for this reason that it has been
neglected recently by teachers, claiming that it is too teacher centered, uncommunicative, boring and
old-fashioned. But is dictation without any merit? Is it really old-fashioned and uncommunicative?

What is dictation?
Dictation is a decoding-recoding activity. It is the act or process of dictating material to another for
transcription. Oller (1979) defines it as a “psychologically real system that sequentially orders
linguistic elements in time and in relation to extralinguistic context in meaningful ways.”  Three
elements are involved in dictation:
•Filter: it has the task of screening out unnecessary information.
•Organizer: it subconsciously processes information although some errors may remain.
•Monitor: it is responsible for conscious editing. The insecure learner may use the monitor more.
The merit of dictation has been underestimated for a long time. Here are some of the common objections to this activity.
Objections to dictation
•It might cause high affective filter especially for “frightened”, “insecure” learners.
•It doesn’t require any talent nor information on the part of the teacher.
•It’s only the aural skills that are developed in dictations.
•It is old-fashioned, boring, uncommunicative and teacher centered.
Although some of these objections may be true, dictation is an activity that has been both misunderstood and misused.
The value of dictation
Most of the criticism towards diction is not valid. One can easily detect many advantages in carrying out this activity.
•Dictations can be fun if the passages are  chosen carefully in a way that causes laughter and amusement.
•It is an integrative activity that involves all the skills.
•Listening: as the passage is dictated for students to transcribe.
•Writing: when students write down the dictated material.
•Reading: as a follow-up students may read the passage first silently to check for mistakes,  then loudly to practice
pronunciation.
•Speaking: when the passage is used as a starting point for a discussion activity.
•Dictation activity can be used as a basis for error analysis to spot areas of weakness and strength as well as build on the errors
detected to prepare future lesson plans. This yields interesting conclusions about students level of proficiency although this may
demand extra effort on the part of teachers.
•Teachers can vary the way dictation is delivered to involve learners.
Variations of dictation
The imagination of the teacher may give free vent to the way dictation is carried out. Instead of having the teacher dictating the
passage for students to write down, teachers can find alternative ways to implement the activity.
•Students may work in pairs with a short passage for each. They first read it silently (teachers assistance is possible at this stage)
and then taking turns to dictate the passages for each other.
•Before students see the original passage, students work in groups to check for mistakes.
•Teachers need not prepare long passages. Separated sentences or words can be also used to carry out a dictation.
•Teachers may prepare a short paragraph and dictate the sentences in disorder.Next, students check for mistakes in pair work or
group work. Later they are told to put the sentence in the correct order to form a paragraph.
•Students may work in pairs. One student is assigned the role of the writer and the other the role of the “runner”. The short
passage is put on the wall. The runners have to go to the text and return to their partners having memorized the first line of the
text, which they dictate. They keep returning to the text until they have dictated the full text to their partner. The role can be
swapped halfway through. Their text is then compared to a correct version and corrected.
 •Teacher can play the role of a human tape recorder. As s/he reads the text, students call out instructions such as ‘Stop’,
‘Rewind’, ‘Play’, ‘Decrease speed’ etc. ‘This gives the students the opportunity to control the speed of the dictation and the
amount of repetition.
•Dictations can be carried out in the form of a “dictogloss”. It requires the students to only take notes of the key words used as
they listen and then later reconstruct the text so that it has the same meaning as the original text although perhaps not exactly the
same form.
These are variations of dictation, you may think of other forms of this activity. Only your imagination is the limit!

Giving and scoring of dictation

When I choose to test students in the form of a dictation activity, I follow these steps:
1.The first reading is at normal speed. The testee just listens.
2.The second reading is divided into thought groups or phrases. The testee writes the text. Sufficient pauses are allowed between
phrases.
3.The testee checks the passage while 3rd reading is done with short pauses at the end of each sentence.
4.Last reading is at normal speed allowing students to gain confidence.
When I score the dictation I sequence the passage into phrases (usually 10.) where each phrase is considered a single item worth a
point. Phrases must be totally correct to deserve a point.

Conclusion
Dictation is one of the oldest activities. Nevertheless, its merits are invaluable. Teachers gain a lot by depicting language areas that
should be addressed and learners actively build their language proficiency.

Why should teachers use songs in EFL / ESL classes?

