ME 419 Renewable Energy

Solar Thermal Collectors

Eng H Chingosho
MSc Manufacturing Systems and Operations
Management (Eng), MSc Renewable Energy
Engineering (Eng), B.Eng., MZweIE, E.C.Z (ZIM),
CEM ®, AEE (USA).
 Solar collector
• A solar collector is a special kind of heat exchanger that transforms solar
radiant energy into heat.
• The major component of any solar system is the collecting surface, collector.
• A solar collector differs in several respects from more conventional heat
exchangers. The latter usually accomplish a fluid-to-fluid exchange with high
heat transfer rates and with radiation as an unimportant factor.
• In the solar collector, energy transfer is from a distant source of radiant energy
to a fluid.
• The flux of incident radiation is, at best, approximately 1100 W/m (without
2

optical concentration), and it is variable.

• The wavelength range is from 0.3 to 3 μm, which is considerably shorter than
that of the emitted radiation from most energy-absorbing surfaces.
• Thus, the analysis of solar collectors presents unique problems of low and
variable energy fluxes and the relatively large importance of radiation.
 Solar collector
• Basically two solar collectors types exists, non concentrating or
stationary and concentrating .
• Non concentrating has the same are for intercepting and absorbing
solar radiation, whereas a sun-tracking concentrating collector
usually has concave reflective surfaces to intercept and focus the
sun’s beam radiation to a smaller receiving surface thereby
increasing the radiation flux.
• Stationary collectors
• Flat-plate (FPC)-concertation ratio 1, 30-80 degrees C
• Stationary compound parabolic collector (CPC)-60-240 degrees C
• Evacuated tube collector (ETC)-50-200 degrees C
• Concentration ratio is defined as the aperture area divided by the
receiver/absorber areas of the collector.
 Classification of Solar collectors
• The heart of the solar thermal energy system is the solar thermal
collector. A solar thermal collector is a mechanical device which
captures the radiant solar energy and converts it to useful thermal
energy. Solar thermal collectors can be classified in different ways.
• 1. Classification according to degree of concentration an
temperature range
 Classification of Solar collectors
• 2. Classification according to number of transparent covers

• 3. Classification according to tracking capability

• 4. Classification according to medium being heated

 Classification of Solar collectors
• 5. If non-tracking according to flat plate or evacuated tube
collector type:
• Flat plate collectors (FPC)
• Flat-plate collectors are the most widely used kind of collectors in
the world for domestic solar water heating and solar space heating
applications.
• Flat-plate collectors are used typically for temperature requirements
up to 75 ºC although higher temperatures can be obtained from high
efficiency collectors (the water must be changed to other heat
transfer liquid because of its boiling temperature of 100 ºC).
 Classification of Solar collectors
• These collectors are of two basic types based on heat transfer fluid:
liquid type and air type.
• Flat-plate collectors use both beam and diffuse solar radiation, do
not require tracking of the sun, and require little maintenance, is
usually planed on the top of a building or other structure.
• Flat-plate collectors are durable and effective. These collectors have
a distinct advantage over other types in that they shed snow very
well when installed in climates that experience significant snowfall.
• They are the standard to which all other kinds of collectors are
compared. Depending on absorbers’ construction and configuration
flat-plate collectors are divided in several types:
Classification of Solar collectors
 Classification of Solar collectors
• Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC)
• While flat-plate collectors are all essentially made the same way and
perform the way from one brand to other, evacuated tube collectors vary
widely in their construction and operation.
• Evacuated tube collectors are constructed of a number of glass tubes.
• Each tube is made of annealed glass and has an absorber plate within
the tube, because tube is the natural configuration of an evacuated
collector.
• During the manufacturing process in order to reduce heat losses through
conduction and convection, a vacuum is created inside the glass tube.
• The only heat loss mechanism remaining is radiation. The absence of air
in the tube creates excellent insulation, allowing higher temperatures to
be achieved at the absorber plate.
 Classification of Solar collectors
• In order to improve an efficiency of evacuated tube collector there
are several types of concentrators depending on its concave radius
established.
• Selective coating as an absorber is used because with a
nonselective absorber, radiation losses would dominate at high
temperatures, and eliminating convection alone would not be very
effective.
 Classification of Solar collectors
• A heat pipe provides the most elegant way of extracting heat from an
evacuated collector.
• A heat pipe is a hermetically sealed (air-tight) tube that contains a small
amount of heat transfer liquid. When one portion of tube is heated the
liquid evaporates and condenses at the cold portion, transferring heat
with great effectiveness because of the latent heat of condensation.
• The heat pipe contains a wick or is tilted (or both) to ensure that the liquid
follows back to the heated portion to repeat the cycle.
• It is easy to design a heat pipe (e.g., by giving it the proper tilt) so that it
functions only in one direction.
• This thermal diode effect is very useful for the design of solar collectors,
because it automatically shuts the collector off and prevents heat loss
when there is insufficient solar radiation.
• Also, heat pipes have lower heat capacity than ordinary liquid-filled
absorber tubes, thus minimizing warm-up and cool down losses.
Classification of Solar collectors
 Flat-plate solar collector
• The importance of flat-plate collectors in thermal processes is such
that their thermal performance is treated in considerable detail.
• This is done to develop an understanding of how the component
functions.
• In many practical cases of design calculations, the equations for
collector performance are reduced to relatively simple forms.
 Flat-plate collector construction
• The important parts of a typical liquid heating flat-plate solar collector,
are:
(1) Absorber plate-the ‘‘black’’ solar energy-absorbing surface with means
for transferring the absorbed energy to a fluid,
(2) Glazing-envelopes transparent to solar radiation over the solar
absorber surface that reduce convection and radiation losses to the
atmosphere,
(3) Back & Edge insulation-to reduce conduction losses.
(4) Headers and Manifolds-Pipes and ducts to admit and discharge fluid.

