1

6,17(=/,1*9,67,&*(1(5$/
Anul I
6SHFLDOLW LOH$úL%

2000

Const. Dominte, Zamfira Mihail, Maria Osiac

SUMAR

Introducere
/LQJYLVWLFDJHQHUDO'HILQL LHúLVFXUWLVWRULF&'
/LPEDMúLDFWGHFRPXQLFDUHYHUEDO&'
)XQF LLOHúLFDUDFWHULVWLFLle definitorii ale limbajului (C.D.)
&kWHYDGLKRWRPLLGLVWLQF LLFRQFHSWXDOH&'
$QDOL]DFRQWUDVWLY&'
Semnul lingvistic (M.O.)
6FKLPEULOHOLQJYLVWLFH&RQWDFWXOGLQWUHOLPEL=0
/LQJYLVWLFDVSD LDO=0
Limba în cadrul social (Z.M.)
Compartimentele limbii (C.D.)
3ULQFLSLXOVWUDWLILFD LRQDODOOLPEDMXOXL&'
Fonetica – studiul sunetelor vorbirii (C.D.)
Fonologia – studiul fenomenelor sistemului (C.D.)
Morfemul (M.O.)
Sintaxa (Z.M.)
Lexematica – lexicologia (Z.M.)
Semantica (M.O.)
BibliogUDILHREOLJDWRULHúLIDFXOWDWLY
Teme – subiecte pentru referate
3UHFL]UL
Test de autoevaluare

UNIVERSITATEA SPIRU HARET

)$&8/7$7($'(/,0%,ù,/,7(5$785,675,1(
&$7('5$'(/,1*9,67,&*(1(5$/
Const. Dominte, Zamfira Mihail, Maria Osiac

CURS DE LING9,67,&*(1(5$/
Anul I
6SHFLDOLW LOH$úL%

INTRODUCERE

&XUVXO GH OLQJYLVWLF JHQHUDO XUPUHúWH V-L LQWURGXF SH WLQHULL ILORORJL vQ
VWXGLXOOLQJYLVWLFLLVOHSUH]LQWHRELHFWXOúLLPSRUWDQ DDFHVWHLGLVFLSOLQHFDúWLLQ D
limbii.
 2

Dintre problemele care fac obiectul cursului, amintim: metodele de cercetare,

UDSRUWXOGLQWUHOLQJYLVWLFúLDOWHúWLLQ HSULQFLSDOHOHúFROLOLQJYLVWLFHVWUXFWXUDOLPELL
OHJLOHOLPELLOLPEDMOLPEYRUELUHUHOD LLOHGLQWUHOLPEúLJkQGLUHOLPEúLVRFLHWDWH
clasiILFDUHDOLPELORUvQUXGLUHDGLQWUHOLPELúLIRUPDUHDIDPLOLLORUOLQJYLVWLFHIRQHWLFD
úLIRQRORJLDOH[LFRORJLDJUDPDWLFDFDX]HOHVFKLPEULORUOLQJYLVWLFH
6WXGHQ LL WUHEXLH IDPLOLDUL]D L FX R VHULH GH WHUPHQLúLGHQR LXQLFDUHDSDU LQ
exclusiv lingvistLFLL FX RELHFWXO úL PHWRGHOH VSHFLDOH GH LQYHVWLJD LH V LQWHJUH]H
QRLOHLQIRUPD LLvQVLVWHPXOSURSULXGHJkQGLUH
6HPLQDUXO YHULILF DVSHFWH WHRUHWLFH DSURIXQGkQG SULRULWDU SH FHOH SUDFWLF-
aplicative.

/,1*9,67,&$*(1(5$/'(),1,,(ù,6&857,6725,&

/LQJYLVWLFD JHQHUDO HVWH WHRULD JHQHUDO D VWXGLXOXL OLPEDMXOXL DGLF D

VWXGLXOXLFRPXQLFULLYHUEDOHSULQFXYLQWHúLFRPELQD LLvQWUHFXYLQWHLQWHUXPDQHvQ
FDGUXOVRFLHW LL(DQXVHFRQIXQGFXILORVRILDOLPEDMXOXLFDUHVHUHIHUODOLPEDMvQ
reOD LHFXDOWHDFWLYLW LXPDQHvQVSHFLDOFXJkQGLUHD/LQJYLVWLFDJHQHUDOWUHEXLHV
ILHGHRVHELWúLGHVHPLRWLFVWXGLXOWHRUHWLFDOWXWXURUWLSXULORUGHVHPQHúLDOUROXOXL
ORU vQ DQVDPEOXO YLH LL VRFLDOH 6H SRDWH YRUEL GH R VHPLRWLF H[WUDOLQJYLVWLF
UHSUH]HQWkQGVWXGLXOVHPQHORUQHOLQJYLVWLFHFURPDWLFHRSWLFHROIDFWLYHHWFúLGHR
VHPLRWLF OLQJYLVWLF DGLF VWXGLX DO XQLW LORU OLQJYLVWLFH PRUIHPH FXYLQWH
HQXQ XUL SULYLWH FD VHPQH 6H vQ HOHJH F OLQJYLVWLFD JHQHUDO vQ FDOLWDWH GH Weorie a
OLPEDMXOXLVHDIOvQUHOD LLPDLVWUkQVHFXVHPLRWLFDOLQJYLVWLF
7HRULD FRPXQLFULL DUH XQ RELHFW IRDUWH ODUJ GH VWXGLX SULYLQG FRPXQLFDUHD
vQWUH RDPHQL FRPXQLFDUHD vQWUH RDPHQL úL FDOFXODWRDUH FRPXQLFDUHD vQWUH LQGLYL]L
DSDU LQkQG DOWRU VSHFLL GH YLH XLWRDUH HVWH XQ GRPHQLX IRDUWH ODUJ LQFOX]kQG GHFL úL
FRPXQLFDUHD YHUEDO úL QXPDL SULQ DFHVW GRPHQLX GLQ XUP OLQJYLVWLFD JHQHUDO VH
DIO vQ UHOD LH FX WHRULD JHQHUDO D FRPXQLFULL ùL ILORORJLD VH SRDWH UDSRUWD OD
OLQJYLVWLFD JHQHUDO 3ULQ ILORORJLH VH vQ HOHJH VWXGLXO FRPSOH[ DO OLPELL úL OLWHUDWXULL
XQXLSRSRUVDXDOHXQRUSRSRDUHvQUXGLWHOLQJYLVWLFDJHQHUDOIXUQL]HD]FRQFHSWHOHúL
ÄDSDUDWXUDWHRUHWLF´FRPSRQHQWHLOLQJYLVWLFHDILORORJLHL
ùWLLQ D OLPELL D SDUFXUV R LVWRULH vQGHOXQJDW GLYL]DW FRQYHQ LRQDO vQ GRX
HWDSH HWDSD SUHúWLLQ LILF GLQ $QWLFKLWDWH SkQ OD vQFHSXWXO VHFROXOXL DO ;,;-OHD úL
HWDSD úWLLQ LILF GH OD vQFHSXWXO VHFROXOXL DO ;,;-OHD SkQ vQ ]LOHOH QRDVWUH
/LQJYLVWLFD D GHYHQLW R úWLLQ  GXS DSDUL LD SUimei metode specifice de cercetare a
IHQRPHQXOXL OLQJYLVWLF PHWRGD FRPSDUDWLY-LVWRULF  SULQ RSHUD OLQJYLVWXOXL
JHUPDQ )UDQ] %RSS úL GXS FRQWXUDUHD RELHFWXOXL HL GH VWXGLX  SULQ RSHUD
OLQJYLVWXOXLHOYH LDQ)HUGLQDQGGH6DXVXUHFDUHDQDOL]D limbajul, ca facultate general
XPDQGHDFRPXQLFDYHUEDOvQGRXDVSHFWHLPSRUWDQWHOLPEDFDVLVWHPGHVHPQH
YHUEDOHúLGHUHOD LLvQWUHDFHOHVHPQHúLYRUELUHDFDSXQHUHvQIXQF LXQHDVLVWHPXOXL
úL UH LQHD FD RELHFW SURSULX OLQJYLVWLFLL QXPDL OLPED QX úL YRUELUHD /LQJYLúWLL
IXQF LRQDOLúWL FRQWHPSRUDQL 5-DNREVRQ$0DUWLQHW(&RúHULXDXRYL]LXQHPDL
ODUJ DVXSUD RELHFWXOXL OLQJYLVWLFLL FRQVLGHUkQG F WRWXúL QX OLPED FL OLPEDMXO
constituie acest obiect.
ÌQ HWDSD SUHúWLLQ LILF D OLQJYLVWLFLL vQ ,QGLD DQWLF V-D DMXQV OD R EXQ
clasificare articulatorie a sunetelor limbii sanskrite (în special a consoanelor), au fost
GHVFRSHULWH DOWHUQDQ HOH IRQHWLFH úL DFFLGHQWHOH GH FRDUWLFXOD LH VDQGKL D IRVW LQWXLW
conceptul de fonem (sphota)FDúLVWUXFWXUDPRUIHPDWLFDFXYLQWHORUGHDVHPHQHD–
FRQFHSWXOÄPHWDOLPEDM´ÌQ*UHFLDDQWLFV-DXSXVED]HOHUHWRULFLLúLDOHILORORJLHLV-au
 3

