The University of Queensland

Department of Computer Science

&
Electrical Engineering

SOLAR PANEL

MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKER

Undergraduate Thesis

By

Thanh Phu Nguyen

19 October 2001
 Abstract

“Solar Panel Maximum Power Point Tracker”. As the name implied, it is a

photovoltaic system that uses the photovoltaic array as a source of electrical power
supply and since every photovoltaic (PV) array has an optimum operating point,
called the maximum power point, which varies depending on cell temperature, the
insolation level and array voltage. A maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is
needed to operate the PV array at its maximum power point. The objective of this
thesis project is to build two MPPT in parallel to charge a 12-volts lead acid battery
by using a field wired 83 Watts PV array.

The design consists of a PV array, a 12-volts lead acid battery, DC_DC Boost
converters (also known as step-up converters) and a control section that uses the
PIC16F873 microcontroller. The control section obtains the information from the PV
array through microcontroller’s Analog and Digital (A/D) ports and hence to perform
the pulse width modulation (PWM) to the converter through its D/A ports. Battery’s
state of charge is also controlled by the microcontroller to protect the battery from
overcharged.

The Incremental Conductance method is used as an algorithm to track the maximum

power point of the PV array. The performance of the Incremental Conductance
algorithm in tracking maximum power point is better than the Perturbation and
Observation algorithm. By using Incremental Conductance algorithm the MPPT is
able to track the maximum power point of the PV array quickly under rapidly
changing in sun light intensity. While the Perturbation and Observation algorithm
tends to deviate from the maximum power point under this condition.
 Thanh Phu Nguyen
65 Kersley Rd
Kenmore QLD 4069
19 October 2001

The Dean
School of Engineering
University Of Queensland
St Lucia, QLD 4072

To the Dean,

In accordance with the requirements of the University of Queensland Bachelor of

Electrical and Electronic Engineering degree, I hereby submit my undergraduate
thesis entitled “ Solar Panel Maximum Power Point Tracker” for your consideration.

Yours faithfully

Thanh Phu Nguyen

 Acknowledgements

I would like to take this opportunity to thank my supervisor, Dr. Geoff Walker for his
generous and enthusiastic guidance. Without his assistance, this project would not be
possible.

I would also like to thank Mr. Peter Allen for his assistance in providing me the
experimental equipment.

Special acknowledgement must also go to my family who has constantly supported

me throughout the year.
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Section Page

List of Figures………………………………………………………………………….i
List of Tables………………………………………………………………………….ii
Abbreviation………………………………………………………………………….iii

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH ......................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW 3
2.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS AND ARRAYS .................................................................... 3
2.2 THE ROLE OF MPPT............................................................................................. 4
2.3 SWITCH MODE CONVERTER ................................................................................. 5
2.4 CONTROL SECTION .............................................................................................. 5
2.4.1 Voltage Feedback Control ................................................................ 5
2.4.2 Power Feedback Control................................................................... 5
2.5 MPPT CONTROL ALGORITHMS ............................................................................ 6
2.5.1 Perturbation and Observation Method............................................... 6
2.5.2 Dynamic Approach Method .............................................................. 6
2.5.3Incremental Conductance Algorithm.................................................. 6
2.6 BATTERY ............................................................................................................. 8
2.6.1 General battery chemistry ................................................................. 8
2.6.2 Starting and Deep-cycle batteries ...................................................... 9
2.6.3 Battery charging ............................................................................... 9
2.6.4 Battery life........................................................................................ 9
CHAPTER 3 - THEORY 11
3.1 DC-DC CONVERTER .......................................................................................... 11
3.2 BOOST CONVERTER ........................................................................................... 12
3.2.1 Continuous Conduction Mode......................................................... 12
3.2.2 Boundary between Continuous and Discontinuous Conduction....... 14
3.2.3 Discontinuous-Conduction Mode.................................................... 15
3.2.4 Effect on Parasitic Elements ........................................................... 17
3.2.5 Voltage and Current Ripple ............................................................ 17
3.2.5.1 Inductor Current Ripple ............................................................... 18
3.2.5.2 Output Voltage Ripple ................................................................. 19
3.2.5.3 Power consumption in the Boost Converter.................................. 19
3.3 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER .................................................................................. 21
CHAPTER 4 – IMPLEMENTATION 23
4.1 DESIGN OVERVIEW ............................................................................................ 23
4.2 HARDWARE DESIGN ........................................................................................... 25
4.2.1 Inductor .......................................................................................... 25
4.2.2 Output Capacitor ............................................................................ 26
4.2.3 Diode.............................................................................................. 26
 4.2.4 Voltage Regulator........................................................................... 27
4.2.5 MOSFET ........................................................................................ 27
4.2.6 MOSFET Driver ............................................................................. 27
4.2.7 Microcontroller............................................................................... 27
4.2.8 Voltage divider network ................................................................. 28
4.2.9 Current-Sensing Circuit .................................................................. 29
4.3 SOFTWARE DESIGN ............................................................................................ 30
CHAPTER 5 – RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 35
5.1 EVALUATION OF THE BOOST CONVERTER ........................................................... 35
5.1.1 Switching Frequency vs. Power Efficiency ..................................... 35
5.1.2 Power Efficiency vs. Duty Cycle Ratio ........................................... 37
5.1.3 Power Budget ................................................................................. 38
5.1.4 Evaluation of the Product................................................................ 42
CHAPTER 6 – CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 43
6.1 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 43
6.2 FUTURE WORK .................................................................................................. 43
APPENDIX A - MPPT SCHEMATIC 44
APPENDIX B - PCB LAYOUT 45

APPENDIX C - C CODES 46
APPENDIX D - PSPICE SIMULATION 51

APPENDIX E - COMPONENT DATA SHEET 53

REFERENCES 54
 List of Figure

Figure Title Page

2.1 Schematic of a typical p-n junction solar cell 3

2.2 The I-V curve of the typical solar panel 4
2.3 The P-V curve 8
3.1 Ideal Switch voltage v, Duty ratio D, and switching period Ts 11
3.2 DC-DC Boost converter 12
3.3 Continuous Conduction mode 13
3.4 Waveforms at the edge of the continuous conduction 14
3.5 Average Output Current at the Boundary of continuous-discontinuous 15
3.6 Converter Waveforms at Discontinuous Conduction 15
3.7 Step-up converter characteristics keeping Vo constant 17
3.8 Effect of parasitic elements on voltage conversion ratio 18
3.9 Ripple Inductor current 19
3.10 Boost converter output voltage ripple 19
3.11 Differential Amplifier 22
4.1 Block Diagram of Maximum Power Point Tracker 25
4.2 Program Flow Chart 33
4.3 Control Flow Chart for S1- Incremental Conductance method 34
4.4 Control Flow Chart for S2- Incremental Conductance method 35
5.1 Switching Frequency vs. Power Efficiency 37
5.2 Power Efficiency vs. Duty Cycle Ratio 39

-i-
 List of Table

Table Title Page

5.1 Switching Frequency vs. Power Efficiency 37

5.2 Power Efficiency vs. Duty Cycle Ration 38
5.3 Power Budget 43

- ii -
 Abbreviation

∆Vo peak to peak output voltage ripple

C capacitance
D duty cycle ratio
ID average diode current
Ids drain saturation current
Idso drain source leakage current
IL average inductor current
ILB average inductor current at the boundary between continuous and
discontinuous mode
IOB average output current at the boundary continuous and discontinuous
conduction mode
IOB MAX maximum average output current at the boundary between continuous
and discontinuous conduction modes
L inductance
MPP maximum power point
MPPT maximum power point tracker
PWM pulse width modulation
PV photovoltaic
RL effective series resistance of the inductor
Rds drain to source on resistance
tc conduction time
td turn on delay time
to turn off time
toff off time
ton on time
tr turn on rise time
ts storage time
ts switching period of the pulse width modulation
Vd input voltage to the Boost-Converter

- iii -
Vdd MOSFET supply drain voltage
V ds,sat saturated drain to source voltage
Vf forward biased diode voltage
VL average inductor voltage
Vo output voltage of the Boost-Converter
CMMR common mode rejection ratio
Vcm common mode signal
Vdiff differential signal

- iv -
Chapter 1 - Introduction

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Research

Energy is the most basic and essential of all resources. All the energy we use on Earth comes
from fission or fusion of atomic nuclei, or from energy stored in the Earth. The problem with
both fission and fusion is that they have dangerous radioactivity and side effect [1].
Therefore, most of the generation of energy in our modern industrialized society is strongly
depending on very limited non-renewable resources, particularly fossil fuel. As the world's
energy demands rise and resources become scarce, the search for alternative energy resources
has become an important issue for our time. Very much exploitation and research for new
power has been done not only in the area of nuclear power generation but also in the area of
unlimited energy sources such as wind power generation and solar energy transformation.

The most effective and harmless energy source is probably solar energy. For many
applications it is so technically straightforward to use. Use of solar energy instead of fuel
combustion, particularly for simple application like low and medium temperature water
heating, can reduce the load on the environment. Solar energy can be harvested by the use of
photovoltaic (PV) array.