• Most of our analysis of flat-plate collectors is concerned with this

geometry.
• Air heaters are fundamentally the same except that the fluid tubes are
replaced by ducts.
Flat-plate collector construction
Flat-plate collector construction
 Flat-plate collector construction

• Flat-plate collectors are almost always mounted in a stationary position

(e.g., as an integral part of a wall or roof structure) with an orientation
optimized for the particular location in question for the time of year in
which the solar device is intended to operate.
• e.g. azimuth = north facing and, tilt= latitude of location.
Assignment 1. Due Date: Thursday 05
November 2020 @ 12:30pm.
1(a) Define the following terms giving illustrations wherever possible as (b) A Solar water heater is a special kind of heat exchanger that
used in solar thermal applications transforms solar radiant energy into heat.
(i) Solar water heating system (i) Draw a fully labelled diagram of a solar thermal water heater
[3] showing clearly the essential parts making up the system.
(ii) Solar collector [10]
[3]
(ii) Using the diagram, you have drawn in part b(i) above, give for each
(iii) Solar thermal collector labelled part making up the system:
[3]
 The guiding properties for choice of the material of which it should
(iv) Optical efficiency of collector be made and the scientific reason for your answer
[3]
 Examples of such materials as well as the relative comparison of
(v) Collector heat loss coefficient them
[3]
 Which material is commonly used for each part in turn, and why?
 Is there any special coating for each part, and if so, why is that
necessary
[20]
• Email The Assignment to : chingoshoras@gmail.com
 Flat-Plate Collector Energy Balance
• In steady state, the performance of a solar collector is described by
an energy balance that indicates the distribution of incident solar
energy into useful energy gain, thermal losses, and optical losses.
 Flat-Plate Collector Energy Analysis
• The solar radiation absorbed by a collector per unit area of absorber S is
equal to the difference between the incident solar radiation and the
optical losses.

• The thermal energy lost from the collector to the surroundings by

conduction, convection, and infrared radiation can be represented as the
product of a heat transfer coefficient UL times the difference between
the mean absorber plate temperature Tc and the ambient
temperature Ta

• Thus, it is necessary to define step by step the singular heat flow

equations in order to find the governing equations of the collector system.
• In steady state the useful energy output of a collector of area Ac is the
difference between the absorbed solar radiation and the thermal loss.
 Flat-Plate Collector Energy Analysis
• If G is the intensity of solar radiation, in W/m2, incident on the
aperture plane of the solar collector having a collector surface area
of Ac, m2, then the amount of solar radiation received by the
collector is:

𝑸 𝒓 = 𝑨𝒄 𝑮 (1)

• However, as it is shown before, a part of this radiation is reflected

back to the sky, another component is absorbed by the glazing and
the rest is transmitted through the glazing and reaches the absorber
plate as short wave radiation.
 Flat-Plate Collector Energy Analysis
• Therefore, the conversion factor indicates the percentage of the
solar rays penetrating the transparent cover of the collector
(transmission, τ), and the percentage being absorbed, α.
• Basically, it is the product of the rate of transmission of the cover
and the absorption rate of the absorber i.e. τα.
• Thus,
𝑸𝒊 = 𝑨𝒄 [𝐆𝛕𝛂ሿ (2)
 Flat-Plate Collector Energy Analysis
• As the collector absorbs heat its temperature is getting higher than
that of the surrounding and heat is lost to the atmosphere by
convection and radiation. The rate of heat loss (Qo) depends on the
collector overall heat transfer coefficient (UL) and the difference
between the collector temperature and the ambient temperature.

