Ipomoea aquatica

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"Kangkong" and "Kangkung" redirect here. For the town in Malaysia, see Mukim Kangkong. For the
village in Burma, see Kangkung, Burma.

Ipomoea aquatica

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1). [1]

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

Clade: Tracheophytes

Clade: Angiosperms

Clade: Eudicots

Clade: Asterids

Order: Solanales

Family: Convolvulaceae
 Genus: Ipomoea

Species: I. aquatica

Binomial name

Ipomoea aquatica

Forssk.

Ipomoea aquatica is a semi-aquatic, tropical plant grown as a vegetable for its tender shoots. This

plant is known in English as water spinach, river spinach, water morning glory, water
convolvulus, or by the more ambiguous names Chinese spinach, Chinese watercress, Chinese
convolvulus or swamp cabbage, or kangkong in Southeast Asia and ong choy in Cantonese.[2]
[3]
 Its place of origin is not known.

Contents

 1Description
 2Origin
 3Cultivation
o 3.1Requirements for climate and soil
o 3.2Traditional way of cultivation
o 3.3Use of fertilizer
 4Pathogens and pests
 5Invasiveness
 6Culinary uses
 7Other uses
o 7.1Phytoremediation
o 7.2Animal feed
 8Health effects
o 8.1Medicinal use
o 8.2Health risk
 9Gallery
 10See also
 11References
 12External links

Description[edit]
Ipomoea aquatica grows in water or on moist soil. Its stems are 2–3 metres (7–10 ft) or longer,
rooting at the nodes, and they are hollow and can float. The leaves vary from typically sagittate
(arrow head-shaped) to lanceolate, 5–15 cm (2–6 in) long and 2–8 cm (0.8–3 in) broad. The flowers
are trumpet-shaped, 3–5 cm (1–2 in) in diameter, and usually white in colour with a mauve centre.
Propagation is either by planting cuttings of the stem shoots, which will root along nodes, or by
planting the seeds from flowers that produce seed pods. [4][5]

Origin[edit]
The origin of I. aquatica is not quite clear, but it is agreed that it is native in Southeast Asia.[6] Within
Asia, several sources cite China as the location of the plant's domestication. [7][8][9][6] On the other hand,
India has been suggested as the location of the plant's origin. [10][11][12] However, none of these sources
give references other than when the name of I. aquatica first appeared in historical documents.
[13]
 There are also studies suggesting that the species is native to Africa, [14][15] and it is debated whether
it is part of African indigenous flora or whether it was introduced there by Chinese mariner Zheng
He.[16]

Cultivation[edit]

Ong choy water spinach

Ipomoea aquatica is most commonly grown in east, south, and southeast Asia. It flourishes naturally
in waterways, and requires little if any care. It is used extensively in Indonesian, Burmese, Thai, Lao,
Cambodian, Malay, Vietnamese, Filipino, and Chinese cuisine, especially in rural
or kampung (village) areas. The vegetable is also extremely popular in Taiwan, where it grows well.
During the Japanese occupation of Singapore in World War II, the vegetable grew remarkably easily
in many areas, and became a popular wartime crop.
Water spinach has been found to be cultivated in the following countries: [17] [18]

 Australia
 Bangladesh
 Burma
 Cambodia
 China
 Fiji
 India
 Maldives
 Indonesia
 Japan
 Malaysia
 Nepal
 New Guinea
 Philippines
 Sri Lanka
 Taiwan
 Thailand
 Vietnam
In the United States it is cultivated in California, Florida, Hawaii, Texas, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
[19]
 It is also considered native to Africa[13] and in its wild form, for example, is collected and used by
the Sambaa people in Tanzania.[20]
Water spinach is also potentially suitable for cultivation in greenhouses in more temperate regions.[21]
In non-tropical areas, it is easily grown in containers given enough water in a bright sunny location. It
readily roots from cuttings.[citation needed]

Requirements for climate and soil[edit]