PV array has an optimum operating point called the maximum power point (MPP), which
varies depending on cell temperature and the present insolation level. To get the maximum
power from the PV, a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is used. The goals of this thesis
are:
a) Tracking maximum power point with an algorithm suitable for rapidly
changing atmospheric condition.
Variation in lighting intensity causes these trackers to deviate from the
maximum power point. When lighting conditions change, the tracker needs to
respond within a short amount of time to the change to avoid energy loss.

-1-
Chapter 1 - Introduction

b) Battery charging
A 12-Volt lead-acid battery is used as an energy storage unit.
An over voltage protection loop is needed to protect the battery from over
charged.
There are two main groups of MPPTs: those that use analog circuitry and
classical feedback control, and others that use a microprocessor to maintain
control of the maximum operating point.

Analog systems have the advantage of having low cost components, but are more
problematic to control. It is difficult to develop a stable system, which is able to maintain
its accuracy even under extreme operating conditions such as the wide temperature
variations that occur in an outdoor vehicle.

The digitally controlled MPPT systems have the advantage that a power point tracking
algorithm will not be influenced by changes in temperature and therefore will always be
very reliable. Additionally, the use of a tracking algorithm allows for additional control
modes to cope with certain system states such as a fully charged battery.

-2-
Chapter 2 – Literature Review

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Photovoltaic Cells and Arrays

A solar cell is a semiconductor device that absorbs sunlight and converts it into electrical
energy. Today's most common cell is a mass manufactured single p-n junction Silicon (Si)
cell with an efficiency up to about 17% [2]. It consists of a moderately p-doped base
substrate and a thin heavily n-doped top layer. Thin metal contacts on the surface and a
plain metal layer on the back connect this photovoltaic element to the load (Figure 2.1). If
exposed to radiation, electron-hole pairs are created by photons with energy greater than
the band-gap energy of the semiconductor. This is called the photovoltaic effect. The
created charge carriers in the depletion region are separated by the existing electric field.
This leads to a forward bias of the p-n junction and builds up a voltage potential. When a
load is connected to the cell, this voltage will cause a current to flow through the load. In
photovoltaic energy systems, single cells are combined into solar cell arrays, and hence the
name “Photovoltaic Arrays”.

Figure 2.1 Schematic of a typical p-n junction solar cell

-3-
Chapter 2 – Literature Review

2.2 The role of MPPT

Photovoltaic (PV) arrays are used to provide energy for many electrical applications. To
get the maximum power from the PV array, a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is
used to control the variations in the current-voltage characteristics of the solar cells. Figure
2.2 below shows the typical silicon cell I-V curve, as the output voltage rises, the PV
produces significant less current. The I-V curve will change depending on the temperature
and illumination. Either the operating voltage or current needs to be carefully controlled,
so that the maximum power from the array can be obtained. This maximum power point is
seldom located at the same voltage the main system is operating at, and even if the two
were equal initially, the power point would quickly move as lighting conditions and
temperature change. Hence, a device is needed that finds the maximum power point (MPP)
and converts that voltage to a voltage equal to the system voltage.

Figure 2.2 The I-V curve of the typical solar panel.

A MPPT is required to meet the following goals [3].

Make sure that the system operates close to the Maximum Power Point (MPP) when it
is subjected to changing in environmental condition.
Provide high conversion efficiency.
Maintain tracking for a wide range of variation in environmental conditions.

-4-
Chapter 2 – Literature Review

Provide an output interface compatible with the battery charging requirement.

The MPPT consists of two basic components: a switch mode converter and control section.

2.3 Switch Mode Converter

The switch-mode converter is the core of the entire supply. This allows energy at one
potential to be drawn, stored as magnetic energy in an inductor, and then released at a
different potential. By setting up the switch-mode section in various different topologies,
either high-to-low (buck converter) or low-to-high (boost) voltage converters can be
constructed. Normally, the goal of a switch-mode power supply is to provide a constant
output voltage or current. In power trackers, the goal is to provide a fixed input voltage
and/or current, such that the array is held at the maximum power point, while allowing the
output to match the battery voltage.

2.4 Control Section

The control section is designed to determine if the input is actually at the maximum power
point by reading voltage/current back from the switching converter or from the array
terminal and adjust the switch-mode section such that it is. Depending on the application,
different feedback control parameters are needed to perform maximum power tracking.
Most commonly voltage and power feedback controls are employed to control the system
and hence to find the MPP of the array.

2.4.1 Voltage Feedback Control

The solar array terminal voltage is used as the control variable for the system. The
system keeps the array operating close to its maximum power point by regulating
the array’s voltage and matches the voltage of the array to a desired voltage.
However, this has the following drawbacks [4]:
a) The effects of the insolation and temperature of the solar array are neglected.
b) It can not be widely applied to battery energy storage systems.

Therefore, this control is only suitable for use under constant insolation conditions,
such as a satellite system, because it cannot automatically track the maximum
power point of the array when variations in insolation and temperature occur.
2.4.2 Power Feedback Control
Maximum power control is achieved by forcing the derivative (dP/dV) to be equal
to zero under power feedback control. A general approach to power feedback
control is to measure and maximize the power at the load terminal. This has an
advantage of unnecessarily knowing the solar array characteristics. However, this
method maximizes power to the load not power from the solar array. Although a
converter with MPPT offers high efficiency over a wide range of operating points,
but for a bad converter, the full power may not be delivered to the load due to
power loss. Therefore, the design of a high performance converter is a very
importance issue [4].

-5-
 Chapter 2 – Literature Review

2.5 MPPT Control Algorithms

There are many algorithms that are used to control the MPPT. The algorithms that are most
commonly used are the perturbation and observation method, dynamic approach method
and the incremental conductance algorithm.

2.5.1 Perturbation and Observation Method

Perturbation and Observation (P&O) method has a simple feedback structure and
fewer measured parameters. It operates by periodically perturbing (i.e.
incrementing or decreasing) the array terminal voltage and comparing the PV output
power with that of the previous perturbation cycle. If the perturbation leads to an
increase (decrease) in array power, the subsequent perturbation is made in the same
(opposite) direction. In this manner, the peak power tracker continuously seeks the
peak power condition [4].

2.5.2 Dynamic Approach Method

This method employes the ripple at the array output to maximize the array power by
dynamically extrapolate the characteristic of the PV array. The instantaneous
behavior of array voltage v, current i and power p can be grouped into three cases:
current below that for the optimum power, current near the optimum and current
above the optimum [5]. The array performance is reflected in both shapes and
phase relationships. The product of the derivatives p’ and v’ is negative if the
current is below that for optimum power and positive if the current is above the
optimum and zero when the maximum power point is being tracked [5]. Since p’ v’
is a chain rule derivative, it is actually equal to dp/dv. This implies that by driving
dp/dv to zero, power will be effectively maximized.

2.5.3 Incremental Conductance Algorithm

This method uses the source incremental conductance method as its MPP search
algorithm. It is more efficient than Perturb and Observe method and independent on
device physics. The output voltage and current from the source are monitored upon

-6-
Chapter 2 – Literature Review

which the MPPT controller relies to calculate the conductance and incremental
conductance, and to make its decision (to increase or decrease duty ratio output).

Mathematical of the Incremental Conductance algorithm is discussed below.

The output power from the source can be expressed as

P = V× I----------------------------------------- (2.1)

The fact that P = V × I and the chain rule for the derivative of products yields
dP/dV = d (V I) / dV
= I dV / dV + V dI / dV
= I + V dI / dV

∴ (1/V) dP/dV = (I/V) + dI/dV------------------------ (2.2)

Let’s define the source conductance:

G = I/V ------------------------------------------- (2.3)

And the source incremental conductance:

∆ G = dI/dV ------------------------------------- (2.4)

In general output voltage from a source is positive. Equation (2.2) explains that the
operating voltage is below the voltage at the maximum power point if the
conductance is larger than the incremental conductance, and vice versa. The job of
this algorithm is therefore to search the voltage operating point at which the
conductance is equal to the incremental conductance. These ideas are expressed by
equation (2.5), (2.6), (27), and graphically shown in Figure2.2.

dP/dV > 0, if G > ∆G --------------------------(2.5)

dP/dV = 0, if G = ∆G --------------------------(2.6)
dP/dV > 0, if G > ∆G --------------------------(2.7)

-7-
Chapter 2 – Literature Review

Figure 2.3The P-V curve

2.6 Battery

A battery is a device capable of storing electrical energy by means of a reversible chemical

reaction. There are several different battery types, discerned by size, use and construction.
The most common battery is the lead-acid battery, but nickel-cadmium nickel-iron and
nickel-hydride are also available, among others. For most solar applications the lead-acid
battery is the best choice.

2.6.1 General battery chemistry

A lead-acid battery contains sulfuric acid (H2SO4), water (H2O), lead (Pb) and lead-
oxide (PbO2). The electrolyte is the solution of sulfuric acid in water. A battery
consists of a series of cells, connected in series, to provide the desired output
voltage. The output of a lead-acid cell is a little over 2 V and also depending on the
state of charge. Therefore, for a 12 V lead acid battery there are 6 cells connected in
series. A battery stores electrical energy by forcing electrons into positions in which
they contain more energy by applying a voltage on the battery connectors. The
storage is realized by the following chemical reactions [7]:

On the positive electrode:

PbO2 + HSO4- + 3 H+ + 2 e → PbSO4 +H2O

On the negative electrode:

-8-
Chapter 2 – Literature Review

Pb + HSO4- → PbSO4 + H+ + 2 e-

Overall reaction:
Pb + PbO2 + 2 H+ + 2 HSO4- → 2 PbSO4 + 2 H2O

When a load is connected to the battery, the reaction is reversed, and the electrons
release the stored energy. The capacity of a battery (how much energy it can store)
is measured in AH (Amp Hour).