𝑸𝒐 = 𝑼𝑳 𝑻𝒄 − 𝑻𝒂 (3)
•
 Flat-Plate Collector Energy Analysis
• Thus, the rate of useful energy extracted by the collector (Qu),
expressed as a rate of extraction under steady state conditions, is
equal to the rate of useful energy absorbed by the collector, less the
amount lost by the collector to its surroundings.

𝑸𝒖 = 𝑨𝒄 [Gτα-𝑼𝑳 𝑻𝒄 − 𝑻𝒂 (4)

• The problem with this equation is that the mean absorber plate
temperature is difficult to calculate or measure since it is a function
of the collector design, the incident solar radiation, and the entering
fluid conditions.
 Flat-Plate Collector Energy Analysis
• It is therefore desirable to reformulate Equation (4) so that the useful
energy gain can be expressed in terms of the inlet fluid temperature.
• A parameter called the collector heat removal factor, FR, which can be
evaluated analytically from basic principles or measured experimentally is
also introduced.
• The definition of FR is the ratio of the actual useful energy gain of a
collector to the useful gain if the whole collector surface were at the fluid
inlet temperature.

• (5)
 Flat-Plate Collector Energy Analysis
• The maximum possible useful energy gain in a solar collector
occurs when the whole collector is at the inlet fluid temperature.
• The actual useful energy gain (Qu), is found by multiplying the
collector heat removal factor (FR) by the maximum possible useful
energy gain.
• This allows the rewriting of equation (4):

𝑸𝒖 = 𝑭𝑹 𝑨𝒄 𝑮𝝉𝜶 − 𝑼𝑳 𝑻𝒊 − 𝑻𝒂 (6)

• Equation (6) is a widely used relationship for measuring collector

energy gain and is generally known as the “Hottel-Whillier-Bliss
equation”.
 Flat-Plate Collector Efficiency
• A measure of a flat plate collector performance is the collector
efficiency (η) defined as the ratio of the useful energy gain (Qu) to
the incident solar energy over a particular time period.
• The instantaneous efficiency is given by:

𝑭𝑹 𝑨𝒄 𝑮𝝉𝜶 − 𝑼𝑳 𝑻𝒊 − 𝑻𝒂
𝜼𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍 =
𝑨𝒄 𝑮

• Thus,
𝑻𝒊 −𝑻𝒂
𝜼𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍 = 𝑭𝑹 𝝉𝜶 − 𝑭𝑹 𝑼𝑳 (7)
𝑮
 Flat-Plate Collector Efficiency Analysis
• If it is assumed that FR, τ, α, UL are constants for a given collector
and flow rate, then the efficiency is a linear function of the three
parameters defining the operating condition:

Solar irradiance (G), Fluid inlet temperature (Ti) and Ambient air
temperature (Ta)

• Thus, the performance of a Flat-Plate Collector can be

approximated by measuring these three parameters in experiments.
• The result is a single line (ΔT/I – Curve) shown in the next slide.
Flat-Plate Collector Efficiency Analysis
 Flat-Plate Collector Efficiency Analysis
• The collector efficiency η is plotted against (Ti -Ta )/I.
• The slope of this line (- FRUL) represents the rate of heat loss from
the collector.

• For example, collectors with cover sheets will have less of a slope
than those without cover sheets.
 Flat-Plate Collector Efficiency Analysis
• There are two interesting operating points on the collector efficiency
curve.
• The first is the maximum collection efficiency, called the optical
efficiency.
• This occurs when the fluid inlet temperature equals ambient
temperature (Ti= Ta).
• For this condition, the ΔT/I value is zero and the intercept is FR(τ α).
 Flat-Plate Collector Efficiency Analysis
• The other point of interest is the intercept with the ΔT/I axis. This
point of operation can be reached when useful energy is no longer
removed from the collector, a condition that can happen if fluid flow
through the collector stops (power failure). In this case, the optical
energy coming in must equal the heat loss, requiring that the
temperature of the absorber increase until this balance occurs. The
maximum temperature difference or “stagnation temperature” is
defined by this point.
 General Flat Plate Collector Efficiency Equation
• In general the flat plate collector efficiency equation can be
expressed in terms of:

• the collector temperature, Tcoll;

• the heat loss coefficient, UL;
• the transmittance-absoptance product, τα;
• the environmental parameters, G and Ta,
• and a collector heat extraction efficiency factor, F.

