Perspective

Cite This: J. Agric. Food Chem. 2018, 66, 5425−5432 pubs.acs.org/JAFC

Effect of Fermentation Processing on the Flavor of Baijiu

Huilin Liu and Baoguo Sun*
Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Beijing Key Laboratory of Flavor Chemistry, Beijing
Technology and Business University, 11 Fucheng Road, Beijing 100048, People’s Republic of China
*
S Supporting Information

ABSTRACT: Baijiu, otherwise known as the national liquor of China, is a well-known distilled spirit that has been produced for
over 2000 years. Baijiu is a clear and transparent fermented alcoholic beverage containing more than 1870 volatile compounds,
including esters, alcohols, aromatics, ketones, heterocycles, nitrogenous compounds, acids, aldehydes, terpenes, sulfur
compounds, acetals, and lactones. This perspective describes the baijiu production process, summarizes recent progress in the
development and study of baijiu flavor chemistry, discusses the effect of fermentation processing on baijiu flavor, and presents
novel development trends in the baijiu industry in the dual directions of flavor and health. Furthermore, the direction of research
and development for modernization in the baijiu industry is discussed and proposed.
KEYWORDS: baijiu, Chinese liquor, fermentation, flavor chemistry, developments

1. INTRODUCTION used as a base for traditional Chinese medicine” since the

Baijiu, an ancient Chinese liquor, is the national liquor of China
and possesses a unique position in traditional Chinese culture.
Chinese liquor making has a 9000 year history, with reports as
early as 7 millennia before Christ (B.C.).1 Baijiu is one of the
oldest distillates in the world, with a 2000 year history dating
from the Western Han dynasty (from 202 B.C. to 8 A.D.)
according to the record of a distiller from the tomb of
Haihunhou. Baijiu is a clear and transparent fermented
alcoholic beverage with a high ethanol content ranging from
38 to 65 vol %.2 Baijiu is also the most consumed spirit globally,
with over 13 billion liters consumed in 2016, representing a
market value of approximately $97.4 billion. Therefore, baijiu
constitutes a major part of the Chinese food industry.
Baijiu is a world-renowned distilled spirit, alongside brandy,
whiskey, vodka, gin, and rum. The raw material, production
process, composition, and taste of baijiu are very different from
those of other famous distilled spirits. Baijiu is normally
prepared from sorghum alone or a mixture of corn, rice, wheat,
peas, millet, and sorghum. For baijiu production, jiuqu, known
as the foundation of baijiu, is often used as a fermentation
starter3 and is mixed with grains to saccharify and ferment
simultaneously, which produces ethanol and flavor compounds.
The fermented mixture is then distilled under solid-state
conditions to produce fresh baijiu liquor. Baijiu is rich in many
flavor components, including organic acids (such as acetic,
lactic, malic, tartaric, and linoleic acids), esters (such as ethyl
acetate, ethyl lactate, and ethyl hexanoate), lactones, phenols,
heterocycles, terpenes, and aromatic compounds.4 Further-
more, baijiu contains potential functional components, such as
amino acids5 and peptides,6 which are beneficial to humans. A
tetrapeptide (Ala-Lys-Arg-Ala) and tripeptide (Pro-His-Pro)
have been successfully identified in sesame flavor-type baijiu
and showed preventive effects against 2,2′-azobis(2-methyl-
propanimidamidine) dihydrochloride-induced oxidative stress
in HepG2 cells and antihypertensive activity, respectively.6,7
The first economic history book from China, “Shi-Huo-Zhi” by
Ban Gu, reported that “Jiu, an alcoholic beverage, has long been
Eastern Han dynasty, which is a good summary of the
application of baijiu in medicine and healthcare.8 In the
Qiaocheng district of Bozhou, a Gujinggong baijiu production
region of China, the longevity of about 500 people that lived for
more than 100 years has been partly attributed to the habit of
drinking a little baijiu daily. In recent years, Xi et al. have shown
that light and moderate alcohol intake might have a protective
effect on all-cause and cardiovascular-disease-specific mortality
in U.S. adults.9 Therefore, drinking baijiu in moderation might
be beneficial to human health.10
2. BAIJIU PRODUCTION
The production of baijiu is different from that of other distilled
liquors because it combines the two distinctive processes of
fermentation and distillation. During fermentation, conversions
of starch to sugar and sugar to alcohol take place
simultaneously. In the production of other distilled liquors,
such as whisky and vodka, the above two reactions occur
stepwise, or conversion of sugar to alcohol takes place alone,
such as in rum production. Furthermore, most distillation
processing is performed in the solid state during baijiu
production, for which a special device, called the zeng (Figure
1), is often used. The zeng is a conical distiller (approximate
dimensions: top diameter, 2 m; bottom diameter, 1.8 m; and
height, 1 m) that is widely used for distillation. The zeng is
uniquely designed according to the characteristics of solid-state
fermentation, making it different from other distillation units.