Songs are useful in EFL / ESL classes because of so many reasons. They contain authentic language and are a goldmine for language
teaching points like grammar, vocabulary and a nice and joyful activity for fostering listening skills. They can also provide invaluable
information about cultural aspects of the target language. Some key reasons songs can work exceedingly well in the foreign language
classroom include the following:

Ten reasons teachers should use songs

1.Songs contain authentic, natural language. This gives students a break from the contrived, stilted language found in many
textbooks. Caution should be paid, however, when choosing the appropriate songs as some of them may contain crude or
objectionable language.
2.They are a goldmine for a wide variety of vocabulary items, including idiomatic expressions and contemporary language.
3.Songs activities are easy to prepare. Songs are usually not that difficult to obtain. Teachers can obtain them from the internet or
students themselves can afford them.
4.Songs can be selected to suit the needs and interests of the students. They can deal with various themes and contain language
appropriate for any level. Teachers can select suitable songs accordingly.
5.Cultural aspects can be introduced through songs. They are loaded with specificities of target language culture that must be part
of any consistent language learning.
6.Grammar can be illustrated by the songs. So many grammatical aspects of contemporary  language
can be introduced through songs.
7.Activities using songs are time manageable activities. Any lapse of time would do: 15 minutes , 30
minutes  or more. They are flexible activities as far as time is concerned
8.They are a source for pronunciation practice. Students are exposed to native speaking accents.
9.Songs relate the classroom to the world around us. They have been used as vehicles of protest for
civil rights, workers rights, even prisoner’s rights along with an endless number of other causes.
They’ve talked about pollution, crime, war and almost every social theme or cause.
10.Songs are fun. They create a lively atmosphere in the classroom and reduce the affective filter.
These are only some of the many reasons why songs are useful in the language learning classroom. Do
you use songs in your classes? If yes, how do you use them?
Here is a link to a list of some good songs to be integrated into EFL and ESL classes:
•English songs for EFL and ESL classes
Role play
Speaking is one of the most important language skills. Few activities help students
stimulate this skill. Role Play is one of them. It is the best way to simulate conversation
and can be an excellent teaching tool if done properly. It necessitates interaction between
at least 2 partners.It is often helpful to teach beforehand phrases and vocabulary to be
used in the context of the role play. Sometimes both roles A and B can be given;
otherwise the role play can be open-ended with only Part A being used as a stimulus.
here are some examples of Role Play situations.

Beginners
• A: Thank your partner for a gift he/she gave you on your birthday.
B: Respond to your friend.
• A: It’s getting hot. Ask your partner to open the window.
B: Respond to your friend ‘ request.
• A: Invite your partner to go fishing this weekend.
B: Respond to your friend’s invitation.

Intermediate
• A: Invite your partner to go dancing on Friday.
B: You do not like to dance. Politely refuse the invitation.
• A: You bought some milk at B’s grocery store. The milk is sour. Return it.
B: Offer to exchange the milk or compensate A in some way.
• A: Your partner borrowed your DVD player and still hasn’t returned it. Talk to him/her.
B: Make up an excuse and promise to return the saw at a later date.

Advanced Levels
• You want to buy a new laptop. Negotiate with a your partner (a shop assistant) on the price, warranty, discount…etc

Brainstorming in EFL and ESL Classes

What is Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a combination of  a relaxed, informal approach to problem-solving and lateral thinking. People are asked to find
ideas and thoughts that can at first seem to be a bit irrelevant. The idea is to use some of these ideas to form original, creative
solutions to problems. Even some seemingly useless ideas can spark still more ideas. The goal of brainstorming is to direct people to
new ways of thinking and break from the usual way of reasoning.
The most important thing about brainstorming is that there should be no criticism of ideas. students try to open up possibilities and
discard wrong assumptions about the limits of the problem. Judgments and analysis of ideas are explored after the brainstorming
process while focus should be at this stage on idea generation.

Why brainstorming?
Brainstorming contributes to the generation of creative solutions to a problem. It teaches students to breaks away from old patterns of
reasoning to new unexplored paths of thinking.
•Problem solving has become part and parcel of teaching and learning process. Brainstorming can make group problem-solving a
less sterile and a more satisfactory process.
•It can be used with your class to bring the various students experiences into play. This increases the richness of ideas explored,
particularly before reading, listening and writing activities.
•Brainstorming is fun. That’s why it helps student-student and students-teacher relationships to get stronger as they solve
problems in a positive, stress-free environment.
Brainstorming technique was first designed to be used with groups,  but it can also be used by a single person privately to generate
ideas.