𝑻𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍 −𝑻𝒂
𝜼𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍 = 𝑭𝝉𝜶 − 𝑭𝑼𝑳 (8)
𝑮
 General Flat Plate Collector Efficiency Equation
• The collector heat extraction efficiency factor, F, depends on the
type of the collector operation temperature that has been specified.

• F = 1 if average receiver surface temperature, Tr, is specified

ഥ 𝒇 , is specified
• F =𝑭′ if the average fluid temperature,𝑻

• F = 𝑭𝑹 if the fluid inlet temperature, 𝑻𝒊 , is specified

𝑭𝑹
•F= if the fluid outlet temperature, Tout, is specified
𝟏−𝑭𝑹 𝑼𝑨/𝒎𝑪ሶ 𝒑
 General Flat Plate Collector Efficiency Equation
• 𝐹 ′ is called the collector efficiency factor.
It is equal to the ratio of the actual useful energy gain of the collector
to the useful gain that would result if collector absorbing surface were
at local fluid temperature, 𝑇ത𝑓 .
𝑈𝑓
• 𝐹′= ൗ 𝑈 +𝑈 , where Uf is the heat transfer coefficient from the
𝑓
receiver to the fluid and U is the overall heat loss coefficient.
• The collector heat removal factor, FR, is given in terms of the
collector efficiency factor, the overall heat loss coefficient and the
fluid mass flow rate as:
ሶ 𝑝
𝑚𝐶 𝐴𝑐 𝑈𝐹 ′
𝐹𝑅 = 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ሶ (9)
𝐴𝑐 𝑈𝐿 𝑚𝐶𝑝

• Where𝑚ሶ is the mass flow rate and U is the overall collector heat
loss coefficient.
Class Online Exercise
• Calculate the daily useful energy gain (kWh) and daily efficiency of an
array of 10 solar collector modules installed in parallel and sloped at
30o facing north (azimuth = 180). The hour solar radiation on the
tilted plane and hourly ambient temperature are given on the Table
below. The average transimittance-absorbtance product is 0.70. The
overall heat loss coefficient is 6 W/m2C and the plate efficiency
factor, F’ is 0.89. The flow-rate through each 1 x 2 m collector is 0.03
kg/s and the inlet fluid temperature is kept constant at 40oC.Fluid
Cp=4.185J/kg.K.
Class Online Exercise

IT Ta
Hour ending Hour MJ/m2 oC

6 05:00-06:00 0.00 23.0

7 06:00-07:00 0.34 23.5
8 07:00-08:00 1.03 24.8
9 08:00-09:00 1.78 26.7
10 09:00-10:00 2.49 29.0
11 10:00-11:00 3.04 31.3
12 11:00-1200 3.34 33.2
13 12:00-13:00 3.34 34.5
14 13:00-14:00 3.04 35.0
15 14:00-15:00 2.49 34.5
16 15:00-16:00 1.78 33.2
17 16:00-17:00 1.03 31.3
18 17:00-18:00 0.34 29.0
19 18:00-19:00 0 28
Class Online Exercise