Water spinach is ideal for sub-tropical and tropical climate, as it does not grow well below 23.9 °C
and is sensitive to frost. High soil moisture is beneficial for the growth. Clay soils and marshy soils
rich in organic matter are suitable for water spinach. The ideal pH range for the growth is from 5 to 7.
The provision of shade has been shown to have a positive influence on the yield of water spinach. [22]

Traditional way of cultivation[edit]

Water spinach is cultivated in a variety of systems. In Hong Kong, two methods are traditionally
used: the dryland method and the wetland method.
In the dryland method, water spinach is grown on raised beds which are separated by irrigation
ditches. The seeds can be sown directly onto the beds. Alternatively, a nursery may be used and the
seedlings are transplanted when they reach a sufficient size. In either case, the distance between
the plants should be about 12 cm by the time they are 15 cm tall. Regular irrigation is crucial in the
dryland system and so is a sufficient fertilization. Water spinach cultivated with the dryland method is
ready for harvest 50 to 60 days after sowing. Harvesting is being done by pulling up the whole plant.
[23]

The wetland method is the traditionally more common and important method for cultivation in Hong
Kong: In the wetland method, water spinach is cultivated on flat fields surrounded by raised banks,
which have oftentimes been used as rice paddies in the past. These former rice paddies have a
heavy clay soil with an iron-pan. This helps to retain water for the water spinach. The seedlings to be
used in this methods are usually grown in a nursery on a dry field, as the germination under water is
quite poor. Six weeks after sowing the seedlings, cuttings for transplantation can be taken from
them. One cutting is an approximately 30 cm long cut from the stem containing seven or eight
nodes. This is then planted in the field with a spacing of about 40 cm. The field is beforehand
prepared by flooding it to a depth of 3 to 5 cm. The soil itself is tramped into a liquid mud so that the
cuttings can root easily. Once the plants are established, the depth of the flooding is increased to 15
to 20 cm. The first harvest in the wetland method can usually be done at around 30 days after the
transplantation. Also, the harvesting differs from the dryland system: In the wetland, the upper part of
the main shoot is cut at about water level. This stimulates lateral growth and produces horizontal
shoots carrying vertical branches. After the first harvests, every seven to ten days throughout the
summer, these vertical branches can be harvested. After the planting period, the fields are drained
and once the fruit of the water spinach is ripe, it is harvested, dried, then trodden to release the
seeds which are to be used for the following season. [24]

Use of fertilizer[edit]
How much fertilizer is used for the cultivation strongly depends on the region. Most research is from
the '80s and '90s. Generally, it has been shown that a dose of 60 kg N/ha is sufficient and that the
application of K can be beneficial on the yield. Also, the application of plant growth regulators, for
example Adenine and Zetanine, has been found to be an effective means to promote water spinach
growth. One study has determined, that the highest yields are produced with the application of 60
kg/ha of N, 90 kg/ha of P2O5 and 50 kg/ha of K2O for the first harvest. For the second harvest the
optimal fertilization was determined as 120 kg/ha of N, 45 kg/ha of P2O5 and 100 kg/ha of K2O.[25]
Taiwan: In Taiwan the usual fertilization includes the basic application of about 10 t/ha of cowdung
followed by 50 kg/ha of ammonium sulfate after each harvest.[26]
Bangkok: In Bangkok it is common to apply about 300 kg/ha of NPK fertilizer twice a month. [27]
Indonesia: In Indonesia, usually 150 kg to 300 kg of NPK are applied per hectare. [28]

Pathogens and pests[edit]

There are several pathogens and pests reported, affecting I. aquatica. Pythium causes problems like
damping-off, Cercospora leaf spot and root nematodes.[10] Also, aphids may be problems in fields.
Additionally, there are several polyphagous insects feeding on I. aquatica. Lepidoptera species
include Diacrisia strigatula Walker and Spodoptera litura. The “woolly-bear” caterpillars (D. virginica
[Fabricius]) of the eastern United States and Diacrisia strigatula (Chinese tiger moth) are other
species with wide food preferences.[29] A specialist pathogen on I. aquatica is the oomycete Albugo
ipomoeae-aquaticae, though its range is restricted to southern and southeast Asia. [13]