GLVRFLDWPRUIRORJLDúLVLQWD[DvQLQWHULRUXOJUDPDWLFLLV-DVFKL DWRIRQHWLFLQFLSLHQW
dar – mai ales – D IRVW LQL LDW ILORVRILD OLPEDMXOXL 3UHOXkQG vQY WXUD JUHFLORU
URPDQLL DX GDW PDUH DWHQ LH FXOWXULL XQHL OLPEL OLWHUDUH ODWLQD FODVLF FRPEWkQG
dintr-R SHUVSHFWLY QRUPDWLY DEDWHULOH GH OD DFHVWH IRUPH GH OLPE FH DYHDX V ILH
cunoscute mai tkU]LX FD ODWLQ YXOJDU SRSXODU GLQ FDUH VH YRU GH]YROWD OD
vQFHSXWXULOH (YXOXL 0HGLX OLPELOH QHRODWLQH vQWUH FDUH úL URPkQD 7RW vQDQWLFKLWDWH
DXDSUXWSULPHOHJORVDUHúLFKLDUGLF LRQDUHELOLQJYHFDRSUHILJXUDUHDSUHRFXSULORU
lexicologice de mai târziu.
În Evul Mediu s-D QVFXW ILORORJLD DUDE FX XQHOH VXJHVWLL YHQLWH GLQVSUH
vechea Indie, iar altele –GLQVSUHYHFKHD*UHFLH/DDUDELFDúLODFKLQH]LVHGH]YROW
LQWHUHVXO ID  GH GLYHUVLILFDUHD GLDOHFWDO D OLPELORU PDQLIHVWDW PDL vQWkL vn vechea
FXOWXU D *UHFLHL ÌQ (YXO 0HGLX HXURSHDQ vQ HSRFD VFRODVWLFLL V-a acordat interes
DFFHQWXDW UDSRUWXULORU GLQWUH H[SULPDUHD OLQJYLVWLF úL JkQGLUHD FRUHFW UHJXOLOH úL
principiile logice), culminând cu Gramatica de la Port-Royal (1660) – o gramDWLF
ÄUD LRQDO´DOLPELLIUDQFH]HGLQSHUVSHFWLYDFDWHJRULLORUORJLFH'DQWH$OLJKLHULvQF
vQDLQWH GH 5HQDúWHUH VH UHIHUHD OD GLDOHFWHOH OLPELL LWDOLHQH (YXO 0HGLX HXURSHDQ
UPkQHDvQVGRPLQDWGHRPDUHHURDUHvQSULYLQ DJORWWRJHQHWLFLLDRULJLQLi limbilor):
VHFUHGHDvQVSLULWXO%LEOLHLFWRDWHOLPELOHFXQRVFXWHDUSURYHQLGLQHEUDLFLGHHD
FUHL IDOVLWDWH DX GHPRQVWUDW-o mai ales secolele al XVII-OHD úL DO ;9,,,-lea. De
DWXQFL vQ ORFXO LSRWH]HL PRQRJHQHWLFH D OLPEDMXOXL úL-a croit drum ipoteza
SROLJHQHWLF LGHHD F OLPEDMXO D DSUXW vQ PDL PXOWH SXQFWH GH SH JORE vQ PRG
independent).
ÌQFGLQ$QWLFKLWDWHDXIRVWVFKL DWHWUHLSHUVSHFWLYHGLQFDUHSRDWHILVWXGLDW
RULFHOLPEDSHUVSHFWLYDGHVFULSWLYGHVFULHUHDOLPELLDúDFXPIXQF LRQHD]HDvQ
SURFHVXO GH FRPXQLFDUH YHUEDO OD XQ PRPHQW GDW E SHUVSHFWLYD HYROXWLY
FHUFHWDUHD OLPELL GLQ SXQFWXO GH YHGHUH DO PRGLILFULORU SH FDUH HD OH VXIHU GH-a
lungul timpului) – PDL VODE UHSUH]HQWDW WRWXúL F SHUVSHFWLYD FRPSDUDWLY
(cercetaUHDHOHPHQWHORUGHRVHELWRDUHGLQWUHOLPELúLPDLDOHVDDFHORUDDVHPQWRDUH
sau chiar comune unor limbi diferite).
'DU úWLLQ D OLPELL D DSUXW R GDW FX SULPD PHWRG SURSULH GH FHUFHWDUH D
limbii: metoda comparativ-LVWRULFGHMDDPLQWLW3ULQDFHDVWPHWRGVHvQ HOHJHXQ
DQVDPEOXGHSULQFLSLLúLSURFHGHHDSOLFDWHvQFHUFHWDUHDOLPELORUvQUXGLWHSHQWUXDOH
lumina trecutul (pre)istoric. Principiile ei sunt: 1) arbitrarul semnului lingvistic,
FRQIRUP FUXLD XQD úL DFHHDúL QR LXQH HVWH H[SULPDWvQFKLSIHOXULWGHODROLPEOD
DOWDH[URPkQRPUXVþHORYHNJHUPDQ0DQQPDJKLDUHPEHUWXUFDGDP
DUDE LQVDQXQ FKLQH] UHQ HWF  UHJXODULWDWHD VFKLPEULORU IRQHWLFH FRQIRUP
FUHLDvPSUXPXWXULOHGLQWU-ROLPEvQWU-DOWDVHIDFIUIRDUWHPDULPRGLILFULIRQHWLFH
vQVFKLPEHOHPHQWHOHOH[LFDOHPRúWHQLWHGLQWU-ROLPE-PDPSURWROLPEvQOLPELOH-
ILLFHUH]XOWDWHSULQGLYHUVLILFDUHDFHOHLGLQWkLVXIHUDQXPLWHPRGLILFULUHJXODWHH[
grupul latin ct din lacte, noctem, octo devine pt în roPkQODSWHQRDSWHRSWGHYLQHWW
vQ LWDOLDQ ODWWH QRWWH RWWR UHVSHFWLY LW vQ IUDQFH] ODLW QXLW KXLW HWF (YROX LD
JUXSXOXL ODWLQ FW VSUH URP SW LW WW IU LW vQ FXYLQWH URPDQLFH GLQ ODWLQ HVWH R
VFKLPEDUH IRQHWLF UHJXODW FD IHQRPHQ LVWRULF GH RUGLQ IRQHWLF SH FkQG UHOD LD
GLQWUH URP SW LW WW IU LW HWF FRQVWLWXLH XQ QXPU GH FRUHVSRQGHQ H IRQHWLFH vQWUH
limbile neolatine (ca fenomene de ordin fonetic comparabile într-RDQXPLWHSRFGLQ
HYROX LD DFHORU OLPEL 'H UH LQXW F VFKLPEULOH IRQHWLFH UH]XOWDWH QX VH SURGXF vQ
cuvintele împrumutate (ex.: rom. nocturn, pectoral, cu bazele latine nocturnus,
pectorale nu au schimbat, din acest motiv, grupul ct în pt).
/LPELOHvQUXGLWHDGLFSURYHQLWH– prin diversificare –GLQDFHHDúLSURWROLPE
IRUPHD] IDPLOLL GH OLPEL 'H SLOG IDPLOLD GLQ FDUH IDFH SDUWH OLPED URPkQ VH
 4