2.6.2 Starting and Deep-cycle batteries

Basically there are two types of batteries, they are namely starting and deep cycle
batteries. Different use asks for different battery designs. A starting battery, as used
in most cars, is designed to deliver a large current during a short time. A deep cycle
batteries that can withstand deep discharges. It has less instant energy but greater
long-term energy delivery. The main difference between the two batteries is the
plate-thickness. The plates of the deep-cycle batteries are up to 35 times thicker
than those of starting batteries. Hence deep cycle batteries can survive a number of
discharge cycles and it is suitable for use in application where power supply standby
is needed.

2.6.3 Battery charging

Batteries are best charged in 3 different steps, bulk charge, absorption charge and
float charge. During bulk charge, the highest charge current is sent to the batteries
until the battery is 80-90% charged. During absorption charge, current is limited as
internal resistance of the battery increases. The applied voltage is a little higher.
Absorption charge lasts until the battery is fully charged. During float charge,
voltage is reduced. The purpose of float charge is to keep a charged battery from
discharging, thus enhancing battery life.

2.6.4 Battery life

Since the storage and release of energy in batteries involves solving and dissolving
the plates in the electrolyte, batteries do not last forever. Batteries are rated for a
certain number of cycles to a certain depth of discharge. When taken care of,
batteries can last for decades, while when mistreated, they can die prematurely.

-9-
Chapter 2 – Literature Review

Main causes for premature battery death are overcharging, charging with a too high
charge current, and sulfating. The first two causes can be prevented by a charge
controller. Sulfating is the formation of large lead sulfate on the battery plates, and
occurs when the battery is left in a low- or uncharged state for a longer period of
time. Sulfating is sometimes (partially) reversible by controlled charging of the
battery. In a well-designed system that's being used the way it was designed for,
these problems will not occur, and the batteries will provide reliable and convenient
energy storage for years or decades, depending on battery quality [7].

- 10 -
Chapter 3 – Theory

CHAPTER 3 - THEORY

3.1 DC-DC Converter

In this section the principles of switching power conversion are introduced and details of
the DC-DC boost converter circuits are discussed in steady state. A switching converter
consists of capacitors, an inductor, and a switch. All these devices ideally do not consume
any power, which is the reason for the high efficiencies of switching converters. The switch
is realized with a switched mode semiconductor device, usually a MOSFET. It is switched
on and off by the driving square wave signals at the gate. If the semiconductor device is in
the off state, its current is zero and hence its power dissipation is zero. If the device is in the
on state (i. e. saturated), the voltage drop across it will be close to zero and hence the
dissipated power will be very small [8]. During the operation of the converter, the switch
will be switched at a constant frequency fs with an on-time of DTs, and an off-time of D’Ts,
where Ts is the switching period 1/fs, D is the duty ratio of the switch and D’ is (1 - D) (see
Fig 3.1). The DC-DC converters can have two distinct modes of operation [9]: (1)
continuous current conduction and (2) discontinuous current conduction. In continuous
mode, inductor current never falls to zero in one switching cycle, Ts or at least one the
switch or diode is conducting. Whereas in discontinuous conduction mode, the inductor
current falls to zero before completing one switching cycle, Ts. In practice, a converter may
operate in both modes, which have significantly different characteristics.

Figure3.1 Ideal Switch voltage v, Duty ratio D, and switching period

Ts

- 11 -
Chapter 3 – Theory

3.2 Boost Converter

The Boost Converter, as shown in Figure 3.2, is also known as the step-up converter. As
the name implies its typical application is to convert low input-voltage to a high output
voltage.

Figure3.2 DC-DC Boost converter

During the first time interval DTs of the switching period Ts, the closed switch connects the
input through the inductor to ground and current starts to flow, the current through the
inductor increases and the energy stored in the inductor builds up. The diode is reversed
biased so no inductor current flows through the load, thus isolating the output stage. After
the switch is opened in the second time interval D’Ts of the switching period, the output
stage receives energy from the inductor as well as from the input. In steady state analysis,
the output capacitor is assumed to be large to ensure a constant output voltage vo (t) ≅ Vo.

3.2.1 Continuous Conduction Mode

Figure 3 [9] below shows the operation of the boost converter in the continuous
conduction mode where the inductor current iL (t) > 0. When the switch is closed
the source voltage Vd is applied across the inductor and the rate of rise of inductor
current is dependent on the source voltage Vd and inductance L. This results in a
positive voltage across the inductor in Figure 3.3a.
vL = Vd -------------------------------------- (3.1)
When the switch is opened in Figure 3b, the inductor voltage becomes
vL = Vd – Vo---------------------------------( 3.2)

- 12 -
Chapter 3 – Theory

Figure 3.3 Continuous Conduction mode: (a) switch on; (b) switch off.

Since in steady state operation the waveform must repeat from one time period, Ts,
to the next, the integral of the inductor voltage vL over one time period must be zero
[9], where Ts = ton + toff. This implies that the areas A and B in Figure 3.3 must be
equal. Therefore,
Vd × ton +( Vd – Vo) × toff = 0 ---------------- (3.3)

Dividing both sides by Ts, and rearranging all terms yields

Vo / Vd = Ts / toff = 1 / (1-D) ------------------ (3.4)

Assuming the circuit is 100% efficiency, i.e. the input power (Pd) and output power
(Po) are the same, (Pd = Po).
∴ Vd × Id = Vo × Io
Hence,
Io / Id = (1 –D) ------------------------------ (3.5)

- 13 -
Chapter 3 – Theory

3.2.2 Boundary between Continuous and Discontinuous Conduction

Figure 3.4 [9] shows the waveforms for vL and iL at the edge of continuous
conduction. Being at the boundary between the continuous and the discontinuous
mode, by definition, the inductor current iL goes to zero at the end of the off period.
The average inductor current at the boundary is
ILB = 1 / 2 × i L,peak
= 1 / 2 × Vd/L × ton -----------------------(3.6)
Substitute equation (3.3) into (4.4), gives
ILB = Ts × Vo × D(1 - D) / 2L ----------------(3.7)

Figure 3.4 Waveforms at the edge of the continuous conduction

In steady state the average capacitor current is zero, therefore for the boost
converter the inductor current and the input current are the same (id = iL). By using
equation (3.3) and (3.5), the average output current at the edge of continuous
conduction is
IoB = Ts × Vo × D(1 - D)2 / 2L ----------------(3.8)

In most applications, the output voltage Vo is kept constant. Therefore, with Vo

constant, IoB are plotted in Figure 3.5 [9] as a function of duty ratio D.

- 14 -
Chapter 3 – Theory

Figure 3.5 Average Output Current at the Boundary of continuous-discontinuous

From Figure 3.5, at D =0.5 inductor current reaches its maximum value,
ILB,max = Ts × Vo / 8L ----------------------------(3.9)
Also, maximum output current occurs at D = 1/3 = 0.333:
IoB,max = 0.074 × Ts × Vo / L --------------------(3.10)

Figure 3.5 shows that for a given duty cycle, D, with constant Vo, if the average
load current drops below IoB and (hence, the average inductor current below ILB),
the current conduction will become discontinuous [9].

3.2.3 Discontinuous-Conduction Mode

Figure 3.6 Converter Waveforms at Discontinuous Conduction

Figure 3.6 shows the discontinuity of inductor current as the result of the load
power decreases. To understand the operation in this mode, the input voltage, Vd,
and duty ratio, D, is assumed to be constant (although, in practice, this is not the
case, since D would vary in order to keep the output voltage, Vo, constant).

- 15 -
Chapter 3 – Theory

Similar to the analysis of continuous conduction mode, the integral of the inductor
voltage over one time period is zero,
Vd × D × Ts + (Vd – Vo) × ∆1 × Ts = 0 --------------------(3.11)
∴ Vo / Vd = (∆1 + D) / ∆1 --------------------------------------(3.12)

Assume the circuit is 100% efficiency, i.e. the input power, Pd, is equal to the output
power, Po,
Io / Id = ∆1 / (∆1 + D) ------------------------------------------(3.13)

As mentioned before, the average input current, Id, and the inductor current, IL, of a
boost converter are equal. Hence, Id can be obtained by using Figure 6,
Id = Vd × D × Ts (D + ∆1) / 2L ------------- -----------------(3.14)

Using the equation (3.11) and (3.12), the average output current can be found:
Io = D × ∆1 × Ts × Vd / 2L -----------------------------------(3.15)

In practice, D varies in respond to the variation in Vd while Vo is held constant. It is

useful to obtain the required duty ratio D as a function of load current for various
values of Vo / Vd [9]. Combining equation (3.8), (3.10) and (3.13) yields:
D = [(4 × Vo × Io )(Vo / Vd –1) / (27 × Vd × IoB,max)]1/2 ---- (3.16)

Figure3.7 Step-up converter characteristics keeping Vo constant

- 16 -
Chapter 3 – Theory

In Figure 3.7, D is plotted as a function of Io / IoB,max for different values of Vd / Vo.