Invasiveness[edit]
Ipomoea aquatica is listed by the USDA as a noxious weed,[30] especially in the states
of Florida, California, and Hawaii, where it can be observed growing in the wild.[31] In the US, water
spinach has mainly become a problem in Florida; why is unclear although the fast growth rate has
been cited as a threat to native plants in certain areas of Florida. [32] It could be owing to the time
since introduction, or owing to climatic factors.[33] I. aquatica has been extensively cultivated
in Texas for over 30 years, having been originally brought there by Asian immigrants. Because no
evidence indicates the plant has escaped into the wild, Texas lifted its ban on cultivation for personal
use with no restrictions or requirements, noting its importance as a vegetable in many cultures, and
also began permitting cultivation for commercial sales with the requirement of an exotic species
permit.[34] Possession of I. aquatica has been prohibited in Florida since 1973, but it is still being
grown and sold illegally. Some of the infestations in Florida public lakes have been eradicated, or at
least attempts have been made. [35] In Sri Lanka it invades wetlands, where its long, floating stems
form dense mats which can block the flow of water and prevent the passage of boats. [36]

Culinary uses[edit]
See also: Stir-fried water spinach

Water spinach, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 79 kJ (19 kcal)

Carbohydrates 3.14 g
Dietary fiber 2.1 g

Fat 0.2 g

Protein 2.6 g

Vitamins Quantity%DV†

Vitamin A equiv. 39%

315 μg

Thiamine (B1) 3%

0.03 mg

Riboflavin (B2) 8%

0.1 mg

Niacin (B3) 6%

0.9 mg

Pantothenic acid (B5) 3%

0.141 mg

Vitamin B6 7%

0.096 mg

Folate (B9) 14%

57 μg

Vitamin C 66%

55 mg

Minerals Quantity%DV†

Calcium 8%

77 mg

Iron 13%

1.67 mg
 Magnesium 20%

71 mg

Manganese 8%

0.16 mg

Phosphorus 6%

39 mg

Potassium 7%

312 mg

Sodium 8%

113 mg

Zinc 2%

0.18 mg

Link to USDA Database entry

 Units
 μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
 IU = International units

†
Percentages are roughly approximated

using US recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA FoodData Central

The vegetable is a common ingredient in East, South and Southeast Asian dishes, such as in stir-
fried water spinach.[37] In Singapore, Indonesia, and Malaysia, the tender shoots along with the
leaves are usually stir-fried with chili pepper, garlic, ginger, dried shrimp paste (belacan/terasi) and
other spices. In Penang and Ipoh, it is cooked with cuttlefish and a sweet and spicy sauce. Also
known as eng chhai in the Hokkien dialect, it can also be boiled with preserved cuttlefish, then rinsed
and mixed with spicy rojak paste to become jiu hu eng chhai. Boiled eng chhai also can be served
with fermented krill noodle belacan bihun and prawn mi.[38]
In Indonesian cuisine it is called kangkung, boiled or blanched together with other vegetables it
forms the ingredient of gado-gado or pecel salads in peanut sauce. Some recipes that
use kangkung is plecing kangkung from Lombok, and mie kangkung (kangkong noodle) from
Jakarta.
In Thailand, where it is called phak bung (Thai: ผักบุ ้ง), it is eaten raw, often along with green papaya
salad or nam phrik, in stir-fries and in curries such as kaeng som.[39]
In the Philippines, where it is called kangkóng, the tender shoots are cut into segments and cooked,
together with the leaves, in fish and meat stews, such as sinigang. The vegetable is also commonly
eaten alone. In adobong kangkóng (also called apan-apan), it is sautéed in cooking oil, onions,
garlic, vinegar, and soy sauce.[40] In ensaladang kangkóng (or kinilaw na kangkóng), it is blanched
and served in vinegar or calamansi juice and fresh tomatoes and onions with salt and pepper to
taste.[41][42] In binagoongang kangkóng (or ginisang kangkóng), it is sautéed with garlic and topped
with bagoong alamang (shrimp paste) or bagoong isda (fermented fish) and sliced fresh tomatoes
and onions, commonly also with cubed crispy liempo (pork belly) or pork  adobo. It can also be
spiced with siling haba or siling labuyo peppers, soy sauce, black pepper, and sugar. It differs
from adobong kangkóng in that it does not use vinegar. [43][44][45][46] A local appetiser called
crispy kangkóng has the leaves coated in a flour-based batter and fried until crisp, similar
to Japanese vegetable tempura.[47][48]