QXPHúWH LQGR-HXURSHDQ úL VH vPSDUWH vQ PDL PXOWH VXEIDPLOLL VDX UDPXUL GH OLPEL
GLQWUHFDUHVHPHQ LRQHD]PDLMRVQXPDLFHOHDFWXDOHUDPXUDURPDQLFVDXQHRODWLQ
FXURPkQDLWDOLDQDVkUEDUHWURURPkQDIUDQFH]DFDWDODQDVSDQLRODSRUWXJKH]DúD
UDPXUD JHUPDQLF FX JHUPDQD HQJOH]D OLPELOH VFDQGLQDYH úD UDPXUD VODY FX
grupul de est: rusa, ucraineana, bielorusa; grupul de vest: polona, ceha, slovaca úD
JUXSXO GH VXG VORYHQD FURDWD VkUED EXOJDUD UDPXUD FHOWLF LUODQGH]D JDOH]D
bretona); greaca; albaneza –WRDWHDFHVWHDYRUELWHvQ(XURSDLDUXQHOHGLQWUHHOHúLvQ
$PHULFL $VLD $IULFD $XVWUDOLD DUPHDQD UDPXUD LUDQLF FX QHRSHUVDQD DIgana,
WDGMLND NXUGD úD UDPXUD LQGLDQ FX KLQGL XUGX EHQJDOL LJQHDVF úD FDUH VH
vorbesc în Asia de Sud-vest.
2 GDW FX vQ HOHJHUHD UDSRUWXULORU GLQWUH DFHVWH OLPEL D DSUXW FRPSDUDWLVWLFD
indo-HXURSHDQ GXS PRGHOXO FUHLD DX DSUXW URPDQLVWica (studiul comparat al
limbilor romanice – întemeiat de lingvistul german Friedrich Diez, 1836),
germanistica (studiul comparat al limbilor germanice – întemeiat de lingvistul german
Jakob Grimm), slavistica (studiul comparat al limbilor slave – întemeiat de rusul Al.
Hr. Hvostokov) etc. În secolul al XX-lea, comparatistica indo-HXURSHDQ D IRVW
VWUOXFLWUHSUH]HQWDWGHIUDQFH]XO$QWRLQH0HLOOHW&HOGLQWkLLQGR-europenist român a
fost B. P. Hasdeu. La dezvoltarea romanisticii au mai contribuit austriecii Hugo
6FKXFKUGWúL:LOKHOP0H\HU-/ENHDXWRUDOSULPXOXLGLF LRQDUHWLPRORJLFDOOLPELORU
URPDQLFH IUDQFH]XO *DVWRQ 3DULV úL DO LL ÌQ OLQJYLVWLFD URPkQHDVF GXS +DVGHX
FRQWULEX LL LPSRUWDQWH DX DYXW $O 3KLOLSSLGH vQWHPHLHWRUXO úFROLL OLQJYLVWLFH de la
,DúL2YLG'HQVXVLDQXIRQGDWRUXOúFROLLOLQJYLVWLFHGHOD%XFXUHúWLúL6H[WLO3XúFDULX
IRQGDWRUXO úFROLL OLQJYLVWLFH GH OD &OXM FRRUGRQDWRU DO PDUHOXL GLF LRQDU-tezaur al
OLPELL URPkQH úL DO XQXL EXQ DWODV OLQJYLVWLF URPkQHVF LDU OD MXPWDWHD secolului al
XX-OHD úL GXS DFHHD URPDQLVWXO ,RUJX ,RUGDQ URPkQLVWXO $OH[DQGUX 5RVHWWL
FODVLFLVWXO úL URPkQLVWXO $OH[DQGUX *UDXU vQWHPHLHWRU DO OLQJYLVWLFLL JHQHUDOH OD
8QLYHUVLWDWHDGLQ%XFXUHúWLVODYLVWXO(PLO3HWURYLFL
La limita dintre secolele al XIX-OHD úL DO ;;-OHD DX DSUXW vQ 2FFLGHQWXO
(XURSHL GRX QRL PHWRGH GH FHUFHWDUH OLQJYLVWLF IRQHWLFD H[SHULPHQWDO VWXGLXO
VXQHWHORUDUWLFXODWHFXDMXWRUXOXQRUDSDUDWHVSHFLDOHLQL LDWGHIUDQFH]XO-5RXVVHORW
úLJHRJUDILDOLQJYLVWLFUHSUH]HQWDUHDFDUWRJUDILFDUVSkQGLULLWHULWRULDOHDDQXPLWRU
SDUWLFXODULW L OLQJYLVWLFH LQL LDW GH HOYH LDQXO - *LOOLHURQ 7HRULD OLPELL VDX
OLQJYLVWLFD JHQHUDO D IRVW UHYROX LRQDW vQ (XURSD GH FWUH )HUGLQDQG GH 6DXVVXUH
prin Curs-XOGHOLQJYLVWLFJHQHUDOSXEOLFDWSRVWXPLDUvQ$PHULFDGHFWUH
Leonard Bloomfield prin volumul Language (1933).
)HUGLQDQGGH6DXVVXUHDWUJHDDWHQ LDDVXSUDFDUDFWHUXOXLVRFLDODOOLPELLúLD
IDSWXOXL F OLPED HVWH XQ VLVWHP GH VHPQH FHHD FH LPSOLFD vQFDGUDUHD lingvisticii
teoretice în domeniul mai larg al semioticii. Tot el a reorientat studiul limbii dinspre
SHUVSHFWLYD LVWRULF VSUH DFHHD GHVFULSWLY PRWLYkQG F vQ IHOXO DFHVWD VH SRDWH
identifica mai pregnant sistemul lingvistic. A definit cuvântul ca semn format prin
DVRFLHUHDXQXLVHPQLILFDQWLPDJLQHDFXVWLFFXXQVHPQLILFDWFRQFHSWúLDDUWDWF
VHPQHOH OLQJYLVWLFH VH RUJDQL]HD] SH R LPDJLQDU D[ DVRFLDWLY vQ YDULDWH VHULL
IOH[LRQDUH OH[LFDOH HWF úL SH R LPDJLQDU D[ VLQWDJPDWLF vQ úLUXUL constând din
FRPELQD LL DOH ORU /LPED ILLQG GXS 6DXVVXUH SULQWU-R VXJHVWLH SUHOXDW GH OD
vQDLQWDúL R IRUP úL QX R VXEVWDQ  VH FRQWXUHD] vQ IHOXO DFHVWD R OLQJYLVWLF
IRUPDOVDXLQWHUQvQRSR]L LHFXOLQJYLVWLFDH[WHUQDOFUHLRELHFWHVWHreprezentat
GHUHOD LLOHOLPELLFXDOWHIHQRPHQHVRFLDOH'LQOLQJYLVWLFDLQWHUQVDXVVXULDQDYHDV
VHGH]YROWHvQHSRFDLQWHUEHOLFVWUXFWXUDOLVPXOOLQJYLVWLFHXURSHDQ
$FHVWFXUHQWOLQJYLVWLFDIRVWUHSUH]HQWDWSULQGRXúFROLLPSRUWDQWHùFRDODGH
lD 3UDJD vQWHPHLDW GH OLQJYLúWLL FHKL vQ IUXQWH FX 9LOpP 0DWKHVLXV FURUD OL V-au
 5

DOWXUDWUXúLL167UXEH NRLúL5-DNSEVRQúLùFRDODGHOD&RSHQKDJDvQWHPHLDWGH
OLQJYLúWLL GDQH]L /+MHOPVOHY úL +-:GDOO ùFRDOD GH OD 3UDJD D vQWHPHLDW R QRX
discipOLQ OLQJYLVWLF IRQRORJLD VWXGLXO VXQHWHORU-tip ale limbii, privite din punct de
YHGHUH IXQF LRQDO úL QXPLWH IRQHPH LDU ùFRDOD GH OD &RSHQKDJD D GXV PDL GHSDUWH
VFKL DGHVWXGLXIRUPDODOOLPELLLQL LDWGH6DXVVXUHSULQGH]YROWDUHDXQHLOLQJYLVWLFL
FHQWUDWHSHLQWHUHVXOQXDWkWSHQWUXXQLW LOHOLPELLFDDWDUHFkWSHUHOD LLOHGLQWUHHOH
FRQFHS LHSXUWkQGGHQXPLUHDJORVHPDWLF
Americanul L.Bloomfield, întemeietor al structuralismului mecanicist
FXQRVFXW úL VXE GHQXPLUHD GHVFULSWLYLVP D GDW PDUH DWHQ LH ODWXULL GH H[SUHVLH D
XQLW LORUOLPELLQHUHVSLQJkQGODWXUDORUGHFRQ LQXWGDUFRQVLGHUkQG-RFDH[WHULRDU
OLPELL FD RELHFW GH VWXGLX DO DOWRU úWLLQ H GHFkWOLQJYLVWLFD(OúLGLVFLSROLLVLDXGDW
DWHQ LH GLVWULEX LHL YDULDWHORU HOHPHQWH úL XQLW L DOH OLPELL vQ FDGUXO FRPELQD LLORU
posibile dintre ele, au introdus conceptul „context diagnostic”, util definirii formale a
GLIHULWHORU FODVH GH XQLW L 8Q VWUXFWXUDOLVP GH WLS RSXV úL DQXPH PHQWDOLVW D
promovat lingvistul american Edward Sapir, întemeietorul etnolingvisticii (studiul
OLPELLvQVWUkQVUHOD LHFXvQWUHDJDFXOWXUDXQHLFRPXQLW LXPDQHDXWRUDOXQXLDOW
volum cu titlul Language (421).
'LQ vQFHUFDUHD GH D FRQFLOLD GLUHF LD PHFDQLFLVW D VWUXFWXUDOLVPXOXL
descriptivist cu aceea PHQWDOLVWDDSUXWvQ68$vQDGRXDMXPWDWHDVHFROXOXLDO
XX-lea, curentul gramaticilor generative-WUDQVIRUPD LRQDOH LQL LDWRUXO FUXLD HVWH
Noam Chomsky.