With scientific advances, the zeng material has been changed
from wood to reinforced concrete or stainless steel, and the
cooler has been changed from tianguo to straight to improve
the cooling efficiency. However, the basic operation of artificial
Received: February 6, 2018
Revised: May 8, 2018
Accepted: May 11, 2018
Published: May 11, 2018

© 2018 American Chemical Society 5425 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00692

J. Agric. Food Chem. 2018, 66, 5425−5432
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
Figure 1. Traditional production processing of baijiu. Raw material is mixed uniformly with whole or powdered grains before adding hot water. The
mixed grains are then fermented, and the husks are transferred to the zeng for distillation. The fresh liquor is then stored and aged in a pottery or
stainless-steel vessel. After aging for several years, the stored liquor is blended to obtain differently graded products.
labor remains unchanged, with continuous feeding and
discharging still not widely applied. The zeng is a special
steaming tower in which, under constant heating conditions,
the alcohol concentration of each layer is also constant. The
concentration of volatile components decreases layer by layer in
the lower section and increases layer by layer in the upper
section. These volatile components are obtained from alcohol
and aroma compounds in the fermented grains of by
vaporization, condensation, and vaporization again, to achieve
multicomponent concentration and extraction.
The general scheme for traditional processing in baijiu
production is shown in Figure 1. Typically, the raw material is
mixed uniformly with whole or powdered grains before adding
hot water. Cooking the starch granules in hot water causes
them to further absorb, expand, rupture, and gelatinize.
Meanwhile, the raw materials are sterilized, and some adverse
volatile components are eliminated, under high temperature.
When the temperature is 50−60 °C, amylase in the raw
material decomposes starch into dextrin and sugar. When the
whole raw material is cooked, limited sugar is generated by
saccharification, but when the raw material is cooked after
grinding, more sugar is generated. Some glucose will be
converted to fructose and other ketones. Hexoses, such as
glucose and fructose, can be dehydrated to produce 5-
(hydroxymethyl)furfural during high-pressure cooking, which
then further decomposes to a keto acid and formic acid. This
reaction process is irreversible and proceeds according to the
first-order kinetic reaction formula. The mixed grains are then
steamed with fermented grains and husks to prepare fresh
liquor, also called base liquor. Distillation is the key step in
improving baijiu flavor. The distillation efficiency depends upon
the steam flow rate, distillation speed, water content, and
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Perspective
porosity of mixed grains. The baijiu is then stored and aged in a
pottery or stainless-steel vessel for months or years depending
upon the desired final product quality. Finally, the stored liquor
is blended with water to reduce the alcohol content before
bottling for sale. A repeated batch fermentation process is used
for strong-aroma baijiu, as denoted by the red square in Figure
1, where the distilled grains are cooled to about 20 °C with fast
air cooling before jiuqu is added and the mixture is placed in a
fermentation pit to spontaneously ferment for about 1−3
months at 28−30 °C. The fermentation pit is a special
container (approximate dimensions: length, 3.4 m; width, 1.8
m; and depth, 2.0 m) that is widely used for solid-state
fermentation. The fermented grains at the bottom of the
fermentation pit (∼1:4, v/v) are then distilled to obtain the
spirit and discarded, with the same volume of fresh raw material
added to repeat the batch fermentation. These distilled grains
are also called the vinasse, which is not used further in baijiu
production but taken as an important source of feed for pigs,
cattle, poultry, and others. The process of light-aroma baijiu
production includes only two fermentation processes, as
denoted by the blue square in Figure 1, where the steamed
raw material with jiuqu is added to a ground cylinder for the
first fermentation of about 1 month and then the fermented
grains are steamed to produce fresh liquor before the distilled
grains, with new jiuqu added, are fermented again for about 1
month. After the second fermentation, these distilled grains
comprise the vinasse.