Individual Brainstorming
When individuals brainstorm on their own, they come up with more ideas, and often better quality ideas, than groups of people who
brainstorm together. Perhaps this occurs because of many reasons
 •In groups, learners aren’t always strict in following the rules of brainstorming, and the risk of unfavorable group behaviors may
arise.
•Instead of generating their own new ideas, students may pay more attention to other people’s ideas.
•Sometimes learners forget their ideas while they are waiting for their turn to speak.
•Sometimes people are blocked because of shyness.
•Some students tend to do well when they work alone.
•individual brainstorming may be less engaging and  less stressful.  Students are free and do not worry about other people’s
opinions and judgements, and can therefore be more freely creative. For instance, a student who hesitates to bring up an idea in a
group brainstorming because he thinks its unworthy, might  be free to explore it in an individual brainstorming and find that it
develops into something quite interesting.
•Students don’t have to wait for others to stop speaking before they contribute their own ideas.
There are however some downturns with individual brainstorming. In a group brainstorming, the experiences of the members of the
group help to develop ideas thoroughly. This is something that might be missing in individual brainstorming where only the
individuals experience come to play.

Group Brainstorming
Group brainstorming may work in so many effective ways:
•Brainstorming brings the full experience and creativity of all members of the group to solve a problem. When individual group
members get stuck with an idea, another member’s creativity and experience can take the idea to the next stage. Group
brainstorming can therefore develop ideas in more depth than individual brainstorming.
•Another advantage of group brainstorming is that it helps everyone involved to feel that they have contributed to the end
solution.
•It reminds one that other people have creative ideas to offer.
•Brainstorming can be great for team-building and creating harmony within a team!
Nevertheless group brainstorming has some disadvantages. It can be risky for individuals. Valuable but unusual suggestions may
appear irrelevant at first sight. That’s why, the teacher needs to be careful not to suppress these ideas. Group problem-solving must
not stifle creativity.

How to Use Brainstorming

John R. Hayes recommends following these steps in his book “The Complete Problem Solver.”
“Separate idea generation from evaluation. Start with the idea generation phase, writing down ideas as they occur,
without criticism. You should welcome wild or silly ideas, and you should try to combine or improve ideas that were
generated earlier. The hard part in this phase is to control your internal editor– the internal voice of criticism which
may lead you to ignore an idea that seems too dumb or trivial. Just as with group brainstorming, when you begin to
run out of ideas, you can review the list as a source to stimulate further production. When the ideas really have
stopped coming, it is time to move on to the evaluation phase. Here you review each idea to select those that seem
best for solving the problem.”
As it is said above both group and individual brainstorming can work perfectly well. I thinks that we, as teachers,  should vary the
types of brainstorming so that students may fulfil their needs according to their learning style. It is also possible to combine both
types by having students carrying out individual brainstorming the results of which can be shared in a group brainstorming.  In the
following description I will show how a group brainstorming should be done.
•Prepare the environment for the brainstorming to take place. Arrange the students desks in a manner that helps better students
contributions.
•Depending on the level of students you can either write the ideas that come from the session yourself or appoint one student to
record them.
•The ideas should be noted in a format that everyone can see and refer to. You may use the board or computers with data
projectors.
•Define the problem you want students to solve clearly.
•Be sure that t students understand that the objective of the session is to generate as many ideas as possible.
•After stating the problem, give students enough time to think the problem over on their own.
•Ask students to contribute their ideas.
•Make sure that you give all students a fair opportunity to contribute.
•Try to get everyone to contribute and develop ideas, including the quietest members of the class.
•Tell students that they may develop other students’ ideas, or use other ideas to create new ones.
•Tell students that criticism and evaluation of ideas are banned at this stage because criticism is risky and may stifle creativity
and cripple the whole brainstorming process. This uncritical attitude among members of the group is of paramount importance.
•Encourage enthusiasm by providing positive feedback to all contributions without exceptions.
•Give free vent to students creativity and imagination. Let people have fun bringing  as many ideas as possible.
Brainstorming in EFL & ESL classes
In EFL and ESL classes brainstorming can be effective in a wide range of areas of instruction.
•Pre reading
Teachers ask questions that are central for the overall comprehension of the text and students try to give as many answers to them
as possible. The questions must involve a wide variety of possible answers.
•Pre listening
The same as above. Students come up with as many answers to open-ended questions.
•Pre writing
A topic can be fully brainstormed in an individual or group brainstorming (or a combination of both) to generate a s many ideas
as possible. At home students use their notes to prepare an outline and write the first draft to be edited in class.
•Grammar
In order for students understand how grammar works they should explore it instead of having the teacher explaining everything.
It would be an interesting experience for students to brainstorm how different structures are used, what their meanings are and
how they are formed.
•Vocabulary
EFL a nd ESL students are often faced with difficult vocabulary. It is a good idea to teach students how to use a dictionary, but it
would be better if students use brainstorming sessions to find the meaning of difficult vocabulary using the context. Again,
encourage students to provide their guesses and accept all of them even the wildest ones. Only later with the help of the teacher
students try to evaluate them and pick up the most appropriate definitions.
These are just suggestions. Teachers can develop this technique to fit their students needs.
To teach students how to brainstorm, I suggest using this lesson plan:
•Brainstorming Lesson Plan
To use an online tool to brainstorm problems have a look at this post:
•Brainstorm online