Cambodian chha trokuon
 

Chinese kōngxīncài
 

Filipino adobong kangkóng
 


Filipino ensaladang kangkóng
 

Indonesian plecing kangkung from Lombok

 

Indonesian mie kangkung (with noodles)

 

Malaysian-style kangkung belacan
 
 

Thai pak boong fai daeng

 

Vietnamese canh chua

Other uses[edit]
Phytoremediation[edit]
Using aquatic macrophytes to remove nutrients from wastewater and to control
freshwater eutrophication has been reported to be a feasible way of phytoremediation. Various
plants, including I. aquatica, have been tested for this use. Owing to its being edible and thus
marketable, it could be an attractive option for this use. [49]

Animal feed[edit]
Water spinach is fed to livestock as green fodder with high nutritive value—especially the leaves, for
they are a good source of carotene. It is fed to cattle, pigs, fish, ducks, and chicken. [50] Moreover it is
mentioned that in limited quantities, I. aquatica can have a somewhat laxative effect.[13]

Health effects[edit]
Medicinal use[edit]
I. aquatica is used in the traditional medicine of southeast Asia and in the traditional medicine of
some countries in Africa. In southeast Asian medicine it is used against piles, and nosebleeds, as
an anthelmintic, and to treat high blood pressure. In Ayurveda, leaf extracts are used against
jaundice and nervous debility.[51] In indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka, water spinach is supposed to
have insulin-like properties. Water extracts of I. aquatica showed a blood sugar-lowering effect in
Wistar rats. An aqueous juice of 100g plant material was given 30 minutes before eating glucose to
diabetes 2 patients. After two hours it could be observed that blood glucose peak level was reduced
by around 30%.[52]
Also antioxidant bioactive compounds and anti-microbial substances could be detected in water
spinach.[53] Furthermore, plant extracts of water spinach inhibit cancer cell growth of Vero, Hep-2 and
A-549 cells, though have moderate anti-cancer activity.[51]

Health risk[edit]
Many of the waters where water spinach grows are fed by domestic or other waste. Pigs in
southeast Asia are a natural reservoir for the parasite Fasciolopsis buski. Infections in
the Mekong regions resulted from feeding on water spinach. Infections of F. buski in humans
through water spinach can be anticipated. The infection can be prevented by proper preparation
such as frying or boiling.[54] Contamination with thermotolerant coliforms (ThC) or protozoan
bacteria with fecal origin, are very likely when the water spinach is planted in wastewater fed urban
systems.[55] Water spinach has great potential as a purifier of aquatic habitats. It is an efficient
accumulator of cadmium, lead, and mercury. This characteristic can be dangerous if water spinach
is planted for human or animal feed in polluted aquatic systems. Mercury in water spinach is
composed mostly as methylmercury and has the highest potential of becoming a threat to human
health. The edible parts of the plant have a lower heavy metal concentration. The stems and bottom
of the edible portion of the plant are higher in concentration and should be removed to minimize the
heavy metal intake.[56][57]