Traditional baijiu production methods have existed for
thousands of years and mainly rely on the operation skill and
experience of individuals. In recent years, some developments
in modern biotechnology, automation, and electronic informa-
tion technology have been applied in baijiu production to
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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
improve traditional processing. As a result, semi-mechanized
processes are widely used in baijiu production by large- and
medium-sized enterprises to reduce labor intensity, improve the
quality and flavor of baijiu, and reduce manual labor. However,
this mode of production still faces a lack of control and
standardization. Some enterprises have attempted to use fully
mechanized processing for baijiu production, but this impacts
the quality and flavor of the resultant baijiu. However, the
development of baijiu processing technology is trending toward
full mechanization, automation, and intellectualization, simulta-
neously, to ensure the quality and flavor of baijiu.
3. FERMENTATION PROCESSING OF BAIJIU
Sorghum is the main raw material used in baijiu fermentation
and contains starch (42.07−68.12%), protein (10.3−15.6%),
lipids (3.6−5.2%), water (11.1−13.4%), fiber (1.5−2.7%), and
ash (1.6−3.1%). Starch is changed into glucose by saccha-
rification with Clostridium butyricum or amylases in fermented
grains. Glucose is degraded to pyruvic acid via fructose 1,6-
biphosphate in the Embden−Meyerhof−Parnas (EMP) path-
way by reaction with Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Pyruvic acid was
converted to acetaldehyde by the removal of a carbon dioxide
molecule in a reaction with decarboxylase. Acetaldehyde was
then transformed into alcohol by reduction with ethanol
dehydrogenase. Acid formation results from oxidation during
the fermentation process. Ethanol forms acetaldehyde by
oxidation and is further oxidized to acetic acid. At room
temperature, lower fatty acids react with ethanol to form esters
through enzyme catalysis. Because esterification is a reversible
chemical reaction, when the highest esterification rate is
reached, the esters will decompose into alcohols and acids,
which plays a decisive role in the formation of baijiu flavor.
Meanwhile, proteins in the raw materials are hydrolyzed into
peptides and amino acids by protease catalysis. The aromatic
components produced by fermentation mainly originate from
the raw material, microorganisms, intermediates, or certain
amino acids and tannins from sorghum.
3.1. Fermentation Types. The main fermentation process
for baijiu, involving simultaneous saccharification and sponta-
neous fermentation in the solid state, is responsible for its rich
flavor and good taste. This special fermentation process is
usually performed in an underground fermentation pit for 1−3
months (strong-aroma baijiu), while some baijiu processes use
stacking fermentation above ground before underground
fermentation, such as Maotai and sesame-aroma baijiu. The
pit mud in the fermentation pit, otherwise known as microbial
gold, is a complex ecosystem that hosts diverse microbial
communities, including bacteria, archaea, and fungi, which
contribute to the production of characteristic flavor com-
pounds, such as ethyl caproate.11 High diversity indices of
about 16 phyla and 105 genera have been found in pit mud
used to make Luzhou Laojiao baijiu.12 The fermentation of
light-aroma baijiu is performed in ground cylinders that do not
contain pit mud. Repeated batch fermentation is a complex
process, as shown in Figure 1. According to the different
fermentation methods, there are three main types of
fermentation used in baijiu production, namely, solid-state
fermentation, semi-solid-state fermentation, and liquid-state
fermentation.