IT Ta S (absorbed) UL(Ti-Ta) qu ηcollector

Hour ending Hour MJ/m2 oC MJ/m2 MJ/m2 MJ/m2
6 05:00-06:00 0.00 23.0 0.00 0.376 -0.311 00
7 06:00-07:00 0.34 23.5
8 07:00-08:00 1.03 24.8
9 08:00-09:00 1.78 26.7
10 09:00-10:00 2.49 29.0
11 10:00-11:00 3.04 31.3
12 11:00-1200 3.34 33.2
13 12:00-13:00 3.34 34.5
14 13:00-14:00 3.04 35.0
15 14:00-15:00 2.49 34.5
16 15:00-16:00 1.78 33.2
17 16:00-17:00 1.03 31.3
18 17:00-18:00 0.34 29.0
19 18:00-19:00 0 28
SUM
 Stagnation Temperature of Flat Plate Collector
• Stagnation temperature is the temperature of a solar system in periods of
time under no flow conditions.
• It is therefore the fluid temperature in a solar collector in periods of time
where no useful energy is taken from solar collector and results from the
given irradiance and ambient temperature.
• This temperature is taken into account when designing collectors,
choosing collector materials (especially for insulation, absorber,
diffusion barriers and reflectors) and designing solar systems
(especially for heat transfer fluid, expansion tanks, safety valves and
connecting equipment).
• During the process of collector mounting and connecting a collector to
the rest of a solar system hot parts of the collector can cause personal
injury.
 Stagnation Temperature of Flat Plate Collector
• For this reason, the solar thermal system design standard EN
12975-series requires that the stagnation temperature for an
irradiance of 1000W/m² and an ambient temperature of
30°C is given by the manufacturer, at least on the collector label.
• Many manufacturers also include it in their installation manuals.
• The maximum temperature within a collector could be significantly
higher than the normative stagnation temperature at fixed 1000
W/m² and 30°C ambient temperature.
 Calculation of Stagnation Temperature
• The determination of the stagnation temperature is done for a
specified solar irradiance (usually 1000 W/m2) and ambient
temperature (usually 30 degree Celsius).
• It is done by setting at zero the efficiency of the collector in Equation
(7) and making collector temperature the subject of the formula.
Thus:

𝑻𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝑻𝒂
𝟎 = 𝑭𝑹 𝝉𝜶 − 𝑭𝑹 𝑼𝑳
𝑮

• This gives:
𝑮𝝉𝜶
𝑻𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒂 + (10)
𝑼𝑳
 Calculation of Stagnation Temperature

• Determine the EN 12975-series standard stagnation temperature

for a collector with τα = 0.8 and UL = 4 W/m2/oC.
 Collector testing
• In the mid-1970s many new collector designs appeared on the
commercial market.
• Needs developed for standard tests to provide collector operating
data.
• Information was needed on how a collector absorbs energy, how it
loses heat, the effects of angle of incidence of solar radiation, and
the significant heat capacity effects.
• In the mid-1970s many new collector designs appeared on the
commercial market.
 Collector testing
• Collector thermal performance tests can be considered in three
parts.
• The first is determination of instantaneous efficiency with beam radiation
nearly normal to the absorber surface.
• The second is determination of effects of angle of incidence of the solar
radiation.
• The third is determination of collector time constant, a measure of effective
heat capacity.
• The basic method of measuring collector performance is to expose
the operating collector to solar radiation and measure the fluid inlet
and outlet temperatures and the fluid flow rate.
• The useful gain is then
Q = ˙mC (T − T )
u p o i
 Collector testing
• In addition, radiation on the collector, ambient temperature, and
wind speed are also recorded.
• Thus two types of information are available: data on the thermal
output and data on the conditions producing that thermal
performance.
• These data permit the characterization of a collector by parameters
that indicate how the collector absorbs energy and how it loses
energy to the surroundings.
• The equation which describes the thermal performance of a
collector operating under steady conditions, can be written in terms
of the incident radiation:
uQ = A F [G (τα) − U (T − T )]
c R T av L i a
 Collector testing
• Here (τα) is a transmittance-absorptance product that is weighted
av

according to the proportions of beam, diffuse, and ground-reflected

radiation on the collector.
• Testing standards generally require that during a collector test the
beam normal radiation be high and the diffuse fraction be low.
• Consequently, the (τα) determined under test conditions is for
conditions under which a collector provides most of its useful output,
that is, when radiation is high and most of the incident radiation is
beam radiation.
• It is customary to drop the subscript av from equation and treat the
resulting (τα) as representative of the beam component.
 Collector testing
• Equations can be used to define an instantaneous efficiency:

• These equations are the basis of the standard test methods used
for solar thermal collectors
• Other equations are also used. European practice is to base
collector test results on T , the arithmetic average of the fluid inlet
f,av

and outlet temperatures.

• Thus
𝑄𝑢 𝐹 ′ 𝜏𝛼 𝑈𝐿 𝑇𝑓,𝑎𝑣 −𝑇𝑎
• 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙 = = 𝐹 ′ 𝜏𝛼 −
𝐴𝑐 𝐺 𝐺𝑇
 Collector testing
• ASHRAE 93–2003 sets forth three standard test procedures for liquid heaters
and one for air heaters.
• A schematic of one of these, a closed-loop system for liquid heating
collectors, is shown.
• Although details differ, the essential features of all of the procedures can be
summarized as follows:
1. Means are provided to feed the collector with fluid at a controlled inlet temperature;
tests are made over a range of inlet temperatures.
2. Solar radiation is measured by a pyranometer on the plane of the collector.
3. Means of measuring flow rate, inlet and outlet fluid temperatures, and ambient
conditions are provided.
4. Means are provided for measurements of pressure and pressure drop across the
collector.
• Measurements may be made either outdoors or indoors.
• Indoor tests are made using a solar simulator, that is, a source producing
radiant energy that has spectral distribution, intensity, uniformity in intensity,
and direction closely resembling that of solar radiation.
• Means must also be provided to move air to produce wind.
 Collector testing
• The general test procedure is to operate the collector in the test facility
under nearly steady conditions, measure the data to determine Q , and u