$1$/,=$&2175$67,9

Într-ROHF LHDQWHULRDUDXIRVWPHQ LQXWHFHOHWUHLSHUVSHFWLYHdin care poate fi

VWXGLDW RULFH OLPE /H UHDPLQWLP DLFL SHUVSHFWLYD GHVFULSWLY VDX VLQFURQLF
SHUVSHFWLYDHYROXWLYVDXLVWRULFúLSHUVSHFWLYDFRPSDUDWLY
(VWHGHSUHFL]DWFODFHDGLQXUPVHSRDWHUHFXUJHQXPDLvQDVRFLHUHFXXQD
dintre primeOH'LQDVRFLHUHDSHUVSHFWLYHORUHYROXWLYúLLVWRULFDOXDWQDúWHUHVWXGLXO
comparativ-istoric, consacrat limbilor înrudite, împrejurare în care pot fi comparate
RULFkWGHPXOWHOLPELFXVLQJXUDFRQGL LHFDHOHVSURYLQGLQWU-un prototip lingvistic
(dintr-RSURWROLPEVDXÄOLPEPDP´vQXUPDGLYHUVLILFULL
$VRFLHUHD SHUVSHFWLYHORU GHVFULSWLY úL FRPSDUDWLY D GDW QDúWHUH VWXGLXOXL
comparativ-VLQFURQLF FXQRVFXW VXE QXPHOH GH DQDOL] FRQWUDVWLY VDX FRQIURQWDWLY
FRQIUXQWDWLY ÌQWU-un astfel de studiu sunt luate în considerare, de obicei, nu mai
PXOWGHGRXOLPELLQGLIHUHQWGDFHOHVXQWvQUXGLWHVDXQXFRQGL LDGHUHVSHFWDWILLQG
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 11

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 12

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 13

lor lingvistice –FHHDFH LQHGHIRUP– se pot deosebi în lLPELGLIHULWH$VWIHOUHOD LD

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XUPvQVSHFLDOvQVWLOXOSRHWLFDUKDL]DQQWvQVFKLPEvQOLPEDIUDQFH]VDXHQJOH]
GLVWULEX LDLQYHUVDWDHOHPHQWHORUFRQVWLWXWLYHFRUHVSXQ]WRDUHQXHVWHSRVLELOHQJO
WKLVWUHH,KDYHUHG,VKDOOVLQJúLQX WUHHWKLV UHGKDYH, VLQJVKDOO,ILLQGvQV
SRVLELOH H[SUHVLLOH KDYH , UHG" VKDOO , VLQJ" GDU QXPDL vQ SURSR]L LL  LQWHURJDWLYH
respHFWLYIUFHWDUEUHM¶DLOXúLQX DUEUHFHW OXM¶DLILLQGSRVLELOWRSLFDDL¶MHOX"
vQ FRQVWUXF LH LQWHURJDWLY $VWHULVFXO VWHOX D GLQ ID D DQXPLWRU H[SUHVLL
VLPEROL]HD] LQH[LVWHQ D ORU vQ YRUELUH IDSWXO F VXQW FRQVWUXF LL QHDWHVWDWH 'LQ
SHUVSHFWLYD GLVWULEX LHL úL GLQ LQWHQ LD V HYLWH FULWHULXO VHPDQWLF vQ IDYRDUHD XQXL
FULWHULX IRUPDO VWUXFWXUDO vQ OLQJYLVWLFD DPHULFDQ D IRVW LQWURGXV FRQFHSWXO GLQ
ÄFRQWH[WGLDJQRVWLF´FRQWH[WvQVHPQkQGFHHDFHSUHFHGúLFHXUPHD]vQUDSRUWFXXQ
 14

VHPQ OLQJYLVWLF GDW vQ LQWHULRUXO PHVDMXOXL SULQ FRQWH[W GLDJQRVWLF VH vQ HOHJH
ÄFRQWH[WVSHFLILFVDXGHILQLWRULXDOXQHLXQLW LOLQJYLVWLFH(VWHRPDQLHUGHDGHILQL
XQLW LOH OLPELL DVHPQWRDUH vQWUXFkWYD  FX DFHHD vQ FDUH VH SUHFL]HD] vQ
vQY PkQWXO URPkQHVF SUHXQLYHUVLWDU DSDUWHQHQ D VXEVWDQWLYHORU OD XQ JHQ VDX DOWXO
IUUHIHULUHODFRQ LQXWXOORUVHPDQWLFVXEVWDQWLYHOHURPkQHúWLGHJHQPDVFXOLQVXQW
SUHFHGDWHGHXQODVLQJXODUúLGHGRLODSOXUDOFHOHGHJHQIHPLQLQ–GHúLRUHVSHFWLY
GRX LDU FHOH GH JHQ QHXWUX – GH XQ UHVSHFWLY GRX ÌQ IHOXO DFHVWD VXEVWDQWLYXO
URPkQHVF vQ JHQHUDO VH SRDWH GHILQL FD R FODV GH FXYLQWH DL FUHL PHPEUL SRW IL
SUHFHGD LGHFHOSX LQXQXOGLQWUHFXYLQWHOHDFHVW«DFHDVW«DFHúWL«DFHVWH«
În sLQWDJPDURPRPEWUkQDOGRLOHDFXYkQWHVWHGHVLJXUDGMHFWLYGDUvQVLQWDJPD
DFHVW EWUkQ DFHODúL FXYkQW vQFHWHD] GH D PDL IL DGMHFWLY vQVFULLQGX-se în clasa
VXEVWDQWLYXOXL FHHD FH DPLQWHúWH IHQRPHQXO GH FRQYHUVLXQH VDX VFKLPEDUH D YDORULL
gramaticale).
2DOWGLVWLQF LHFRQFHSWXDORSXQHOLQJYLVWLFDLQWHUQOLQJYLVWLFLLH[WHUQH3ULQ
OLQJYLVWLF LQWHUQ VH vQ HOHJH VWXGLXO VLVWHPXOXL OLQJYLVWLF DO XQLW LORU OXL
FRQVWLWXWLYH DO UHOD LLORU GLQWUH HOH HYHQWXDO DO PRELOLW LL DFHORU UHOD LL Lar prin
OLQJYLVWLF H[WHUQ VH vQ HOHJH VWXGLXO UHOD LLORU GLQWUH OLPE FD VLVWHP GH VHPQH
YHUEDOHúLDOWHIHQRPHQHQHOLQJYLVWLFHGLQWUHOLPEúLWUDGL LHFXOWXUDORELFHLXULDOWH
LQVWLWX LLVRFLDOHGLIHULWHGHOLPEDvQVúLGDUFDUHVHVHUYHVFGHHDDFHDVWELVHULF
MXVWL LH DUPDW DGPLQLVWUD LH HWF )HUGLQDQG GH 6DXVVXUH LQWURGXFkQG DFHDVW
GLVWLQF LHQXUHVSLQJHDGUHSWXOODH[LVWHQ DOOLQJYLVWLFLLH[WHUQHGRDUSXQHDDFFHQWXO
vQ SUHRFXSULOH VDOH SH OLQJYLVWLFD LQWHUQ UHFRPDQGkQG GLVFLSROLORU VL DFHHDúL
atitudine.

Semnul lingvistic

6HPQXOHVWHXQHOHPHQWFRQFUHWFH LQHORFXOvQPHQWDOLWDWHDXQXLLQGLYLGVDX

D XQHL FROHFWLYLW L XPDQH XQXL RELHFW úL FDUH VLPEROL]HD] DPLQWHúWH FRPXQLF
ceva. Interpretarea drept semne a cuvintelRUDIRVWSHODUJGH]EWXWGH)HUGLQDQGGH
6DXVVXUH vQ FXQRVFXWXO VX &XUV GH OLQJYLVWLF JHQHUDO vQ FDUH VH SURSXQHD FKLDU
FRQVWLWXLUHD XQHL úWLLQ H JHQHUDOH D VHPQHORU – semiologia – FDUH V FXSULQG úL
lingvistica. Cel mai important sistem de semne este limba.
ÌQ YL]LXQHD OXL 6DXVVXUH VHPQXO OLQJYLVWLF DUH D DFFHS LH ELODWHUDO HO
UHSUH]HQWkQG R FRPELQDUH vQWUH FRQFHSW ODWXUD GH vQ HOHV – VHPQLILFDQW úL ODWXUD
DFXVWLF – VHPQLILFDW ÌQ DFFHS LH XQLODWHUDO FXYLQWHOH VXQW VHPQH QXPDL SULQ ODWXUD
lor GHH[SUHVLHSULQFRPSOH[XOVRQRUSULQFDUHVHUHIOHFWQR LXQHD2DWUHLDDFFHS LH
FHDUHOD LRQDOYL]HD]QXPDLUHOD LDGLQWUHVHPQLILFDQWúLVHPQLILFDW
6HPQXOOLQJYLVWLFHVWHDUELWUDUQLPLFGLQFRQ LQXWXOXQHLQR LXQLQXLPSXQHFD
DFHDVWD V ILH H[SULPDW SULQWU-XQ DQXPLW FRPSOH[ VRQRU úL QX SULQ DOWXO & vQWUH
VHFYHQ D GH VXQHWH FH GHQXPHúWH XQ RELHFW úL RELHFWXO UHVSHFWLY QX H[LVW QLFL R
OHJWXURGRYHGHúWHIDSWXOFDFHOHDúLRELHFWHVXQWGHQXPLWHGLIHULWvQOLPELGLIHULWH
URP FDV IU PDLVRQ UXV GRP HQJO KRXVH 'DF DU H[LVWD R OHJWXU ÄQDWXUDO´
semn-RELHFW DU WUHEXL FD DFHOXLDúL RELHFW V-L FRUHVSXQG vQ WRDWH OLPELOH DFHODúL
semn.
6HPQLILFDQWXO DUH XQ FDUDFWHU OLQLDU HO VH GHVIúRDU vQ WLPS LDU SULQ
transpunerea cuvintelor uneL OLPEL vQ FRGXO JUDILF DO DFHVWHLD DVSHFWXO OLQLDU FDSW
FRQFUHWH H úLUXUL GH OLWHUH FXYLQWH LGHRJUDPH /LQLDULWDWHD H FDUDFWHULVWLF VHPQXOXL
OLQJYLVWLF FFL  H[LVW úL DOWH VLVWHPH GH VHPQH FHOH PDULWLPH GH SLOG FDUH VH
GHVIúRDUSHPDLPXOWe dimensiuni.
 15