Solid-state fermentation technology is commonly used to
produce most well-known baijiu beverages with different flavors
and characteristics, in which microbial cultures are grown on a
solid matrix.13 Furthermore, solid-state fermentation technol-
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Perspective
ogy can easily provide baijiu with acceptable flavors and tastes
and has many advantages, including higher fermentation
productivity, higher end concentration of products, and higher
product stability. However, solid-state fermentation technology
has some problems, such as low mechanization, high costs, and
long fermentation times, which result in low production
efficiency.
Semi-solid-state fermentation is used to prepare baijiu with
rice and chi aromas in Guangxi and Guangdong provinces of
China. This process uses rice as the raw material and jiuqu as
the saccharification and fermentation agents, which are soaked
in a distillation kettle or altar to achieve semi-solid-state
fermentation.14
Liquid-state fermentation generally uses corn as the raw
material to produce baijiu, with all processes performed in the
liquid state,15 including saccharification, fermentation, distil-
lation, and blending, to give a high production efficiency with
simple operation and low material consumption, making it
easier to achieve full automation. However, this process
produces fewer flavor components, leading to a lower quality,
because the only raw material, corn, is fermented with pure
species. Liquid fermentation is an important direction for the
development of baijiu production, but the problem of poor
flavor compounds must be solved.
3.2. Fermentation Starters. Fermentation starters are
another major factor affecting fermentation and, consequently,
baijiu flavor and taste. Jiuqu contains a variety of micro-
organisms and enzymes that are essential to baijiu production
as saccharification, fermentation, and aroma-producing agents.
Fermentation starters are divided into daqu, xiaoqu, fuqu, and
other jiuqu, according to the preparation process.
Daqu is one of the oldest and most widely used starters in
China and uses barley, wheat, or peas as raw materials. Under
certain temperature and humidity conditions, Daqu can be
formed into a brick shape by adding water, stacking, crushing,
stirring, pressing, and cultivating in a Qu house, followed by
turning and storage. Daqu is a naturally occurring microbiota in
which the main microorganisms are molds, yeasts, bacteria, and
actinomycetes, such as Mucor racemosus, Aspergillus niger,
Thermomyces lanuginosus, Candida, Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Bacillus subtilis, lactic acid, and acetic acid bacteria.16 Daqu is
divided into high-, medium-, and low-temperature daqu
according to the cultivation temperature. High-temperature
daqu is cultured at 60−70 °C and mainly used for sauce-aroma
baijiu production. The main flavor compounds in high-
temperature daqu include tetramethylpyrazine, guaiacol,
phenylethanol, propanoic acid, 1,3-butanediol, methyl ester,
and acetic acid.17,18 However, high-temperature daqu has a
lower capacity for saccharification, liquefaction, and fermenta-
tion than low-temperature daqu. Medium-temperature daqu is
formed at 50−60 °C and mainly used for strong-aroma baijiu
production. It can be used to improve baijiu flavor by imbuing a
more rich and full taste and producing more caproic acid and
ethyl caproate. The main flavor compounds in medium-
temperature daqu include tetradecanoic acid ethyl ester,
guaiacol, pyrazines, phenylethyl alcohol, and caryophyllene.17,19
Low-temperature daqu is heated to no more than 50 °C and
mainly used for light-aroma baijiu production. Microorganisms
are abundant in low-temperature daqu, resulting in a better
fermentation capacity and higher yields of baijiu. A light flavor
and pure taste are formed as a result of the large amounts of
acetic acid, lactic acid, and alcohol compounds, in addition to,
typically, hexyl acetate, ethyl acetate, phenylethyl alcohol, ethyl
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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
Figure 2. Distribution of well-known baijiu with different aromas.