measure
• G , T , and T , which are needed for analysis. Of necessity, this means
T i a

outdoor tests are done in the midday hours on clear days when the beam
radiation is high and usually with the beam radiation nearly normal to the
collector.
• Thus the transmittance-absorptance product for these test conditions is
approximately the normal-incidence value and is written as (τα) . n

• Tests are made with a range of inlet temperature conditions.

• To minimize effects of heat capacity of collectors, tests are usually made
in nearly symmetrical pairs, one before and one after solar noon, with
results of the pairs averaged.
• Instantaneous efficiencies are determined from
η = ˙mC (T − T )/A G
p o i c T

• For the averaged pairs and are plotted as a function of (T − T )/G

i a T
 Collector testing
• If U , F , and (τα) were all constant, the plots of η , versus (T − T )/G
L R n i i a T

• Would be straight lines with intercept F (τα) and slope −F U .

R n R L

• However, they are not, and the data scatter.

• It is clear that U is a function of temperature and wind speed, with
L

decreasing dependence as the number of covers increases.

• Also, F is a weak function of temperature. And some variations of
R

the relative proportions of beam, diffuse, and ground-reflected

components of solar radiation will occur.
• Thus scatter in the data are to be expected, because of temperature
dependence, wind effects, and angle-of-incidence variations.
• In spite of these difficulties, long-time performance estimates of
many solar heating systems, collectors can be characterized by the
intercept and slope [i.e., by F (τα) and F U ].
R n R L
Collector testing
Collector testing
Example
• A water heating collector with an aperture area of 4.10 m is2

tested by the ASHRAE method, with beam radiation nearly

normal to the plane of the collector. The following information
comes from the test:

• Determine F (τα) and F U for this collector based on aperture

R n R L

area?
Example

• For the second data set, η = 0.15 and (T − T )/G = 0.083 m C/W.
i i a T 2

• These two points are shown on the plot.

Example

• Then F U = −slope = 7.62 W/m C. The intercept of the line of the η axis is
R L 2 i

0.78, which is F (τα) . (In practice, tests produce multiple data points and a
R n

least-squares fit would be used to find the best constants.)

Assignment 2: Due Date Friday 13 November 20.
• An indoor experimental evaluation of a solar water heating
collector produced the data in the table below. The collector has
a selective coating with α of 0.87 to 0.92 and ε of 0.10 to 0.20.
The single glass cover has τ = 0.92 at normal incidence. The
collector dimensions are 0.914 × 2.133 m overall for a gross
area of 1.95 m2. Glass (aperture) area is 1.76 m2 and the
effective absorber area is 1.72 m2. For all of the data in the
table, the wind speed was 3.4 m/s. For the conditions of these
tests, what are FR(τ α) and FRUL based on (i) gross collector
area, (ii) aperture area, (iii) effective absorber area? Plot on the
same chart the collector efficiency curves for the different
reference areas.
 Collector overall heat loss coefficient
• It is useful to develop the concept of an overall loss coefficient for a
solar collector to simplify the mathematics.
• Consider the thermal network for a two-cover system shown in the
next slide.
• At some typical location on the plate where the temperature is Tp,
solar energy of amount S is absorbed by the plate, where S is equal
to the incident solar radiation reduced by optical losses.
• This absorbed energy S is distributed to thermal losses through the
top and bottom and to useful energy gain.
• The purpose of this section is to convert the thermal network of
Figure A to the thermal network of Figure B.
Collector overall heat loss coefficient
Figure A Figure B
 Collector overall heat loss coefficient
• The energy loss through the top is the result of convection and
radiation between parallel plates.
• The steady-state energy transfer between the plate at T and the first
p

cover at T is the same as between any other two adjacent covers and is
c1

also equal to the energy lost to the surroundings from the top cover.
• The loss through the top per-unit area is then equal to the heat transfer
from the absorber plate to the first cover:
•
𝜎 𝑇𝑝 4 −𝑇𝑐1 4
𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑠,𝑡𝑜𝑝 = ℎ𝑐,𝑝−𝑐1 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑐1 + 1 1 (11)
+ −1
𝜀𝑝 𝜀𝑐1