The dashed curve is the boundary between the continuous and discontinuous
conduction mode. It can be seen from Figure 3.7 that by vary the duty ratio and the
change in the output current will keep the output voltage constant at all time.

3.2.4 Effect on Parasitic Elements

The parasitic elements in a boost converter are due to the losses associated with the
diode, the inductor, the capacitor and the switch. Figure 3.8 [9] shows the effect of
these parasitics on the voltage transfer ratio. In ideal situation, according to equation
(3.2) as D approaching unity the ratio between input and output voltage would
increase to infinity. However, in practice the ratio between input and output voltage
declines as the duty ratio approaches unity. This is due to the fact that very poor
switch utilization at high values of duty ratio. The curves in this range are shown in
Figure 3.8 as the dashed line.

Figure 3.8 Effect of parasitic elements on voltage conversion ratio

3.2.5 Voltage and Current Ripple

While the output voltage ripple amplitude ∆Vo usually ranges within 1% of the dc
component Vo, the amplitude of the inductor current ripple ∆IL varies by as much as
10% to 20% of its dc value IL [9]. This is important to know, because the inductor
current ripple is determined by the value of the inductance L. If the ripple gets too
large, the size of the switching semiconductor device must be increased to handle
the high current peaks. Increase in size would result in and increase in weigh and
higher cost.

- 17 -
Chapter 3 – Theory

3.2.5.1 Inductor Current Ripple

By definition, the voltage drops across the inductor is
vL = L × diL / dt ------------------------------------(3.17)

Using equation (3.1) and (3.17), the follow expression is obtained:

diL / dt = vL / L = Vd / L -------------------------(3.18)

Where diL / dt represent the slope of the inductor current during the first time
interval DTs of a switching period.

For the second time interval, D’Ts with equation (3.2), the following expression is
obtained:
diL / dt = vL / L = (Vd - Vo) / L ------------------(3.19)

The slopes diL / dt are shown in Figure 3.9 With the linear expression for diL / dt
(3.18), the equation for the peak to peak ripple can be derived:
ILp-p = 2 ∆iL = Vd × D × Ts / L ----------------(3.20)

Figure 3.9 Ripple Inductor current

Since the converter is assumed to be in steady state and 100 % efficiency, it does
not make a difference if DTs or D’Ts is chosen to determine the current ripple
amplitude.

- 18 -
Chapter 3 – Theory

Equation (3.20) now can be solved for the inductance L so that desired current
ripple amplitude can be achieved:
L = (Vd × D × Ts) / (2 × ∆iL) ----------------(3.21)

3.2.5.2 Output Voltage Ripple

Figure 3.10 Boost converter output voltage ripple

For a continuous mode of operation, the peak to peak output voltage ripple could be
calculated by considering the waveforms shown in Figure 3.10 [9]. It can be
assumed that all the ripple current component of the diode current, iD, flows through
the capacitor and its average value flows through the load resistor, the shaded area
in Figure 3.10 represents the charge ∆Q. Hence, the peak to peak voltage ripple can
be determined by [9]:
∆Vo = ∆Q / C = Io × D × Ts / C
= (Vo × D × Ts) /(R × C)
= (Io × D × Ts) / C --------------------(3.22)

It can be seen in equation (3.22) that for a large value of capacitor, C, the output
voltage ripple can be minimized. Hence, the output capacitor acts like a filter.

3.2.5.3 Power consumption in the Boost Converter

The components, which cause power loss in the Boost-Converter when operating at
high switching frequency, fsw, are the diode conduction loss, inductor conduction
loss, MOSFET conduction loss and switching of the MOSFET.

- 19 -
 Chapter 3 – Theory

The conductance loss in the diode, Pdiode, is given by [11]:

Pdiode = Id × Vf × (1 –D) --------------------(3.23)
where the Voltage Vf is the forward bias of the diode, Id is the input current and D is
the duty ratio.
Since for the Boost-Converter the inductor current, IL, is equal the input current, Id,
equation (3.23) can be rewritten as:
Pdiode = IL × Vf × (1 –D) --------------------(3.24)

The conduction loss in the inductor, Pinductor, is given by:

Pinductor = IL 2 × RL ----------------------------(3.25)
where RL is the effective series resistance of the inductor.

The conduction loss in the MOSFET, PMOSFET,conduction, is given by:

PMOSFET,conduction = IL 2 × Rds × D ------------(3.26)
Where Rds is the MOSFET’s drain-to-source on resistance.
From equation (3.24), (3.25) and (2.26), the total conduction loss the Boost-
Converter is:
Pconduction loss = IL × Vf × (1 –D) + IL 2 × RL + IL 2 × Rds × D --------(3.27)

The MOSFET switching loss can be found by considered four different switching
periods. They are namely the turn-on, conduction, turn-off and off period.

The overlapping of the current and voltage waveforms during the turn-on period
accounts for the switching loss and is given by [11]:
Pturn-on = (Idso × Vdd × td × f) + f × Ids × tr [ Vdd /2 + (Vds,sat – Vdd) / 3] --
(3.28)
where f is the switching frequency, Vdd is the drain voltage, td is the turn-on delay
time, tr is the turn-on rise time and Vds,sat is the saturated drain-to-source voltage,
Idso is the drain-source leakage current of the MOSFET.

- 20 -
 Chapter 3 – Theory

The overlapping of the current and voltage waveforms during the turn-off period
accounts for the switching loss and is given by [11]:
Pturn-off = (Ids × ts × Vds,sat × f) + (Vdd × Ids × tf × f / 6) -------------(3.29)
where ts is the storage time of the MOSFET.

The average power PCond. during the conduction period is given by [11]:
PCond. = Vds,sat × Ids × f × tc ----------------------------------------------(3.30)
where tc = D/f - td -tr is the conduction time of the MOSFET.

The average power during the off period is given by [11]:

Poff = Vdd × to × f × Idso -----------------------------------------------(3.31)
where to is the off time of the MOSFET.

Hence, the total switching loss in a MOSFET, PMOSFETswitching, is:

PMOSFETswitching =Pturn-on + Pcond. + Pturn-off + Poff ----------------------------(3.32)

3.3 Differential Amplifier

Figure 3.11 Differential Amplifier

A differential amplifier shown in Fig 3.11 is used as a transducer that converter the current
signals into voltage signals. The voltage signals that provide the information about the
current therefore can be fed back to the microcontroller for processing.

- 21 -
 Chapter 3 – Theory

The circuit consists of two input sources V1 and V2. It responds to both the differential
signal Vdiff and common-mode signal Vcm. The differential signal is the difference between
the input voltages and can be defined as:

Vdiff = (V1 –V2) -------------------------- (3.23)

The common mode signal is the average of the input voltages and is given by:

Vcm = 1 / 2 (V1 + V2) ------------------- (3.24)

If the gain for the differential signal is denoted as Ad and the gain for the common-mode
signal as Acm, then the output voltage of a differential amplifier is given by [10]:

Vo = AdVdiff + AcmVcm----------------- (3.25)

For a well-designed differential amplifiers have the differential gain Ad that is much larger
than the common-mode gain Acm. A quantitative specification is the common-mode
rejection ratio (CMRR), which is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the differential
gain to the magnitude of the common-mode gain. The CMRR is defined as [10]:

CMRR = 20 log (|Ad| / |Acm|) --------- (3.26)

From the circuit theory, the output voltage of a differential amplifier is given by the
following expression:
Vo = (R2 / R1) (V1 –V2) ------------------ (3.27)

From equation (3.27) differential amplifier gain, G, is

G = (R2 / R1) ------------------------------(3.28)

- 22 -
Chapter 4 – Implementation

CHAPTER 4 – IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 Design Overview

The two important things in power tracker design are the switch-mode topology and the
control mechanism. The switch-mode topology is usually determined by the input and output
voltages desired. The tracker can be designed to either increase (known as a boost topology)
or decrease voltage (known as a buck topology) from the array going into the battery.
Because a tracker is essentially a specialized switching power supply, the input and output
currents are such that the power into and out of the tracker are equal. The research problem
states that the PV array is field-wired into two halves and hence two MPPT will have to be
built in parallel. Choosing boost converter topology will maximized the efficiency of the PV
array in a cloudy day, and since boost converter are technically easier to build and also
guarantee continuous current through the array.

The control section is involved the design of both analog and digital system. It will take in
analog voltages and currents proportional to measured quantities, digitize them, process them
in a micro-controller, and then convert a number back to a voltage proportional to what the
system believes is the maximum power point voltage of the array and the state of charge of
the battery.

The PV array used in this project is the MSX-83. It is most powerful of Solarex’
Megamodule™ series of photovoltaic modules, a product line which is the industry standard
for reliability, and durability. With 36 polycrystalline silicon solar in series, it can generates
high current up to 4.85 Amps and a voltage of 17.1 Volts and give rise to a maximum power
of 83 Watts. When the PV array is field-wired into two halves, the maximum power of 41.5
Watts can be delivered on each side of the PV array. While the current will stay at the same
value of 4.85 Amps and the voltage is reduced by half i.e. 8.55 Volts.