alcohol, hexanal, (E)-2-octenal, (Z)-2-octen-1-ol, nonanoic
acid, and pyrazines.16,17
Xiaoqu, which is widely used in the south of China, is
another naturally occurring microbiota. However, xiaoqu is
quite different from daqu and mainly uses rice with some herbs
or clay as the raw materials. The main microorganisms in
xiaoqu are molds and yeasts, especially Rhizopus sp., Rhizopus
oryzae, Rhizopus peka, and S. cerevisiae. The light flavor is mild
with rice, herbal, and fragrance aromas. The main flavor
compounds include acetic acid, ethyl acetate, phenylethyl
alcohol, and pyrazines.17,20 Xiaoqu produces a higher yield than
daqu.
Fuqu is another important fermentation starter with short
production, excellent saccharification and fermentation ca-
pacity, and high utilization.21 Fuqu uses bran as the raw
material, which is more economical than grains. The main
microorganisms in fuqu are molds, such as R. oryzae and
Aspergillus. These microorganisms are inoculated into the
culture medium by artificial inoculation under optimized
conditions.
Other microbial enzymes, such as cellulase, amylase,
glucoamylase, pectinase, and protease, in combination with
daqu, xiaoqu, and fuqu can effectively improve the liquor
fermentation yield, which saves labor and energy.
Further studies have focused more on the interactions of
good and pure strains as saccharification and fermentation
agents for baijiu combined with traditional daqu, xiaoqu, fuqu,
and pure cultures of multiple strains and commercial microbial
enzymes or active dry yeast. This can compensate for flavor
compound deficiencies in fermentations using a single strain.
Meanwhile, new kinds of microbial enzymes or active dry yeast
are needed for further research and development and to explore
new full enzymatic brewing processes. Furthermore, jiuqu
5428
Perspective
production is needed for mechanization and automation with
modern microbiological and molecular biology technology.
3.3. Raw Materials. The raw materials for baijiu
fermentation are mainly prepared from sorghum alone or a
mixture of corn, rice, wheat, peas, millet, and sorghum.22 The
flavor of baijiu is strongly influenced by its raw materials, with
large differences noted when using different types of raw
materials or the same raw materials from different regions. In
general, sorghum is widely used as the raw material in baijiu
fermentation to produce fragrance flavor and high liquor yields
and is well-suited to baijiu brewing, owing to its nutritional
composition and related physical properties.23 Sorghum is rich
in inorganic elements and vitamins, which provides a
foundation for the good growth and reproduction of micro-
organisms. Sorghum also contains tannins, which can be
transformed into aromatic substances, such as syringic acid, to
give a special aroma to baijiu. Rice contains less fat and
cellulose than sorghum, which is too sticky to ferment easily
after cooking and has a large ethyl hexanoate content that
produces a soft sweet flavor and clean aftertaste.24 Corn
contains more phytic acid, which is decomposed into inositol
and phosphoric acid during fermentation. Inositol produces the
sweet flavor in baijiu. Phosphoric acid can promote the
production of glycerol in baijiu to give the liquor a sweet flavor.
Owing to their high protein content, peas are not a good raw
material for baijiu production. Peas are rich in vanillin and other
phenolic compounds, which may contribute to the baijiu
aroma.
The fermentation of raw materials needs high contents of
carbohydrates and certain proteins and tannins, which are
suitable for the absorption and utilization of microorganisms.