2 DOW FDUDFWHULVWLF D VHPQXOXL OLQJYLVWLF R UHSUH]LQW WUVWXUD VD

LQIRUPD LRQDO FXYLQWHOH VXQW VHPQH FH VHUYHVF OD FRPXQLFDUHD XQRU PHVDMH OD
WUDQVPLWHUHDGHLQIRUPD LLSULQLQWHUPHGLXOXQRUVHPQDOHDFXVWLFHVDXJUDILFH
Semnul lingvistic nu poate fi schimbat de vorbitorul unei limbi conform
SURSULHL ORU GRULQ H GHúL HO HVWH FRQYHQ LRQDO 3HQWUX D VH IDFH vQ HOHúL úL SHQWUX D
vQ HOHJHFHVSXQDO LLYRUELWRULLVXQWREOLJD LVIRORVHDVFDFHOHDúLVHPQHFXDFHOHDúL
vQ HOHVXUL 6HPQLILFDQWXO HVWH LPXWDELO vQ UDSRUW FX YRLQ D LQGLYLGXOXL DGLF QX DUH
OLEHUWDWHD GH D LQWHUYHQL úL D-O VFKLPED FkQG úL FXP GRUHúWH 7UDGL LD FRQVWUkQJH
YRUELWRULL V QXPHDVF OXFUXULOH vQWU-XQ DQXPLW IHO V VH VXSXQ XQRU QRUPH XQRU
reguli ale limbii respectLYHFDUHGDFDUILvQFOFDWHSURFHVXOGHFRPXQLFDUHQ-ar mai
fi posibil.
&X WRDWH DFHVWHD vQ OLPE DX ORF úL XQHOH LQRYD LL PXWD LL FDUH FX WLPSXO
printr-RIUHFYHQWvQWUHEXLQ DUHúLRODUJUVSkQGLUHSRWGHYHQLQRUPH6HPQLILFDQWXO
devine, astfel, mutabil. Raportul semnificant-semnificat se poate schimba: lat. necare -
ÄDRPRUv´DGHYHQLWvQIUDQFH]– noyer – „a îneca”.
6HPQXOXL OLQJYLVWLF vL VXQW FDUDFWHULVWLFH IXQF LD GH FXQRDúWHUH HO IFkQG
SRVLELO VDOWXO GH OD FXQRDúWHUHD VHQ]RULDO OD FHD UD LRQDO GH OD SULPXO OD FHO GH-al
GRLOHD VLVWHP GH VHPQDOL]DUH IXQF LD GH GLIHUHQ LHUH vQ FDGUXO VLVWHPXOXL UHDOL]DW
SULQIRQHPHOHúLPRUIHPHOHGLQFDUHHVWHDOFWXLWVHPQXOúLRIXQF LHGHWUDQVPLWHUHD
LQIRUPD LHLGHODXQLQGLYLGODDOWXOGHODRJHQHUD LHODDOWD
8QHOHVHPQHOLQJYLVWLFHSRWILPDLPXOWVDXPDLSX LQPRWLYDWH
0RWLYDUHD DEVROXW H[WHUQ FXSULQGH FXYLQWH FDUH SULQ VXQHWHOH ORU
FRPSRQHQWH VXJHUHD] vQ HOHVXO ÌQ DFHDVW FDWHJRULH vQWU RQRPDWRSHHOH PLDX
zbâr!, poc!), interjHF LLOHDKYDLRIúLFXYLQWHOHFXVLPEROLVPIRQHWLFFDUHDXvQ
FRPSRQHQ D ORU XQHOH VXQHWH FH DPLQWHVF GH FDUDFWHULVWLFLOH RELHFWXOXL D YkMkL D
Ek]kLD]XP]L
0RWLYDUHD UHODWLY LQWHUQ YL]HD] FXYLQWH GHULYDWH FX SUHIL[H VDX VXIL[H úL
cuvintHFRPSXVHEXQVWDUHRFKLXO-boului, Pronosport, OZN.
1HYRLDPRWLYULLJHQHUHD]XQHRULIDOVHOHJWXULHWLPRORJLFHIRUPHDOHXQRU
FXYLQWHPDLSX LQFXQRVFXWHúLvQ HOHVHPDLUDUvQWUHEXLQ DWHVHPRGLILFLQIOXHQ DWH
GH WHUPHQL FXQRVFX L DVHPQWRUL FD IRUP úL VHQV )HQRPHQXO HVWH FXQRVFXW VXE
QXPHOH GH HWLPRORJLH SRSXODU YE D DVDPEOD úL GHULYDWHOH OXL SXV vQ OHJWXU FX
DQVDPEOXGHYLQHDDQVDPEODGHQXPLUHDSRSXODUDIHEUHLWLIRLGH–OLQJRDUHOHJDWGH
DGMOXQJGHYLQHOXQJRDUHFRRSHUDWLYOHJDWGHDFXPSUDvQURVWLUHDXQRUSHUVRDQH
PDLvQYkUVWGHUHJXOGHYLQHFXPSDUDWLYúD

6FKLPEULOHOLQJYLVWLFH
Contactul între limbi

Ä'RX VDX PDL PXOWH OLPEL VH FRQVLGHU D IL vQ FRQWDFW GDF VXQW IRORVLWH
DOWHUQDWLY GH XQHOH úL DFHOHDúL SHUVoane.” Contactul dintre limbi este rezultatul unor
IHQRPHQH H[WUDOLQJYLVWLFH GDWRULW IDSWXOXL F GLQWRWGHDXQD FROHFWLYLW LOH XPDQH DX
LQWUDWvQUHOD LHXQHOHFXDOWHOH
Tipurile de contacte pot fi clasificate ca: I. 1 pasagere sau accidentale; 2. de
foaUWH OXQJ GXUDW VDX SHUPDQHQWH ,,  H[WHUQH LQWHUOLQJYLVWLFH  LQWHUQH
(intralingvistice, intraregionale, inclusiv enclave aloglote). III. 1. directe (interumane);
2. mijlocite (limbile A-% LQWHUDF LRQHD] SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO XQHL D WUHLD OLPEL ,9 1
LPHGLDWH VDX QHPLMORFLWH GH WLS RUDO  OD GLVWDQ  SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO VFULVXOXL D
vQY PkQWXOXL VDX D PDVV-PHGLD 9  SRSXODUH vQFHHDFHSULYHúWHQLYHOXOVRFLR-
 16