Why should teachers use songs in EFL / ESL classes?

Songs are useful in EFL / ESL classes because of so many reasons. They contain authentic language and are a goldmine for language
teaching points like grammar, vocabulary and a nice and joyful activity for fostering listening skills. They can also provide invaluable
information about cultural aspects of the target language. Some key reasons songs can work exceedingly well in the foreign language
classroom include the following:

Ten reasons teachers should use songs

1.Songs contain authentic, natural language. This gives students a break from the contrived, stilted language found in many
textbooks. Caution should be paid, however, when choosing the appropriate songs as some of them may contain crude or
objectionable language.
2.They are a goldmine for a wide variety of vocabulary items, including idiomatic expressions and contemporary language.
3.Songs activities are easy to prepare. Songs are usually not that difficult to obtain. Teachers can obtain them from the internet or
students themselves can afford them.
4.Songs can be selected to suit the needs and interests of the students. They can deal with various themes and contain language
appropriate for any level. Teachers can select suitable songs accordingly.
5.Cultural aspects can be introduced through songs. They are loaded with specificities of target language culture that must be part
of any consistent language learning.
6.Grammar can be illustrated by the songs. So many grammatical aspects of contemporary  language
can be introduced through songs.
7.Activities using songs are time manageable activities. Any lapse of time would do: 15 minutes , 30
minutes  or more. They are flexible activities as far as time is concerned
8.They are a source for pronunciation practice. Students are exposed to native speaking accents.
9.Songs relate the classroom to the world around us. They have been used as vehicles of protest for
civil rights, workers rights, even prisoner’s rights along with an endless number of other causes.
They’ve talked about pollution, crime, war and almost every social theme or cause.
10.Songs are fun. They create a lively atmosphere in the classroom and reduce the affective filter.
These are only some of the many reasons why songs are useful in the language learning classroom. Do
you use songs in your classes? If yes, how do you use them?
Here is a link to a list of some good songs to be integrated into EFL and ESL classes:
Teaching Very Young Learners
Teaching very young learners, those considered to be between three and five years old, may be a challenge because of many reasons.
To start with, it is usually very hard to keep these learners 100% concentrated. They may easily feel bored and you will have to find a
way to keep them focused.  In addition, an EFL or ESL teacher will find it daunting teaching a language to very young learners in the
same way older learners are taught.

Characteristics of very young learners

•They need to feel safe.
•They have short concentration span.
•They need concrete experiences in order to understand.
•Their first language is still developing.
•Their writing and reading skills are still rudimentary.
•They are readily engaged in play.

Tips to teach very young learners

•Young learners need a lot of recycling and repetition.
•They cannot comprehend abstract ideas, so go for concrete examples, practical instances of language in use to be able to
understand them and reproduce them.
•Younger learners need to be taught meaningful English.
•It is useless to teach them grammar since they still struggle with grammar in their mother tongue.
•It is preferable to help very young learners to memorize whole chunks rather than go into detailed descriptions of structures.
•Teaching chunks of language in context may be a great idea.
•Using songs, games, fairy tales, stories, short conversations, dance, play… provide good exposure to language.
•Using a lot of visual aids, colors and music can be fun and enhance retention.
•Focus must be on fluency rather on accuracy.
•Very young learners need to learn by doing.  Use of their motor skills to cut out shapes and glue them might be fun and helpful
to L2 acquisition.