The incremental conductance method is used as a MPPT algorithm. The advantage of using
this method to track MPP is because it is more efficient than the P&O method in a way that it
is able to correctly locate the operating point of the PV array. There will be a trade off
between the power efficiency and reliability of tracking MPP. Since the P&O method will

- 23 -
Chapter 4 – Implementation

move away from the power operating point under rapidly change in light condition and not be
able to go back to the maximum operating point quickly. This will leads to the inefficiency
use of the PV array and hence this will effects the whole system performance of tracking
MPP. Other advantage of using this method is it does not depend on the device physics. The
output voltage and current from the source are monitored upon which the MPPT controller
relies to calculate the conductance and incremental conductance, and to make its decision
(increase or decrease duty ratio output). By using this method four sensors will be used.
Two sensors for each side of the PV array. They are namely: voltage and current sensors.

The battery voltage is measured by using a fifth sensor. The main program will turn off the
Boost Converters, then runs a conversion on the battery via the A/D converter. The
information obtained is then processed and then compared to the predefined values to
determine the next stage of charge. Then the main program is then returned to continue
tracking MPP.

Figure 4.1 Block Diagram of Maximum Power Point Tracker

The block diagram of the MPPT is shown in Fig. 4.1. It consists of:

• An 83-Watts Photovoltaic Array.

• Voltage divider network and current sensing circuitry.

- 24 -
Chapter 4 – Implementation

• DC-DC switching converters - The two Boost Converters connected in parallel.

• Control Section.
• A12 volt lead acid battery as a load.

4.2 Hardware Design

The most critical section of the power tracker is switching converter section. It is this section
that operates the PV array at its maximally-efficient point while converting the energy
provided up to a voltage that is usable by the rest of the system. It is also in this section that
optimal component choice is important. Since this converter has all of the array energy
flowing through it, any resistance or loss, no matter how small, will contribute to the power
loss of the system. The schematic and the PCB layouts for the MPPT are in Appendix A and
B respectively.

4.2.1 Inductor
Inductor losses are the hardest to eliminate, because it has a certain number of turns
on the coil to maintain the necessary inductance for the converter to function, every
additional inch of wire adds milliohms of resistance. However, at this stage, it can be
assumed that the converter output voltage is constant at 12 Volts and the converter is
100 % efficiency. i.e. Pin = Pout. And also that the converter is assumed to operates in
continuous conduction mode. To find the value of inductance needed for the
converter, extreme case has to be considered. That is when the PV array operates at
its maximum capacity i.e. 41.5 Watts. Therefore the output current can be calculated
by using the equation Pout = Vo × Io:
Hence,
Io = Po ÷ Vo = 41.5 ÷ 12 ≅ 3.5 Amps
As discussed in section 3.2.5, the amplitude of the inductor current ripple can be
varying between 10% and 20% of its dc value. If the converter is assumed operating
at frequency of 20kHz (i.e. Ts = 10 µs), and the inductor current is assumed to be
equal to the output current and its current ripple is 10% (i.e. ∆iL = Io × 0.2 = 3.5 × 0.1
= 0.35A). Equation (3.21) gives:
L = (Vd × D × Ts) / (2 × ∆iL)
The duty cycle ratio, D, can be calculated by using equation (3.4),

- 25 -
 Chapter 4 – Implementation

Vo / Vd = 1 / (1-D)
Knowing that Vd = 8.55 Volts, hence
D = 0.2875
The minimum inductance value is
L = (8.55 × 0.2875 × 10 × 10-6) / (2 × 0.35)
∴L ≅ 35 µH
Since, the inductor must at least be able to handle current of 3.5 Amps. Therefore, an
inductor of 220 µH and its rating current of 5.5A with resistance of 63mΩ is chosen for the
converter.

4.2.2 Output Capacitor

To obtain a desired output voltage ripple, the right value of capacitance is required.
Once again, the extreme case is considered. As before, the output current is 3.5A, D =
0.2875, Ts = 10 µs. Assume that the output voltage ripple is 1% of its dc value (i.e.
∆Vo = 0.12V. Equation (3.22) gives:
∆Vo = (Io × D × Ts) / C
After rearranging,
C = (Io × D × Ts) / ∆Vo
C = (3.5 × 0.2875 × 10 × 10-6) / 0.12
∴C≅ 84 µF
The minimum capacitance value needed for the converter is 84 µF. Hence, a 2200 µF
is chosen for the design.

4.2.3 Diode
Diode choice is a trade off between breakdown voltage, speed, and forward voltage.
The higher the forward voltage, the more power that will be dissipated and lost.
However, fast diode is needed to act as a switch for the energy in the inductor. If the
diode is slow to react, the efficiency of the converter will lower and damaging high
voltage transients will develop. In case of these transients and the possibility of large
output voltages if the load is suddenly disconnected, the diode also must have a high
breakdown voltage. The best combination of these features that could be found was
the MBR745 from Fairchild Semiconductor, which has 45 V reverse breakdown, and
0.57 V of forward drop at the expected currents of 7.5A.

- 26 -
Chapter 4 – Implementation

4.2.4 Voltage Regulator

Since the microcontroller requires a supply voltage of 5V. A step down voltage
regulator LM2936-5.0 is chosen. Its features are:
• Ultra low quiescent current - Low power consumption, hence it allows a
better conversion efficiency of the boost converter.
• 40 V operating voltage limit - It is capable of stepping down the voltage
from the battery (12V) to 5V.
• Internal short-circuit current limit - the microcontroller will be protected if
there is a short- circuit in the circuitry.
• Internal thermal shutdown protection – This will protect the regulator from
over heat if there is a short-circuit in the circuitry.

4.2.5 MOSFET
An n-channel enhancement mode power MOSFET RFP3055LE is used as a high
speed-switching device for the Boost-Converter. Since the rating of this device is
rated at 60V and 11A, this rating is well above maximum operating voltage and
current which are 12 V and 3.5 A of the converter. It has a maximum leakage current
of only 100n Amp and very low on state resistance of 0.107Ω and hence small
conduction loss that makes it a highly efficient switching device.

4.2.6 MOSFET Driver

Since the PWM current signals generated by the microcontroller can only deliver
maximum current of 25mA. It is not suitable to drive a large capacitive load such as a
MOSFET with high slew rate. In order to achieve high speed switching in power
MOSFET, a MOSFET driver MC34152P is used. It has a low output impedance and
capable of sourcing and sinking a large gate current for a short duration. And since it
is operating at current as low as 10.5mA and is capable of supplying two independent
output channels up to 1.5A. This MOSFET driver is a suitable choice since the
design required two PWM signals to switch the two power MOSFETs.
4.2.7 Microcontroller
PIC16F873 is chosen as a microcontroller for the design. This microcontroller is
responsible for all tracker functionality, operating the ADCs and DACs that deal with

- 27 -
Chapter 4 – Implementation

the analog section, computing what the power point of the array is, and monitoring the
state of charge of the battery. The PIC16F873 is a perfect combination of features,
performance, and low power consumption for this application. It has 8K x 14 bytes of
flash memory, 368 x 8 bytes of data memory (RAM) two D/A and five A/D channel.
The two D/A converter pins are used to send the analog voltages (PWMs) back out to
set the two DC-DC switching converter to the maximum power point voltage of the
PV array. For the five A/D converter channels, two are used to monitor the PV
array’s currents, two are used to monitor the PV array’s voltages, and the last one is
used to monitor the battery voltage.

4.2.8 Voltage divider network

Since the PIC16F873 can only process digital information, A/D conversion is
required. Analog signals, either the voltage from the voltage divider network or from
the differential amplifier must be converted to binary numbers that is digestible by the
PIC16F873. Since the A/D reference voltage is the voltage supplied to PIC16F873
from the LM2936-5.0 voltage regulator, hence the maximum voltage that the
PIC16F873 is able to sample is 5V. Therefore, to monitor and sample the voltage
from the PV array or from the battery, voltage divider network is needed to lower
their voltages. The resistors used for the voltage divider network for the PV array
voltage are the15kΩ and 12kΩ. This gives the resistance ratio of 12kΩ / (15kΩ +
12kΩ) = 0.44 and therefore gives the maximum input voltage to the A/D conversion
channel is 0.44 × 8.55 = 3.76V, which is less than 5V. Since the battery voltage
(13.8V at fully charge) is higher than the PV array voltage (8.55V), the resistance
ratio need to be smaller. Hence, the resistance values chosen are 22kΩ and 8.2kΩ.
This gives the resistance ratio of 8.2kΩ / (22kΩ + 8.2kΩ) = 0.27 and therefore gives
the maximum input voltage to the A/D conversion channel is 0.27 × 13.8 = 3.73V.

- 28 -
Chapter 4 – Implementation

4.2.9 Current-Sensing Circuit

The current signals from the PV array are monitoring by using the current sensing
circuit. The sensing circuit that acts as a transducer that convert the current reading to
the voltage signals so that the microcontroller can understand and use the information
to process and hence performs the PWMs. By connecting a current resistor at the
inputs of the differential amplifier, the current from the PV array passing through the
resistor and gives rise to a voltage drop across it. The voltage is then amplified by the
differential amplifier.