• Where ℎ𝑐,𝑝−𝑐1 is the convective heat transfer coefficient from absorber

plate to cover 1 and εp, εc1 are the emittances of the absorber plate and
cover 1, respectively.
 The heat transfer coefficient for radiation

• If the definition of the radiation heat transfer coefficient is used, the

heat loss becomes:
𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑠,𝑡𝑜𝑝 = ℎ𝑐,𝑝−𝑐1 + ℎ𝑟,𝑝−𝑐1 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑐1 (12)

• Where
𝜎 𝑇𝑝 +𝑇𝑐1 𝑇𝑝 2 +𝑇𝑐1 2
ℎ𝑟,𝑝−𝑐1 = 1 1 (13)
+
𝜀𝑝 𝜀𝑐1
−1

• To obtain the convective heat transfer coefficient,ℎ𝑐,𝑝−𝑐1 ,we apply

the equations of convection between parallel plates, which are
recapped in the next slide.
 The heat transfer coefficient for free convection
• The heat transfer coefficient for free convection between parallel plates can be expressed in
terms of the Nusselt, Nu, Number which is in turn a function of the Rayleigh Number, Ra and
the inclination of the plates to the horizontal.
• The convective heat transfer coefficient between parallel plates is given by:
𝑘
ℎ = 𝑁𝑢 where Nu = f(Ra) (14)
𝐿
• The Rayleigh Number is given by:
𝑔ß′ ∆𝑇𝐿3
𝑅𝑎 = (15)
𝜈𝛼
• Where
• h = heat transfer coefficient [W/m2K]
• L= plate spacing [m]
• k = thermal conductivity [W/m K]
• g = gravitational constant [m/s2]
• ß= volumetric coefficient of expansion (for an ideal gas, ß= 1/T)[1/K]
• T = temperature difference between plates [K]
• a = thermal diffusivity [m2/s]
• ν = kinematic viscosity [m2/s]
 The heat transfer coefficient for free convection
• Hollands (1976) gives an analytical expression of the relationship between the
Nusselt Number and the Rayleigh Number (see Duffie and Beckman, 2013, pg.
172).
• This expression is plotted on Figure 3.11.2. in the next slide.
• In addition to the Nusselt number, there is a second scale on the ordinate giving
the value of the heat transfer coefficient times the plate spacing for a mean
temperature of 10◦C.
• The scale of this ordinate is not dimensionless but is mm W/m2◦C. For
temperatures other than 10◦C, a factor F2, the ratio of the thermal conductivity
of air at 10◦C to that at any other temperature, has been plotted as a function of
temperature in Figure 3.11.2.
• Thus to find hl at any temperature other than 10◦C, it is only necessary to divide
F2hl as read from the chart by F2at the appropriate temperature.
The abscissa also has an extra scale, 𝐹1 ∆𝑇𝑙3 . To find ∆𝑇𝑙3 at temperatures
other than 10◦C, it is only necessary to divide 𝐹1 ∆𝑇𝑙3 by F1, where F1 is the
ratio of 1/Tνα at the desired temperature to 1/Tνα at 10◦C. The ratio F1 is
also plotted in Figure 3.11.2.
 Collector overall heat loss coefficient

• Continuing with the thermal network analysis, the resistance R3 can then
be expressed as:
1
𝑅3 = (16)
ℎ𝑐, 𝑝−𝑐1 +ℎ𝑟 𝑝−𝑐1

• A similar expression can be written for R2, the resistance between the
covers. In general, we can have as many covers as desired, but the
practical limit is two and most collectors use one.
• The resistance from the top cover to the surroundings has the same form
as Equation (16), but the convection heat transfer coefficient hwis given
by:
ℎ𝑤 = 5.7 + 3.8𝑉 (17)
• Where V is the wind speed in m/s and ℎ𝑤 is in W/m2/oC.
 Collector overall heat loss coefficient
• The radiation resistance from the top cover accounts for radiation exchange with the sky at Ts.
• For convenience, we reference this resistance to the ambient temperature Ta, so that the
radiation heat transfer coefficient can be written as:
𝜎𝜀𝑐 𝑇𝑐2 +𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑐2 2 +𝑇𝑠 2 𝑇𝑐2 −𝑇𝑠
ℎ𝑟,𝑐2−𝑎 =
𝑇𝑐 −𝑇𝑎