FXOWXUDOFXOWXUDOHDvQWUHROLPEÄPRDUW´DOLDVFODVLFúLOLPELYLLEvQtre limbi

DIODWHODPDUHGLVWDQ 
)HQRPHQXO GH FRQWDFW SUHFHGH LQWHUDF LXQHD GLQWUH OLPEL FDUH HVWH PLMORFLW
SULQ ELOLQJYLVP %LOLQJYLVP VH QXPHúWH ÄFDSDFLWDWHD XQXL LQGLYLG VDX D LQGLYL]LORU
XQHL FROHFWLYLW L GH D XWLOL]D vQ FRPXQLFDUH GRX VLVWHPH OLQJYLVWLFH GLIHULWH GRX
LGLRPXUL´%LOLQJYLVPXOFROHFWLYvQPDVDOYRUELWRULORURELúQXL LHVWHFXQRVFXWGLQ
HSRFLOHYHFKLDOHLVWRULHL6HSURGXFPXWD LLvQWU-ROLPEFDUHVHQXPHVFLQWHUIHUHQ H
VXELQIOXHQ DXQXLÄDJHQW´H[WHULRUWRWOLQJYLVWLF
,QWHUIHUHQ DSRDWHILDQDOL]DWvQSHUVSHFWLYDDGRXFRRUGRQDWHDDWLPSXOXL
vQ FDUH VH GHVIúRDU GHRDUHFH GXUDWH SURFHVXOXL HVWH R YDULDELO E D UH]XOWDWHORU
intruziunii.
a.1. procesul s-DvQFKHLDWúLvQLVWRULDOLPELORUVHVWXGLD]UH]XOWDWHOHVXb trei
DVSHFWH DOH VXEVWUDWXOXL VXSHUVWUDWXOXL úL DGVWUDWXOXL  LQWHUIHUHQ H DOH FURU
FRQVHFLQ HSRWILLGHQWLILFDWHvQÄvPSUXPXW´LQWHUIHUHQ HvQFXUVGHGHVIúXUDUH
6XEVWUDWXO HVWH XQXO GLQ UH]XOWDWHOH SURFHVXOXL GH LQWHUIHUHQ  VH UHIHU OD
sLWXD LDvQFDUHOLPEDEúWLQDúLORUSHVWHFDUHV-DLPSXVROLPEVWULQHVWHHOLPLQDW
(D IRUPHD] VXEVWUDWXO OLPELL FDUH FRQWLQX V ILH IRORVLW OLPED $ VH SHUSHWXHD]
SULQ OLPED % DO FUHL VLVWHP SULPHúWH R VHULH GH HOHPHQWH GLQ OLPED vQORFXLW
SXEVWUDWXO VH PDQLIHVW vQ WRDWH FRPSDUWLPHQWHOH GDU PDL DOHV vQ IRQHWLF /LPELOH
antice s-au perpetuat prin elemente de substrat în limbi moderne.
'DU vQ LVWRULH DX IRVW FD]XUL vQ FDUH OLPED vQYLQV HOLPLQDW D IRVW FHD D
SRSXOD LHL SWUXQVH XOWHULRU SH XQ WHULWRULX GDW 8UPHOH OVDWH GH OLPED GLVSUXW %
DVXSUDOLPELLEúWLQDúHDXIRVWGHQXPLWHVXSHUVWUDWÌQWLPSFHHOHPHQWHOHGHVXEVWUDW
GHWHUPLQ WUDQVIRUPUL vQ VWUXFWXUD QRLL OLPEL HOHPHQWHOH GH VXSHUVWUDW VH PDQLIHVW
ca împrumuturi foarte vechi.
,QIOXHQ HOH VXIHULWH GH R OLPE GXS FRQVWLWXLUHD HL FD LGLRP QRX GLVWLQFW
IRUPHD] DGVWUDWXO 'HúL QX SDUWLFLS FD VXEVWUDWXO úL VXSHUVWUDWXO OD IRUPDUHD XQHL
limbi, adstratul include toate formele de manifestare ale contactului lingvistic.
ÎmprumutuO OLQJYLVWLF RULFDUH DU IL GRPHQLXO DUH R DQXPLW LQIOXHQ  DVXSUD OLPELL
FDUH vO UHFHSWHD] vQ vQWUHJXO HL VLVWHP 8QHOH HYROX LL LQWHUQH SRW V ILH vQWULWH vQ
urma contactului dintre limbi. Dificultatea de a atribui anumite fapte lingvistice unor
infOXHQ HVWULQHúLVDXXQHLHYROX LLSURSULLDFRQGXVODQHFHVLWDWHDXQXLQRXFRQFHSW
FHO GH FRQYHUJHQ  SHQWUX GLIHUHQ LHUHD VFKLPEULORU LQWHUQH ID  GH LQWHUIHUHQ  FH
FDUDFWHUL]HD] VFKLPEULOH VXE LQIOXHQ D XQRU IDFWRUL OLQJYLVWLFL GLQ DOW OLPE
IQWHUIHUHQ D HVWH FDUDFWHULVWLF vQ DFWXO YRUELULL úL UH]XOWDWXO HL WUHFH vQ ÄOLPE´ HVWH
introdus în sistem.

/LQJYLVWLFDVSD LDO
*HRJUDILDOLQJYLVWLF

6WXGLXO OLPELL YLL vQVHDPQ ÄVWXGLXO OLPELL YRUELWH vQWU-R XQLWDWH WHULWRULDO
OLPEFRPXQDXQXL popor”.
(L L VH VXERUGRQHD] GLDOHFWHOH FDUH UHSUH]LQW ÄDVSHFWXO SDUWLFXODU UHJLRQDO
al limbii unui popor, caracterizat printr-XQPLQLPXPGHWUVWXULVSHFLILFH´6XEVXPDW
GLDOHFWXOXL HVWH JUDLXO FDUH OD UkQGXO OXL UHSUH]LQW ÄDVSHFWXO SDUWLFXODU ORFal) al
limbii unui popor caracterizat printr-XQPLQLPXPGHWUVWXULVSHFLILFH´
'LIHUHQ LHULOHVHGDWRUHVFGHFLVSD LXOXLPDLPXOWVDXPDLSX LQH[WLQVSHFDUH
VH IRORVHúWH GLDOHFWXO JUDLXO UHVSHFWLY IHQRPHQXO FDUDFWHUL]kQG SURFHVXO GH
diversificare a limbii.
 17

/DvQWUHEDUHDGDFGLDOHFWXOHVWHRIRUPLQFLSLHQWDXQHLOLPELFRPXQHVDXR
IRUP GHULYDW SULQ GLYHUVLILFDUH XQLL OLQJYLúWL DX RSWDW SHQWUX SULPD IRUPXO LDU
DO LL SHQWUX FHDODOW $FHVWH UVSXQVXUL VXQW vQ OHJWXU úL FX SUREOHPD vQF
nerH]ROYDW D OLQJYLVWLFLL FRPSDUDWH úL DQXPH GDF WRDWH OLPELOH JOREXOXL DX GHULYDW
dintr-R VLQJXU OLPE FRPXQ RULJLQDU SURWROLPE WHRULD PRQRJHQH]HL VDX GLQ
FRQWU GLYHUVHOH WLSXUL GH OLPEL DX DSUXW vQ GLIHULWH ]RQH DOH JOREXOXL LQGHSHQGHQW
unele de altele. (teoria poligenezei).
/LPEDHVWHXQIHQRPHQVRFLDOúLPLMORFGHFRPXQLFDUHGHFLUDSRUWXULOHGLQWUH
IRUPHOH GLDOHFWDOH DOH JUDLXULORU úL OLPED FXOWLYDW QRUPDW VH IRUPHD] úL VH
UHvPSURVSWHD] QHvQWUHUXSW úL vQ ]LOHOH QRDVWUH SULQ VFKLPEXUi constante între
GHSULQGHULOH GLDOHFWDOH SH GH R SDUWH D YRUELWRULORU úL OLPED QD LRQDO YRUELW úL
VFULV SH GH DOW SDUWH ùL vQ PHGLXO XUEDQSHUVLVWGHSULQGHULGLDOHFWDOH'LIHUHQ HOH
GLQWUHOLPEGLDOHFWVHVLWXHD]SHGLIHULWHWUHSWHGHVXERUGRQare. Dialectul unei limbi
VHSRDWHvQGHSUWDGHDFHDVWDGDWRULWXQRUSUHVLXQLH[WUDOLQJYLVWLFHGDUúLXQRUIDFWRUL
OLQJYLVWLFLúLSRDWHGHYHQLODUkQGXOOXLRDOWOLPE
&ULWHULLOH GH VWDELOLUH D VWDWXWXOXL OLPEGLDOHFW DX XQ FDUDFWHU VRFLDO-politic
DSDUWHQHQ D SRSXOD LHL OD XQ JUXS HWQLF WHULWRULDO vQ IXQF LH GH XQLWDWHD úL
GLYHUVLWDWHD DVSHFWHORU OLPELL FRPXQH úL D WUDGL LLORU FXOWXUDOH 6LQJXUH DUJXPHQWHOH
OLQJYLVWLFH SHQWUX FODVLILFDUHD OLPEGLDOHFW QX VXQW FRQFOXGHQWH &RQVLGHUP F H
vorbaGHDFHHDúLOLPEGHúLHYRUELWvQVWDWHGLIHULWHGHH[HPSOXOLPEDIUDQFH]GLQ
&DQDGD VDX GLDOHFWXO FDQDGLDQ DO OLPELL IUDQFH]H IU D IL FRQVLGHUDW R HQWLWDWH
VHSDUDWFDÄOLPEFDQDGLDQ´
3HUPHDELOLWDWH OLPEGLDOHFWJUDL VH IDFH SULQ LQVWUXF LH úFRDO úL OHFWXU úL
WHQGLQ DHVWHGHYUVDUHvQOLPEDOLWHUDUVWDQGDUG
6WXGLXO GLDOHFWHORU FDUH VH IDFH vQ FDGUXO GLVFLSOLQHL OLQJYLVWLFH QXPLW
GLDOHFWRORJLHVHED]HD]SHPHWRGHOH
D GHVFULSWLY PRQRJUDILL GLDOHFWDOH FDUH DX vQ YHGHUH OLPED YRUELW GLQWU-o
]RQ PDL PXOW VDX PDL SX LQ H[WLQV GHVFULV SDU LDO GLQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH IRQHWLF
úLVDXPRUIRORJLFVDXvQWRDWHDVSHFWHOHVDOHGHFLOH[LFDOHúLVLQWDFWLFH
b. geografiei lingvistice.
+DUWD HVWH R UHSUH]HQWDUH VLQFURQLF D YRUELULL LQGLYLGXale de pe un teritoriu
GDW &kWHYD GLQWUH SULQFLSLLOH IXQGDPHQWDOH GH LQWHUSUHWDUH D KU LORU FRQGXF OD R
vQ HOHJHUHWHPHLQLFDVWUXFWXULLúLGLQDPLFLLDULLORUGLDOHFWDOH3ULPHOHGRXSULQFLSLL
DSDU LQOXL-*LOOLHURPHOHVHUHIHUODPLJUD LDFXYLQWHORUúLOXSWDGLQWUHFXYLQWH
D&XYLQWHOHPLJUHD]ODQLYHOXOYRUELULLGLQUHJLXQH]RQ/LQJYLVWXOURPkQ
,$&DQGUHDDVWDELOLWFPLJUD LDVHIDFHSULQLUDGLD LHLQILOWUDUHUHYUVDUHúL
4) suprapunere.
,UDGLD LDDUHORFvQMXUXOXQXLFHQWUXGHLQRYD LH,QILOWUDUHDVHSURGXFHvQVSD LL
DSURSLDWH]RQHLXQGHVHIRORVHúWHXQOXFUXVDXDUHORFXQIHQRPHQ8QIDSWGHOLPE
PLJUDWPDLvQWkLWLPLGSULQLQILOWUDUHVDXLUDGLD LHVHSRDWHDSRLUVSkQGLPDVLYSULQ
UHYUVDUH LQXQGkQG ]RQH vQWLQVH 'H RELFHL UH]XOWDWXO XQHL PLJUD LL HVWH úL
VXSUDSXQHUHDGHSDUWLFXODULW LOLQJYLVWLFH
EÌQOHJWXUFXOXSWDGLQWUHHOHPHQWHOHOH[LFDOHWUHEXLHVUH LQHPPDLvQWkL
LGHHD ÄvPEROQYLULL´ XQRU FXYLQWH GLQ FDX]H PXOWLSOH RPRQLPLD SROLVHPLD
scurtimea (corpul redus) al cuvântului.
0 %DUWROL FUHDWRUXO OLQJYLVWLFLL VSD LDOH D SXV DFFHQWXO SH VWDELOLUHD
FURQRORJLHL IDSWHORU OLQJYLVWLFH SOHFkQG GH OD GLVSR]L LD DULLORU GLDOHFWDOH 'H DFHHD
PHWRGDVDVHQXPHúWHúLOLQJYLVWLFDUHDO$XWRUXODDYXWvQ vedere întregul teritoriu
URPDQLFúLDVWDELOLWDOWHFLQFLSULQFLSLLVDXÄQRUPH´GHLQWHUSUHWDUHDKU LORUDULD
L]RODWDULDODWHUDODULDPDMRUDULDXOWHULRDUúLDULDGLVSUXW
 18