Since the power dissipation in the resistor is P = I2 × R, the power dissipation in the
resistor is therefore depending on the resistor value to be used and hence this will
contribute to the power loss of the whole system. If the solar panel is assumed
operating at its maximum capacity, the maximum output current is 4.85A. And if
0.5W dissipation is allowed for the current sensing resistor, the resistance value can
be determined,
0.5 = 4.852 × R
∴ R = 0.5 / 4.852 = 0.0213 Ω
A 0.022 Ω surface-mount resistor is chosen for the design, the maximum power loss
is estimated to be 0.52 W.

The operation amplifier that is used for the differential amplifier is the LM358N. It
has a high common mode rejection ratio of 70dB, therefore the common mode signal
at the input will not be amplified in a great extent that affects the design. The
resistance value chosen for R1is 15kΩ and R2 is 560kΩ. Hence, the equation (3.28)
gives,
G = (R2 / R1) = (560k / 15k) ≅ 37
with the maximum current of 4.85A flowing through the 0.022Ω resistor, the
maximum voltage drop across it will be 4.85 × 0.022 = 0.1067V. Hence the
maximum amplified voltage that will be seen at the microcontroller A/D converter
channel is
Vmax,amp = 0.1067 × 37 = 3.95V

- 29 -
Chapter 4 – Implementation

4.3 Software Design

With the hardware circuit design completed, the next step in the design is the on-board
software control. The Incremental Conductance method is chosen as a tracking algorithm for
the MPPT. The PIC16F873 microcontroller operates at speed of 4MHz is used to carry out
the algorithm. At this speed each instruction set will be executed at 1µ second. The program
is written in C and then is compiled by a freeware version C compiler “CC5X” from B
Knudsen Data.

The program flow chart is shown in Figure 4.1. The program starts by initializing the A/D
module and the D/A (PWM) module and sets the duty ratio at 50%, since it is likely that the
MPP can be found. The PWM module is turned off at this stage and the program runs A/D
conversion on channel RA5 to measure the battery voltage. The measured voltage is then
compared to the predefined values to determine the state of charge of the battery. If the
battery voltage is greater than the 13.8V the program goes to sleep for 1 second and then goes
back to measure the battery voltage again. If the battery voltage is less than 13.8V the
program goes to the high current charging mode. In this mode, the Incremental Conductance
algorithm is employed.

First, the program is running the Incremental Conductance algorithm on the first halves of the
PV array (S1) and then the second halves of the PV array (S2). The program flow chart for
this algorithm is shown in Figure 4.2 for the first halves of the PV array and the program flow
chart for the second halves of the PV array is shown in Figure 4.3. Only the first halves of
the PV array program flow charge will be discussed, since the other is exactly the same. The
operating output current (I(k)_S1) and voltage (V(k)_S1) from S1 are measured by using A/D
channels RA0 and RA1. The incremental changes dV_S1 and dI_S1 are approximated by
comparing the most recent measured values for (V(k)_S1) and (I(k)_S1) with those measured
in the previous cycle (V(k - 1)_S1) and (I(k - 1)_S1). Then G and ∆G are computed. From
section 2.5.3 equation (2.6), if dP/dV = 0 (i.e G = ∆ G) is true, then the system operates at the
MPP and no change in operating voltage is necessary, thus the adjustment step is bypassed
(no adjustment for the duty ratio) and the current cycle ends. The program then runs the
Incremental Conductance algorithm on S2. If equation (2.6) is false, equation (2.5) and (2.7)

- 30 -
Chapter 4 – Implementation

are used to determine whether the system is operating at a voltage greater or less than the
MPP and hence to increase or decrease the duty ratio by 1 accordingly.
If the system was operating at the MPP during the previous cycle, the incremental change of
the operating voltage will be zero (dV_S1 = 0). This would lead to a division by zero i.e.
∆G_S1 = dI_S1 ÷ dV_S1 = dI_S1 ÷ 0, this is impossible for calculation. To avoid this, the
condition (dV_S1 = 0) is checked first and leads to another branch if true in the algorithm
with further tests on possible changes of the panel's operating conditions. Since the voltage
(dV_S1 = 0) that means it has not changed, now the only useful information about possible
changes can be found from the current measurement. If dI_S1 is equal to zero, the operating
conditions have not changed and therefore the adjustment of the system voltage is bypassed.
If dI_S1 > 0, the duty ratio is increased by 1. If dI < 0, the duty ratio is decreased by 1. The
program then returns and starts tracking again until the MPP is reached. The tracking process
duration is 1 minute. After 1 minute the program goes back to measure the battery voltage
again to determine the state of charge of the battery. The tracking process using Incremental
Conductance algorithm is then repeated.

For the A/D conversion to work correctly, a delay time of 20 µsec is required at the
beginning of each A/D conversion since this allows for the A/D to acquire the data. The
maximum duty cycle ratio is set at 90% and the minimum is at 10% to avoid power loss, and
hence contributes to the inefficient power transfer of the converter. This will be further
discussed in Chapter 5. The actual C codes are included in Appendix C.

- 31 -
 Chapter 4 – Implementation

Start

Initialize
ADC
Module

Initialize PWM Module & set duty

ratio, duty_S1 = duty_S2 = 50%.
PWM Module Off

Measure Battery
voltage

No Battery Voltage Yes

>13.8V ?

PWM Module
On Stop Charging

High-Current Charging PWM Module Off

High-Current
Charging

Tracking MPP for S1 using

Incremental Conduction alg.

No
Tracking MPP for S2 using
Incremental Conduction alg.

Delay 1 minute ?

Figure 4.1 Program Flow Chart

Yes
Return

- 32 -
Chapter 4 – Implementation

Tracking MPP for S1 using

Incremental Conductance alg.

Initialize

Sense Vin(k) _S1 &

Iin(k) _S1 from S1

dV_S1 = Vin(k) _S1 - Vin(k-1)_S1

dI _S1 = Iin (k) _S1 - Iin(k-1) _S1

G_S1 = Vin(k) _S1÷ Iin(k)_S1

∆G_S1 = dI _S1 ÷ dV_S1

No Yes
dV_S1 = 0?

Yes Yes
G_S1=∆G_S1? dI_S1= 0?

No No

G_S1>∆G_S1? dI_S1> 0?
Yes No Yes
No

duty_S1 = duty -1 duty_S1 = duty +1 duty_S1 = duty -1 duty_S1 = duty +1

Return

Figure 4.2 Control Flow Chart for S1- Incremental Conductance method

- 33 -
Chapter 4 – Implementation

Tracking MPP for S2 using

Incremental Conductance

Initialize

Sense Vin(k) _S2

& Iin(k) _S2
from S2

dV_S2 = Vin(k) _S2 - Vin(k-1)_S2

dI S2 = Iin (k) S2 - Iin(k-1) S2

G_S2 = Vin(k) _S2÷ Iin(k)_S2

∆G S2 = dI S2 ÷ dV S2

No Yes
dV_S2
=0
?

Yes Yes
G_S2= dI_S2= 0
∆G_S2 ?
?

No No

G_S2> dI_S2
∆G_S2 >0
? ?
No Yes No Yes

duty_S2 = duty_S2 = duty_S2 = duty_S2 =

duty -1 duty +1 duty -1 duty +1

Return

Figure 4.3 Control Flow Chart for S2- Incremental Conductance method

- 34 -
Chapter 5 – Results and Discussion

CHAPTER 5 – RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Evaluation of the Boost Converter

DC-DC switching Boost-Converter was employed in this thesis project because of its high
conversion efficiency. It is capable of delivery most of the input power from the PV array to
the load. The following experiments show the behaviour of the Boost-Converter under
different switching frequencies and duty cycle ratios that could affect the power efficiency of
the Boost-Converter. Since the DC power supply can supply constant voltage and current,
therefore it is a suitable device for the experiments that can be use to simulate the PV array.
A 12 V lead-acid battery was used as a load at the output of the converter.

5.1.1 Switching Frequency vs. Power Efficiency

In this experiment a function generator was used to generate square-wave signals that
performed PWM on the designed Boost-Converter. The duty cycle ratio was set and
kept constant at 55%. The DC power supply was set at 10V and the current was
limited to 3A. The input voltage, input current, output voltage and output current
were measured and recorded in Table 5.1 under various PWM switching frequency.
The input power (Pin) and output power (Pout) then calculated by using the
relationship P = V × I. Hence the power efficiency can be found by using the relation
η = Pout / Pin.
Switching Frequency vs. Power Efficiency
10V-3A D = 55%
Switching Input Input Current Output Output Power
Frequency Voltage (A) Voltage Current Efficiency
(kHz) (V) (V) (A) (%)
1 3.40 3.000 13.44 0.446 58.6980
3 7.42 2.999 16.44 1.156 85.4042
5 8.02 3.000 16.57 1.296 89.2549
10 8.00 2.999 16.58 1.313 90.7367
15 7.98 3.000 16.54 1.315 90.8525
20 7.76 3.000 16.09 1.315 90.8864
25 7.75 3.000 16.08 1.314 90.8779
30 7.73 2.999 16.06 1.312 90.8915
40 7.73 2.998 16.05 1.311 90.7960
50 7.70 2.998 16.03 1.306 90.6889
60 7.68 2.998 16.01 1.300 90.3945

- 35 -
Chapter 5 – Results and Discussion

70 7.65 2.998 16.00 1.295 90.3435

80 7.63 2.997 15.98 1.289 90.0779
90 7.61 2.997 15.97 1.284 89.9080
100 7.58 2.997 15.95 1.278 89.7296
120 7.54 2.997 15.92 1.268 89.3314
140 7.50 2.997 15.89 1.257 88.8610
160 7.45 2.997 15.85 1.246 88.4513
Table 5.1 Switching Frequency vs. Power Efficiency

Figure 5.1 Switching Frequency vs. Power Efficiency

The plot in Figure 5.1 shows the power efficiency reached its maximum value when
the switching frequency is around 20kHz. The power efficiency gradually rolled off
as the switching frequency increases beyond 20kHz. This is because the switching
loss of the MOSFET is proportional to the frequency that driving it. Also, the power
efficiency decreased rapidly when the frequency drops below 20kHz. This can be
explained by considering that the inductor has reached it saturation. At this state, the
inductor is no longer store energy, what it does is drawing the capacitor’s energy and

- 36 -
Chapter 5 – Results and Discussion

hence discharging the capacitor. As a result, the current in the inductor at this stage is
very high and therefore this gives rise to a very high inductor power loss. In
conclusion the switching frequency for the Boost-Converter should not be too low or
too high.