𝜎𝜀𝑐 𝑇𝑐2 +𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑐2 2 +𝑇𝑠 2

ℎ𝑟,𝑐2−𝑎 = (18)
1
• The resistance to the surroundings R1is given by:
1
𝑅1 = (19)
ℎ𝑤 +ℎ𝑟,𝑐2−𝑎

• For this two-cover system, the top loss coefficient from the plate to the ambient is:
1
𝑈𝑡 = (20)
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3
 Collector overall heat loss coefficient
• The results of heat loss calculations for four different solar
collectors, all with the same plate and ambient temperatures, are
shown in Figure 6.4.3.
• The cover temperatures and the heat flux by convection and
radiation are shown for one and two glass covers and for selective
and nonselective absorber plates.
• Note that radiation between plates is the dominant mode of heat
transfer in the absence of a selective surface.
• When a selective surface having an emittance of 0.10 is used,
convection is the dominant heat transfer mode between the
selective surface and the cover, but radiation is still the largest term
between the two cover glasses in the two-cover system.
Collector overall heat loss coefficient

A C

B
Collector overall heat loss coefficient
 Collector overall heat loss coefficient

• For most conditions the use of a blackbody radiation sky

temperature that is not equal to the air temperature will not greatly
affect the top loss coefficient or the top heat loss.
• For example, the top loss coefficient based on the plate-to-ambient-
temperature difference for condition (a) of Figure 6.4.3 is increased
from 6.62 to 6.76 W/m C when the sky temperature is reduced from
2◦

10 to 0 C.
◦

• For condition (b) the top loss coefficient is increased from 3.58 to
3.67 W/m C.
2◦
Class Online Exercise
Determine the energy transfer per unit area by radiation between
two large parallel plates. The temperature and emittance of one
plate is 500K and 0.45 and for the other plate are 300K and
0.2.Hence calculate the radioactive heat transfer coefficient
Class Online Exercise
Murambinda Hospital is a typical hospital were the use of thermal energy is maximised. The
thermal system consists of a flat-plate collector with one cover that is inclined at a slope of
60◦ from the horizontal. The plate temperature is 100◦C and its emittance is 0.10. The cover
temperature is 30.5°C, and the (glass) cover has an emittance of 0.87. The plate-cover
spacing is 20 mm. Considering the Stefan-Boltzmann constant as 5.67×10-8
W/m2/K4.Calculate;
i) The radiative transfer from plate to cover.
[5]
ii) The radiation heat transfer coefficient from plate to cover
[4]
iii) The convective transfer from plate to cover.
[6]
iv) Given an effective surrounding temperature of 15◦C, estimate the net radiative exchange
between the cover and the surroundings.
[5]
 Collector overall top heat loss coefficient (Ut)
• The procedure for solving for the top loss coefficient using
Equations 16 through 20 is necessarily an iterative process.
• First a guess is made of the unknown cover temperatures, from
which the convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients
between parallel surfaces are calculated.
• With these estimates, Equation 20 can be solved for the top loss
coefficient.
• The top heat loss is the top loss coefficient times the overall
temperature difference, and since the energy exchange between
plates must be equal to the overall heat loss, a new set of cover
temperatures can be calculated.
 Collector overall top heat loss coefficient (Ut)
• Beginning at the absorber plate, a new temperature is calculated for
the first cover.
• This new first cover temperature is used to find the next cover
temperature, and so on.
• For any two adjacent covers or plate, the new temperature of plate
or cover j can be expressed in terms of the temperature of plate or
cover i as:

𝑈𝑡 (𝑇𝑝 −𝑇𝑎 )
𝑇𝑗 = 𝑇𝑖 − (21)
ℎ𝑐,𝑖−𝑗 +ℎ𝑟,𝑖−𝑗

• The process is repeated until the cover temperatures do not change

significantly between successive iterations.
 Class Online Exercise
• A designer installs a solar thermal collector at a rooftop for thermal
and optical analysis. Calculate the top loss coefficient for an
absorber with a single glass cover having the following
specifications:

• Plate-to-cover spacing 25mm

• Plate emittance 0.95
• Ambient air and sky temperature 10◦C
• Wind heat transfer coefficient 10 W/m2 ◦C
• Mean plate temperature 100◦C
• Collector tilt 45◦
• Glass emittance 0.88
[12]
End