'LQWUHGRXID]HOLQJYLVWLFHFHDL]RODWHVWHPDLveche. Ariile izolate ar fi,

deci, mai arhaice decât celelalte.
)D]DGLQDULDODWHUDOHVWHPDLDUKDLFGHFkWFHDGLQDULLOHFHQWUDOHGHXQGH
DSRUQLWLUDGLHUHDVDXPLJUD LDWHUPHQXOXL
 )D]D GLQ DULD PDL PDUH DULD PDMRU HVWH PDL YHFKH GHFkW FHD Gin aria
PLQRU
4) Ariile ulterioare pot fi arhaice.
 'LQ DULD GLVSUXW VH PHQ LQ PDUWRULL GH HUR]LXQL SDUWLFXODULW L IRDUWH
rezistente.
3H ED]D KU LORU VH SRDWH REVHUYD IRDUWH FODU FXP GLQWU-un punct (localitate)
RDUHFDUH R QRXWDWH OLQJYLVWLF SURQXQ LH IRUP PRUIRORJLF WUVWXUL VLQWDFWLFH
FXYLQWH VH UVSkQGHúWH vQ IXQF LH GH FXUHQWH SROLWLFH FRPHUFLDOH VDX FXOWXUDOH ÌQ
Evul Mediu, în Apus, centrele ecleziastice au impus teritoriilor subordonate normele
OLQJYLVWLFH SHQWUX F HSDUKLDSDURKLa reprezenta o unitate), apoi centrele politice,
FDSLWDOHOH DX H[HUFLWDW vQ FRQWLQXDUH LQIOXHQ D QRUPDWLY 'H RELFHL vQV SUHVWLJLXO
FXOWXUDODSUHYDODWDVXSUDFHOXLSROLWLF$VWIHOJUDLXOGLQ)ORUHQ D7RVFDQDIRORVLWGH
Dante în opera sa a devenit liPEDOLWHUDULWDOLDQ
Zonele limitrofe dintre graiuri/dialecte depind de multe ori de cauze
JHRJUDILFH 8Q ODQ  GH PXQ L FRQVWLWXLH R EDULHU QDWXUDO vQWUH JUDLXUL vQ WLPS FH R
YDOHWLDWGHXQIOXYLXIRUPHD]GH-a lungul ei o unitate. Periferia în sSD LXDXQXL
JUDLGHSUWDWGHFHQWUXHVWHPDLFRQVHUYDWRDUHGHFkWFHQWUXOvQVXúL
+U LOH DX LPSRUWDQ  SHQWUX UHFRQVWLWXLUHD GLIX]ULL HOHPHQWHORU OLQJYLVWLFH
3HQWUXFQXPDLSULQGLIX]DUHLQRYD LDGHODQLYHOXOXQXLYRUELWRUSWUXQGHvQYRUELUHD
unui JUXS D XQXL JUDLGLDOHFW úL DSRL vQ OLPED FRPXQ VWDQGDUG 7HRULLOH OLQJYLVWLFH
FDUHSHUPLWDFHDVWUHFRQVWLWXLUHVXQW
a. WHRULD WUDGL LRQDO D ÄILOLD LHL´ D DUERUHOXL JHQHDORJLF FHHD FH
SUHVXSXQHFWUDQVPLWHUHDLQRYD LHLVHIDFHQXPDLvQWUHOLPELvQUXGite
b. WHRULD YDOXULORU Ä:HOOHQWKHRULH´ FDUH FRQVLGHU F WUVWXULOH
OLQJYLVWLFHVHUVSkQGHVFGHODXQYHFLQODDOWXOLQGLIHUHQWGHRULJLQHDORU
DFHDVWWHRULHDSDU LQHOXL-RKDQQHV6FKLPGW
0RGXOGHGLIX]DUHDXQHLWHQGLQ HOLQJYLVWLFHVHSRDWHSHtrece:
a. printr-XQDYDQVSHXQIURQWODUJFDRSDWGHXOHL
b. printr-R PLúFDUH FH SRDWH IL DVHPQDW WUXSHORU DHURSXUWDWH
DGLF DYDQVHD] vQ ORFDOLW LOH LPSRUWDQWH GH-D OXQJXO FLORU GH
FRPXQLFD LHúLDELDvQWU-RDGRXDHWDSWHQGLQ HOHOLQJYLVWLFHVHH[WLQGúLvQ
VSD LLOHLQWHUPHGLDUH
3HED]DKU LORUVHSRWVWXGLDVWUDWXULOHVXFFHVLYHGHLQIOXHQ H6HIRORVHúWHvQ
acest caz metoda geologiei lingvistice, care permite stabilirea unei cronologii relative
a vechimii elementelor (fonetice, morfologice sau lH[LFDOHGLQWUHOLPE
$VWIHO SHQWUX GLDOHFWRORJ WUDGL LLOH RUDOH H[WUDOLQJYLVWLFH UHSUH]LQW FHHD FH
HVWHÄWH[WXO´SHQWUXVSHFLDOLúWLLGLQGRPHQLXOOLPELLOLWHUDUH

Limba în cadrul social

ÌQ RULFDUH HSRF úL RULFkW DP XUFD vQ WLPS OLPED DSDUH vQWRWGHauna ca o
PRúWHQLUH D HSRFLL SUHFHGHQWH 1LFL R VRFLHWDWH QX FXQRDúWH úL QX D FXQRVFXW OLPED
GHFkWFDSHXQSURGXVPRúWHQLWGHODJHQHUD LLOHSUHFHGHQWHSUHOXDWFDDWDUH6LQJXUXO
RELHFWUHDODOOLQJYLVWLFLLHVWHYLD DQRUPDOúLUHJXODWDXQXLLGLRPGHMa constituit.
'DUDVSXQHFOLPEDHVWHRPRúWHQLUHQXH[SOLFQLPLFGDFQXPHUJHPPDL
GHSDUWH úL SODVP OLPED vQ FDGUXOVXVRFLDO7UHEXLHVSXQHPSUREOHPDDúDFXPR
 19