The raw material should also be easy to store and have an easily
controllable moisture content to prevent spoilage. However,
this does not mean that all high-starch materials are suitable for
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 Table 1. Representative Aromas and Characteristics of Baijiu
representative fermentation flavor characteris-
aroma method raw material fermentation starter dominant microorganism main flavor compound tic
strong aroma solid-state fer- sorghum with medium- and Clostridium kluyveri, Burkholderia, Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactobacillaceae, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl acetate, ethyl lactate, ethyl butyrate, fragrant flavor,
mentation or without low-temperature Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomycopsis fibuligera, Talaromyces, Pichia ethyl valerate, ethyl heptanoate, hexanoic acid, butanoic soft mouthfeel,
glutinous rice, daqu kudriavzevii, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Eurotium, and Phanerochaete chrysospo- acid, heptanoic acid, furfural, and phenylethyl alcohol and long after-
rice, wheat, rium taste
and corn
light aroma solid-state fer- sorghum low-temperature daqu Pichia, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomycopsis, Issatchenkia, Hanseniaspora, ethyl acetate, ethyl lactate, acetic acid, pure and mild
mentation Torulaspora, Amylomyces, Lactobacillus, Streptpcoccus, Pediococcus, Aerococcus, 2-methylpropanoic acid, β-damascenone, and terpenoids flavor, mellow
Bacillus, Acetobacter, Endomycopsis, Candida, Hansenula, Saccharomyces, sweetness, and
Geotrichum, Rhizopus, Absidia, Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Monascus refreshing after-
taste
sauce aroma stacking fermen- sorghum high-temperature daqu Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptococcus, Halomonas, Thermomyces, Thermoascus, ethyl hexanoate, hexanoic acid, 3-methylbutanoic acid, soy sauce, with a
tation and Paecilomyces variotii, Zygosaccharomyces bailii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia 3-methylbutanol, tetramethylpyrazine, full-bodied
solid-state fer- membranifaciens, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Lactobacillus, and Bacillus ethyl 2-phenylacetate, 2-phenylethyl acetate, long-lasting
mentation ethyl 3-phenylpropanoate, 4-methylguaiacol, and aroma
γ-decalactone
rice aroma semi-solid-state rice xiaoqu Rhizopus sp., Rhizopus oryzae, Rhizopus peka, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae β-phenethyl alcohol, ethyl acetate, ethyl lactate, ethyl- soft sweet flavor
fermentation benzenecarboxylate, and diethyl succinate and clean after-
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry

taste
feng aroma solid-state fer- sorghum high-temperature daqu Lactobacillus, Bacillus, Brevibacilus, Sporosarcina, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae ethyl acetate, ethyl caproate, and isoamyl alcohol sweet, mellow,
mentation and elegant
aftertaste
te aroma solid-state fer- rice medium-temperature Saccharomyces, Pichia, Galactomyces, Aspergillus, Brettanomyces, Cladosporium, more than 98% esters and alcohols among the total flavor harmonious,
mentation daqu Galactomyces, and Thermoascus compounds, especially ethyl acetate and ethyl caproate strong, and
light flavor

5429
sesame aroma solid-state fer- sorghum, wheat, high-temperature daqu Bacillus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pantoea, Weissella, Lactobacillus, Rubellimi- ethyl pentanoate, ethyl hexanoate, 3-methylbutanal, combining fruity
mentation and corn crobium, Halomonas, Thermoactinomyces, Laceyella, and Pediococcus methional, ethyl butanoate, 3-methyl-1-butanol, hex- with sweaty,
anoic acid, butanoic acid, trimethyl pyrazine, roasted sesame-
2-acetyl furan, ethyl furoate, and methionol like, and floral
flavors
laobaigan solid-state fer- sorghum medium-temperature Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Acetobacter pasteurianus, Bacillus cereus, and Weissella esters, alcohols, aldehydes, acids, ketones, hydrocarbons, soft mellow char-