5.1.2 Power Efficiency vs. Duty Cycle Ratio

In this experiment the power supply was set at 10V-3A as in the previous section.
However, the switching frequency is kept fixed at 20kHz this time since it is an
optimum switching frequency that was found from the section 5.1.1. The input
voltage, input current, output voltage and output current were measured and recorded
in Table 5.2 under various duty cycle ratio and their relationship is plotted in Figure
5.2.

Power Efficiency vs. Duty Cycle Ratio

10V-3A, f = 20kHz
Duty Cycle Input Voltage Input Current Output Voltage Output Current Power
Ratio, D(%) (V) (A) (V) (A) Efficiency (%)
10 8.52 0.267 10.34 0.205 93.1802
20 10.57 0.407 13.05 0.314 95.2513
25 10.51 1.341 13.23 0.974 91.4297
30 10.41 2.680 13.49 1.785 86.3107
35 10.05 2.991 13.53 1.890 85.0701
40 9.33 2.996 13.47 1.745 84.0891
45 8.55 2.996 13.41 1.589 83.1849
50 7.76 2.996 13.35 1.425 81.8262
55 7.16 2.994 13.31 1.300 80.7154
60 6.47 2.995 13.27 1.156 79.1640
65 5.63 2.996 13.22 0.976 76.4947
70 5.13 2.996 13.19 0.867 74.4054
75 4.29 2.996 13.14 0.689 70.4394
80 3.65 2.996 13.09 0.546 65.3578
Table 5.2 Power Efficiency vs. Duty Cycle Ration

- 37 -
Chapter 5 – Results and Discussion

Figure 5.2 Power Efficiency vs. Duty Cycle Ratio

The plot in Figure 5.2 above shows that the maximum power efficiency occurs at D =
20%. The curve shape is similar to the one in Figure 5.1 and it also shows that the
efficiency decreases on either end of the graph, i.e. at low and high duty cycle ratio.
At high duty cycle ratio, the Boost Converter experiences poor switching utilization.
This is due to the fact that the MOSFET operates in its active region most of the time.
At low duty cycle ratio, the power transfer to the load is decreases while the power
loss in the MOSFET is staying the same. Therefore the efficiency is lower in this
region where D is less than 20%.

5.1.3 Power Budget

The power losses in the whole design system is calculated and summarized in
the Table 5.3. The MPPT was assumed to operate at MPP and the switching
frequency of 20kHz with the duty cycle ratio set to 55%. PSPICE were carried
out to simulate the Boost-Converter and is shown in Appendix D. The
converter’s input voltage and current was set to 8.55V and 4.85A respectively.

- 38 -
Chapter 5 – Results and Discussion

Using the results from PSPICE simulation and the information obtain from
component data sheet (see Appendix E), the power losses in the converter can be
determined.

Inductor conduction loss

The conduction loss in the inductor can be found by using equation (3.25). From
PSPICE simulation the RMS inductor current is equal to 4.5604A and from the data
sheet the inductor resistance is 0.063Ω. Therefore, the power loss due to the
conduction loss in the inductor is
∴ Pinductor = 4.5604 2 × 0.063 = 1.31 W

Diode conduction loss

Equation (3.24) gives the diode conduction loss, Pdiode = IL × Vf × (1 –D).
Where D = 0.55 and from data sheet the forward bias of the diode, Vf = 0.57V.

∴ Pdiode = 4.5604 × 0.57× (1 – 0.55) = 1.17 W

MOSFET conduction loss

The power loss due to the MOSFET conduction loss is given by equation (3.26),
PMOSFET,conduction = IL 2 × Rds × D
= 4.5604 2 × 0.107 × 0.55
= 1.22 W

MOSFET switching loss

The MOSFET switching loss can be found by using equations (3.28) - (3.32).
The values for Vds,sat, tr, ts, tf, td, to and Idso are obtained from the RFP3055LE
data sheet.

Equation (3.28) gives:

Pturn-on = (Idso × Vdd × td × f) + f × Ids × tr [ Vdd /2 + (Vds,sat – Vdd) / 3]
where the RMS drain current, Ids, is the different between the RMS inductor and
diode current. From PSPICE simulation the RMS diode current is equal to

- 39 -
Chapter 5 – Results and Discussion

3.0580 A. Hence, Ids = 4.5604 -3.0580 = 1.5024 A. MOSFET drain-source

voltage waveform Vdd use for PSPICE simulation is equal to 12V.
∴Pturn-on = (100nA ×12V×8ns×20kHz) + 20kHz ×1.5024A × 105ns [12V
/2 + (1.25V – 12V) / 3]
= 7.62 mW

Equation (3.29) gives:

Pturn-off = (Ids × ts × Vds,sat × f) + (Vdd × Ids × tf × f / 6)
= (1.5024A × 22ns × 1.25V × 20kHz)+(12V × 1.5024 × 39n × 20kHz / 6)
= 3.17 mW

Equation (3.30) gives:

PCond. = Vds,sat × Ids × f × tc
= Vds,sat × Ids × f × (D / f – tr –td)
= 1.25V × 1.5024A × 20kHz × (0.55 / 20khz – 105ns – 8ns)
= 1.03 W

Equation (3.31) gives:

Poff = 12V × 92ns × 20kHz × 100ns
= 2.208 nW
The total switching loss in the MOSFET given by equation (3.32) is:
PMOSFETswitching = Pturn-on + Pcond. + Pturn-off + Poff
= 7.62mW +1.03W + 3.17mW + 2.208 nW
= 1.041 W

Current-Sensing Resistor
The power dissipated in the current-sensing resistor can be calculated by using
the equation
Pcurrent-sensing res. = Id2 × R = IL2 × R
where Id = IL is the RMS input current obtained from PSPICE simulation.
∴ Pcurrent-sensing res. = 4.5604 2 × 0.022
= 457.54 mW

- 40 -
 Chapter 5 – Results and Discussion

Other estimated power loss

Microcontroller
From the PIC16F873 data sheet, the maximum current into VDD pin is 250mA.
Since the voltage supply to the PIC16F873 is 5V and if the current required by
the PIC16F873 is assumed to be 1mA. Then the power consumed by the
PIC16F873 can be estimated by using the equation:
Pmirco = Vmirco × Imirco
= 5V × 1mA
= 5 mW

Op-amp LM358
Once again, the voltage supply to the Op-amp is 5V and if the current required
by the Op-amp is assumed to be 100 µA. Then the power consumed by the Op-
amp can be estimated by using the equation:
Pop-amp = V op-amp × I op-amp
= 5 × 100 µA
= 0.5m A

Regulator, LM2936-5.0
Since regulator supplies voltage to the microcontroller and the Op-amp. Hence,
the current that drawn from the regulator is sum of the current into the
microcontroller and the Op-amp LM358. And since the voltage supplied to the
regulator is 12V, the power consumed by the regulator is:
Preg = Vreg × Ireg = Vreg × (Imirco + I op-amp)
= 12 × (1mA + 0.1mA)
= 12 × 1.1mA
= 13.2mA

MOSFET Driver MC34152P

- 41 -
Chapter 5 – Results and Discussion

Since the voltage supply to the MOSFET driver is 12V and if the current required by
the driver when operating is assumed to be 5mA. Then the estimated power consumed
by the driver is:
PMosfet-driver = V Mosfet-driver × I Mosfet-driver
= 12V × 5mA
= 60mA

Power Budget
Components Input Power Power Loss
Solar Panel, MSX-83 41.5 W
Inductor Pinductor = 1.31W
Diode Pdiode = 1.17W
Current-Sensing Resistor Pcurrent-sensing res. = 457.54 mW
Microcontroller, PIC16F873 Pmirco = 5 mW
Op-amp, LM358 Pop-amp = 0.5mA
MOSFET Driver, MC34152P PMosfet-driver = 60mA
Regulator, LM2936-5.0 Preg = 13.2mA
MOSFET, FP3055LE PMOSFET,conduction = 1.22W
PMOSFETswitching = 1.041W
Balance 41.5 – 5.28 = 36.22
Power efficiency, η 36.22 / 41.5 = 87.28%
Table 5.3 Power Budget

5.1.4 Evaluation of the Product

The product designed for this thesis project is capable of tracking MPP on two
separate PV array panels. From experiment the tracking accuracy of the product was
found to be 97.6%, hence the tracking error is 100% - 97.6% = 2.4%. The product is
also capable of stop charging the battery when it detects the battery voltage at around
14V. Since the battery voltage at this point is considered as fully charged.