aroma mentation and daqu cibaria pyrazines, aromatics, and phenolic compounds acteristics and a
cylinder rich mouthfeel
fuyu aroma solid-state fer- sorghum, rice, medium-temperature Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bacillaceae, Deinococcaceae, Microbacteriaceae, acids, alcohols, ethyl butanoate, and low content of ethyl light, strong, and
mentation wheat, corn, daqu and xiaoqu Micrococcaceae, Moraxellaceae, Nocardiaceae, Rhodobacteraceae, and lactate rice flavor traits
and glutinous Xanthomonadaceae
rice
herbal aroma solid-state fer- sorghum daqu and xiaoqu Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Monascus, Rhizopus, Penicillium, Geotrichum candi- butyric acid, ethyl hexanoate, caproic acid, dimethyl herb-like with
mentation dum, and Actinomyces trisulfide, ethyl butanoate, 2-phenylethyl alcohol, sour aroma
3-methyl butyrate, 4-methyl phenol, 4-methyl guaiacol,
β-damascenone, ethyl pentanoate, (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal,
borneol, and fenchol
chi aroma semi-solid-state rice xiaoqu Mucor, Rhizopus chinensis, Rhizopus oryzae, surface yeasts, Saccharomyces (E)-2-octenal, 2-phenylethanol, fermented
fermentation cerevisiae, and Candida utilis 3-(methylthio)-1-propanol (methionol), soybean-like
diethyl 1,7-heptanedioate (diethyl pimelate), with clean
diethyl 1,8-octanedioate (diethyl suberate), and aftertaste
diethyl 1,9-nonanedioate (diethyl azelate)
mixed aromas solid-state fer- sorghum, wheat, high-temperature daqu Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus velezensis, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Bacillus lichen- tetramethylpyrazine, and 2-pentyl furan between those of
mentation barley, and iformis, Bacillus methylotrophicus, Saccharomycopsis fibuligera, Beauveria sauce aroma
peas bassiana, Eurotium athecium, Eurotium amstelodami, Aspergillus versicolor, (maotai) and
Thermoascus crustaceus, Mycocladus corymbiferus, and Paecilomyces variotii strong aroma
(luzhou)
Perspective

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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
Figure 3. Generalization of all factors influencing baijiu flavor formation (raw materials, fermentation, and distillation develop the flavor of baijiu;
storage processing improves the flavor; and blending processing modifies the flavor).
baijiu production, such as millet or buckwheat, which are in
short supply. Multigrain brewing is complementary to baijiu
fermentation, and its use is a development trend in baijiu
production. Multigrain brewing requires that the various raw
materials have reasonable ratios and relationships and that the
scientific production process is adapted.
Fermentation is an important process for taking advantage of
microorganisms from jiuqu and the environment for baijiu
production, in which starches or carbohydrates, proteins or
amino acids, and lipids are transformed into ethanol and
different flavor components through a series of biochemical
reactions. The different fermentation methods use different
microorganisms and enzymes, which contribute to the delicate
balance and functions of stability, quality, and productivity,
resulting in different metabolites in the fermentation process,
which produce different baijiu flavors. Other new developments
in the baijiu industry are that solid-state fermentation requires a
combination with liquid fermentation, underground fermenta-
tion needs to be transferred to ground fermentation, natural
fermentation needs artificial temperature control, and the
control of large-scale mechanical equipment via automation and
intelligentization will eventually replace manual labor. Tradi-
tional industrial techniques will be applied to achieve
modernization, which could allow baijiu to be exported and
become a more famous distilled beverage globally as a result of
high-quality, inexpensive, and high-yielding production.
4. BAIJIU FLAVOR
Baijiu is differentiated from other liquors because of its
distinctive flavor, taste, and production process. Flavor
substances in baijiu are endogenous, produced during jiuqu
production, saccharification, fermentation, distillation, and
storage processes. Owing to the diversity of microorganisms
and raw materials, baijiu compositions can vary greatly. In 2007,
Zhu et al. used two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-
flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC/TOFMS) to identify 528
compounds in Maotai.25 Recently, Jin et al. reported more than
1000 volatile compounds in baijiu.17 New compounds continue
to emerge with more advanced analytical techniques. We have
listed and summarized all volatile flavor compounds reported
between 1990 and 2017. These compounds have been
identified by techniques including spectroscopy, gas chroma-
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Perspective
tography (GC), gas chromatography−mass spectrometry
(GC−MS), gas chromatography−olfactometry (GC−O), elec-
tronic noses, and colorimetric artificial noses. A total of 1874
kinds of volatile flavor compounds were identified in baijiu
during this period, including 506 esters, 235 alcohols, 166
aromatics, 140 ketones, 132 heterocyclic compounds (including
77 furans), 129 nitrogenous compounds (including 74
pyrazines), 127 acids, 97 aldehydes, 78 hydrocarbons, 76
terpenes, 73 sulfur compounds, 44 acetals, 18 lactones, and 53
other compounds. We have listed and summarized odor
thresholds of 217 aroma compounds of baijiu in Table S1 of the
Supporting Information. A total of 217 kinds of aroma
compounds were identified in baijiu, including 61 esters, 20
alcohols, 29 aldehydes, 18 ketones, 23 acids, 11 pyrazines, 6
furans, 13 phenols, 11 aromatics, 15 sulfur compounds, 4
lactones, and 6 other compounds. These different flavor
compounds lead to special flavor types. Baijiu consists of four
dominant aroma types, namely, strong, light, sauce, and rice
aromas, from which all others derive. At present, there are 12
types of representative aroma, including the above four aromas
and feng, te, sesame, laobaigan, fuyu, herbal, chi, and mixed
aromas, which are distributed in different provinces of China
(Figure 2). All Chinese regions produce baijiu, especially
Sichuan, Guizhou, Shandong, Jiangsu, Anhui, Shanxi, and
Henan provinces, which comprise more than 90% of total
Chinese liquor output.26 Owing to the diversity of micro-
organisms and raw materials, baijiu compositions can vary
greatly. These different flavor compounds lead to special flavor
types. The representative aromas and characteristics of baijiu
are listed in Table 1, which provides an overview of these 12
types of baijiu. Typically, the concentration of ethyl hexanoate
is higher than that of other aroma compounds in strong-aroma-
type baijiu, making it the main flavor compound. Similarly,
ethyl acetate, ethyl lactate, ethyl acetate and β-phenethyl
alcohol, and ethyl propionate are the main flavor compounds in
light-aroma-type, laobaigan-aroma-type, rice-aroma-type, and
sesame-aroma-type baijiu, respectively. Among these, the
strong-aroma type accounts for about 70% of total liquor
production. Fenjiu in Shanxi province is a typical light-aroma
baijiu that is also the original Chinese baijiu, while Maotai, a
famous spirit, is a sauce-aroma-type baijiu.
The flavor of baijiu is complicated and can be affected by the
fermentation, distillation, aging, blending processes, raw
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00692
J. Agric. Food Chem. 2018, 66, 5425−5432
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
materials, jiuqu, and environmental conditions during produc-
tion (Figure 3). Therefore, the diversity in baijiu flavor arises
from slight changes in production processing. In recent years,
researchers have focused on investigating the microorganisms
and flavor active compounds and improving baijiu production
processes using modern advanced analytical techniques to
identify additional unknown compounds in baijiu.
Baijiu has been a favorite liquor in China for thousands of
years, reflecting its cultural heritage and health benefits. We
have focused on investigating baijiu production, fermentation,
and flavor chemistry to summarize the typical flavor types of
baijiu and compare fermentation methods, raw materials,
fermentation starters, dominant microorganisms, main flavor
compounds, and flavor characteristics (Table 1). Baijiu contains
various flavor compounds, most of which are beneficial to
humans. Therefore, development trends in baijiu production
should be directed by both flavor and health. Another
important direction for the development of baijiu research
and production is the regulation of saccharification and
fermentation processes and improving the contents of
characteristic flavor substances and key health factors produced
by functional microorganisms.
■
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
*
S Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the
ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00692.
Odor thresholds of 217 aroma compounds in baijiu
(Table S1) (PDF)
■
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*Telephone/Fax: +86-10-68984768. E-mail: sunbg@btbu.edu.
cn.
ORCID
Huilin Liu: 0000-0002-7912-2611
Baoguo Sun: 0000-0003-4326-8237
Funding
This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of
China (2016YFD0400500), the Advisory Project of the
Academician of the Chinese Academy of Engineering (2018-
XY-28), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(31701567 and L1522022).
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
■
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J. Agric. Food Chem. 2018, 66, 5425−5432