- 42 -
Chapter 6 – Conclusions and Future Work

CHAPTER 6 – CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

6.1 Conclusion

When the PV array is used as a source of power supply to charge a 12V lead acid battery, it is
necessary to use the MPPT to get the maximum power point from the PV array. For this
thesis project, the MPPT is implemented by using a Boost-Converter, which is designed to
operate under continuous conduction mode and a microcontroller to control the PWM signals
to the Boost-Converter and also to monitoring the state of charge of the battery. The
Incremental Conduction Algorithm is used as the control algorithm for the MPPT.
Experimental results have shown that the MMPT has the conversion efficiency of 87.28%
and tracking accuracy of 97.6%.

6.2 Future Work

Although the product can achieved 87.28% of conversion efficiency. It is still not considered
as a high efficiency product. The component choice is very important in the design of the
MPPT. Since higher power efficiency can be achieved by carefully selecting the right
components. This is what needs to be done in the future. And also since the MPPT can not go
into the sleep mode when the PV array not producing significant amount of power due to low
insolation level. This is also contributing to the loss of power and needs to be considered in
future design of the MPPT.

Since the product can only fast charging the battery by maximizing the current into the
battery and stop charging when the battery reaches its full state of charge. In the future, float
and absorption charge needs to be considered in the design.

- 43 -
Appendix

Appendix A - MPPT Schematic

- 44 -
Appendix

Appendix B - PCB Layout

• Top Layer

• Bottom Layer

- 45 -
Appendix

Appendix C - C Codes
#include "16f873.h"
#include "math24f.h"
#define num1 1012
#define num2 1022

uns8 duty, mcount, ncount;

float V_batt, Vin1_S1, Vin2_S1, Iin1_S1, Iin2_S1, G_S1, dI_S1, dV_S1, dG_S1, ero;

void int_pwm(void){

TRISC = bin(00110000);
PORTC.1 = 0; // port c2 output (CCP1, PWM1)
PIE1.1 = 0; // disable timer 2 interrupts
PIE1.2 = 0; // disable ccp1 interrupts
CCP1CON = 0; // CCP1 module off
PR2 = 0b.0011.1110; // load period register (62)
CCP1CON.5 = 0;
CCP1CON.4 = 0;
duty = 0b.0001.1111; // set duty cycle

CCPR1L = 0b.0001.1111;
T2CON = bin(00000000); // prescaler 1:1
TMR2 = 0; // timer 2 off
CCP1CON = bin(00001100); // ccp1 pwm mode, ccp1 module on

void delay_20us (void){

char count = 0x07;

loop:
if (-- count == 0){
return;}
else goto loop;
}

void delay_100ms(void){

char mcount = 0x4f; // M counter = 256

loadn:
char ncount = 0x4f; // N counter = 256
decn:
while (-- ncount > 0){
goto decn;}
while (-- mcount > 0){
goto loadn;}
return;

- 46 -
}

void delay_200ms(void){

char mcount = 0xff; // M counter = 256

loadn:
char ncount = 0xff; // N counter = 256
decn:
while (-- ncount > 0){
goto decn;}
while (-- mcount > 0){
goto loadn;}
return;
}

void int_adc (void){

TRISA =bin(00011111); // inputs/outputs
ADCON1 = bin(10000000); // PortA, bit1,0 analog input
}

void incduty(void){ // Increment the duty ratio by 1

W = 60 - duty;
while (STATUS.2 == 1){
return;}
duty = duty +1;
CCPR1L = duty;
return;
}

void decduty(void){ // decrement the duty ratio by 1

W = 0x2 - duty;
while (STATUS.2 == 1){
return;}
duty = duty -1;
CCPR1L = duty;
return;
}

void start_conv(void){
delay_20us();
ADCON0.2 = 1; // start conversion
test:
if ( ADCON0.2 == 1){ // test go/done bit, conversion
finish?

- 47 -
 goto test;}
delay_100ms();
return;
}

void get_measure_batt (void){

V_batt.low8 = ADRESL;
V_batt.mid8 = ADRESH; // conversion complete get A/D
result
}

void get_Vin1_S1 (void){

Vin1_S1.low8 = ADRESL;
Vin1_S1.mid8 = ADRESH; // conversion complete get A/D
result
}

void get_Iin1_S1 (void){

Iin1_S1.low8 = ADRESL;
Iin1_S1.mid8 = ADRESH; // conversion complete get A/D
result
}

void get_Vin2_S1 (void){

Vin2_S1.low8 = ADRESL;
Vin2_S1.mid8 = ADRESH; // conversion complete get A/D
result
}

void get_Iin2_S1 (void){

Iin2_S1.low8 = ADRESL;
Iin2_S1.mid8 = ADRESH; // conversion complete get A/D
result
}

void test1 (void){

if(Iin2_S1 == Iin1_S1 ){
return;}
if (Iin2_S1 > Iin1_S1){
incduty();
return;}
if (Iin2_S1 < Iin1_S1){
decduty();
return;}

}
void test2 (void){

- 48 -
if ( dG_S1 == G_S1 || ero <= 0.01){
delay_100ms();
return;}

if ( dG_S1 < G_S1){

decduty();
return;}

if ( dG_S1 > ero){

incduty();
return;}

void measure_batt(void){
ADCON0 = bin(01101001); // select conversion clock = 8, AN0
on
start_conv();
get_measure_batt();
}

void main (void){

int_pwm();
T2CON.2 = 1; // timer 2 on, pwm1 on
InitFpFlags();
int_adc();

measure_batt();
again:
if (V_batt >= num1 || V_batt <= num2){ // measuring the battery voltage
delay_200ms;
goto again;} // do nothing PWM module off

ADCON0 = bin(01000001); // select conversion clock = 8, AN0

on
start_conv();
get_Vin1_S1();

ADCON0 = bin(01001001); // select conversion clock = 8, AN1

on
start_conv();

- 49 -
 get_Iin1_S1();

while(1){

char n;
for (n =0; n <256; n++){ // looping for a while

ADCON0 = bin(01000001); // select conversion clock = 8, AN0

on
start_conv();
get_Vin2_S1();

ADCON0 = bin(01001001); // select conversion clock = 8, AN1

on
start_conv();
get_Iin2_S1();

G_S1 = Iin2_S1 / Vin2_S1;

dV_S1 = Vin2_S1 - Vin1_S1;
dI_S1 = Iin2_S1 - Iin1_S1;
dG_S1 = dI_S1 / dV_S1;

ero = dG_S1 + G_S1; // error margin

if (ero<0)
ero = -ero;

if (dV_S1 < 0 ){
test2();
goto swapIV;
}

if(dV_S1 >= 0){

test1();

}
swapIV:

Iin1_S1 = Iin2_S1;
Vin1_S1 = Vin2_S1;

if (n == 255){ // break the while loop and go

break;} // back to measure battery voltage
}
}

- 50 -
Appendix

Appendix D - PSPICE Simulation

- 51 -
Appendix

- 52 -
Appendix

Appendix E - Component Data Sheet

- 53 -
References

References

[1] S. Johnston, P. Gostelow, E. Jones, R. Fourikis, Engineering & Society: An Australian

Perspective, HarperEducational, Australia, 1995.

[2] H. J. Moller, Semiconductors for Solar Cells, Artech House, Inc, Norwood, MA,
1993.

[3] P. Midya et al, “Dynamic Maximum Power Point Tracker for Photovoltaic
Applications,” 27th Annual IEEE PESC, IEEE Computer Soc. Press, New York, USA, 1996,
vol.2, pp. 1710-16.

[4] C. Hua and C. Shen, “Study of Maximum Power Tracking Techniques and Control of
DC/DC Converters for Photovoltaic Power System,” 29th Annual IEEE PESC, IEEE
Computer Soc. Press, New York, USA, 1998, pp. 86-93.

[5] P. Midya et al, “Dynamic Maximum Power Point Tracker for Photovoltaic
Applications,” 27th Annual IEEE PESC, IEEE Computer Soc. Press, New York, USA, 1998,
pp.679-683.

[6] Shengyi Liu, Maximum Power Point Tracker Models, “

http://vt.engr.se.edu”, January 2001.

[7] D. Linden, Handbook Of Batteries, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995

[8] Robert W. Erickson, Fundamentals of Power Electronics, Chapman
& Hall, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003, 1997.

[9] N. Mohan, T.M. Undeland, W.P. Robbins, Power Electronics: Coverter’s Application
and Design, John Wiley and Sons Inc., USA, 1995, pp. 162-183

[10] A. R. Hambley, “Electronics: A top-down Approach to Computer-Aided Circuit

Design,” Prentice Hall Inc., NJ, USA, 1994.

[11] Simon S. Ang., Power Switching Converters, Marvel Dekker, New York, 1995

- 54 -