SXQHP SHQWUX FHOHODOWH LQVWLWX LL VRFLDOH &XP VH WUDQVPLW DFHVWHD" 9RP YHGHD F
pentrX ILHFDUH GLQWUH HOH H[LVW XQ HFKLOLEUX GLIHULW vQWUH WUDGL LD LPSXV úL DF LXQHD
OLEHUDVRFLHW LL
5HYHQLQG OD OLPE QH YRP vQWUHED GH FH IDFWRUXO LVWRULF DO WUDQVPLWHULL R
GRPLQvQvQWUHJLPHúLH[FOXGHRULFHVFKLPEDUHVXELWJHQHUDO
(YROX LDOLPEii (langage) în genere, cea a diverselor limbi în particular, poate
ILH[SOLFDWSULQDQXPLWHHOHPHQWHFDUH LQGHYRUELWRUL
- PRGGHYLD úLGHFOLP
- UHOD LLVRFLDOHLQWHUXPDQH
- PRGFRPXQGHDJkQGLSHGLIHULWHWUHSWHGHFLYLOL]D LHDFHHDúL
mentalitate)
- dLIHULWHWLSXULGHUHJOHPHQWULVRFLDOH
'DUIDSWHOHOLQJYLVWLFHDXúLSURSULLOHORUHYROX LLFKLDUGDFVXQWvQOHJWXUFX
DOWHIDSWHULWPXULOHGHHYROX LHVXQWGLIHULWHúLWUHEXLHDYXWvQYHGHUHFRPSOH[LWDWHD
FLUFXPVWDQ HORU
ÌQFRPSDUWLPHQWDUHDXPDQHVWHQDWXUDOFOLPEDMXODDYXWRVRDUWDQDORJvQ
FHHD FH SULYHúWH YDULHWDWHDGLYHUVLWDWHD VD SH PDUL VSD LL JHRJUDILFH GHRDUHFH HO HVWH
PRELOúLDQWUHQDWvQWU-RPLúFDUHJHQHUDOGHHYROX LH
/LQJYLúWLLDXFXWDWVGHPRQVWUH]HGH]YROWDUHDQDWXUDODOimbii, dar au trebuit
VUHFXQRDVFvQILQDOFRGH]YROWDUHQDWXUDODOLPELLQXH[LVWFFLÄWRDWHOLPELOH
FXQRVFXWH SRSXODUH úL VDYDQWH GH]YOXLH SUHRFXSDUHD XQXL ÄD VSXQH PDL ELQH PDL
H[DFW ©G¶XQ PLHX[ GLUHª´ FDUH SUHWXWLQGHQL D FRQGXV VXELHF LL YRUELWRUL V-úL
vQVXúHDVF PRGXO GH D YRUEL DO FHORU FDUH VH H[SULP PDL ELQH 'H IDSW DFHDVW
WHQGLQ  VSUH PDL ELQH FRUHVSXQGH SURSULX-]LV QHYRLORU GH FRPXQLFDUH úL QX XQHL
GRULQ HVXELHFWLYH7RDWHWUDQVIRUPULOHvQOLPEVHIDFSULQLQWHUPHGLXOYRUELUii, dar
FDX]HOH WUDQVIRUPULORU QX UH]LG vQ DFHDVWD DGLF vQ YRUELUH 1X HVWH GRULQ D VDX
YRLQ D GH H[SUHVLH D LQGLYL]LORU FHD FDUH D GHWHUPLQDW GH H[HPSOX IHQRPHQXO GH
GLIWRQJDUH vQ OLPED IUDQFH] VDX PXWD LD FRQVRQDQWLF vQ OLPED JHUPDQ $FHVWH
fenoPHQH UH]XOW GLQ IRU H VXSUDLQGLYLGXDOH úL VH GDWRUHVF vQ SDUWH úL PDULORU
evenimente istorice, cum este amestecul popoarelor.
$F LXQHD UHFLSURF vQWUH OLPE úL YRUELUH GDF FRQVLGHUP YRUELUHD R
ÄUHFUHDUH LQGLYLGXDO D H[SUHVLHL OLQJYLVWLFH´ QX H[SOLF GHFkW SDU LDO DQXPLWH
DVSHFWHDOHHYROX LHLIRQHWLFHúLPRUIRORJLFH5DSRUWXOGLQWUHOLPEúLYRUELUHVHUHOHY
numai în maniera în care se transmite limba.
/LPED HVWH PRúWHQLUHD FROHFWLY úL VSLULWXDO D JUXSXOXL XPDQ vQ LQWHULRUXO
FUXLDVHGH]YROWFRSLOXOVSUHGHRVHELUHGHDSWLWXGLQLOHIL]LFHúLFHOHODOWHDSWLWXGLQL
VSLULWXDOH SH FDUH XQ FRSLO OHPRúWHQHúWHGHODSULQ LúLGHODVWUPRúLOLPEDHOR
vQYD GHODDQWXUDMXOVXSULQ LGRLFHGXFDWRDUH&RSLOXODUHGRDUFDSDFLWDWHDGHD
FUHúWHúLDVHGH]YROWDvQWU-ROLPEILHFHFHDDSULQ LORUOXLILHFHROLPEVWULQ
8QFRSLOGLQSULQ LMDSRQH]LVDXSURYHQLQGGLQWU-R DUGLQ$IULFDSRDWHvQY D
GHODSULPHOHVXQHWHvQPHGLXOHXURSHDQVDXDPHULFDQOLPEDORFXOXLFDúLXQEúWLQDú
/LPED HVWH LQGHSHQGHQW GH DSWLWXGLQLOH IL]LFH DOH YRUELWRULORU 3ULQ XUPDUH
WUDQVPLWHUHDGHODRJHQHUD LHODDOWDDOLPELLVHIDFHDVWIHOvQFkWILHFDUHQRXJHQHUD LH
VHGH]YROWvQWU-RVIHUVSLULWXDOGHMDH[LVWHQW
ÌQ WLPS FH YLD D WUHFH GLUHFW GH OD PDP OD FRSLO OLPED SDUFXUJH R FDOH
VSLULWXDOSULQDF LXQHDDQWXUDMXOXLDVXSUDFRSLOXOXLúLDDGROHVFHQWXOXLDFHDVWDH[SOLF
de ce un om de orice origine poate fi integrat într-RFROHFWLYLWDWHOLQJYLVWLFGLIHULWÌQ
,PSHULXO URPDQ RULJLQHD HWQLF D ORFXLWRULORU HUD GLQWUH FHOH PDL GLIHULWH GDU WR L DX
DMXQVVVHvQ HOHDJvQODWLQ/DIHOvQPDUHDFROHFWLYLWDWHD$PHULFLLGH1RUGXQGH
 20

DSURDSHWRDWHSRSRDUHOHOXPLLVXQWUHSUH]HQWDWHvQFROHFWLYLWDWHDXPDQWR LYRUEHVFR
VLQJXUOLPERILFLDOHQJOH]D

COMPARTIMENTELE LIMBII
'LQSHUVSHFWLYDVWUXFWXUDOVLVWHPXOOLPELLSRDWHILFRQFHSXWFDXQDQVDPEOX
GHFRPSDUWLPHQWHQXPLWHúLQLYHOHVWDWXULVDXVXEVLVWHPHDIODWHvQDQXPLWHUDSRUWXUL
LHUDUKLFHúLGLVSR]DELOHvQGRXSODQXULSODQXOH[SUHVLHLvQFDUHVHPDQLIHVWIDSWHOH
GH DUWLFXOD LH úL DXGL LH GLQ FRPXQLFDUHD YHUEDO úL SODQXO FRQ LQXWXOXL vQ FDUH VH
PDQLIHVWIDSWHOHGHJkQGLUHGHFXQRúWLLQ 
&RQILJXUD LD FRPSRUWDPHQWHORU úL  OLPELL SRDWH IL UHSUH]HQWDW VXE IRUPD
unui tabel, cum este cel de mai jos:

Planuri Expresie &RQ LQXW

Compartimente
SINTAXA
FRPSDUWLPHQWXOHQXQ XULORU
biplane LEXICUL
(bilaterale) (compartimentul lexemelor)
MORFOLOGIA
(compartimentul morfemelor)
monoplane FONOLOGIA SEMANTICA
(unilaterale) (compartimentul (compartimentul
fonemelor) sememelor)
Compartimentul Compartimentul
WUVWXULORU GLVWLQFWLYH WUVWXULORU GLVWLQFWLYH
(pertinente, relevante) semantice (=al semelor)
DUWLFXODWRULLúLDFXVWLFH

Sunt trei compartimente biSODQHVDXELODWHUDOHVLQWD[DOH[LFXOúLPRUIRORJLD

FRQVLGHUDWH vQ IHOXO DFHVWD SHQWUX F XQLW LOH ORU VSHFLILFH HQXQ XO OH[HPXO
PRUIHPXO VXQW HOH vQVHOH ELODWHUDOH DGLF GLVSXQ GH FkWH GRX ODWXUL H[SUHVLH
VHPQLILFDQWúLFRQ LQXWVHPQLILFDW
$OWHSDWUXFRPSDUWLPHQWHVXQWPRQRSODQHVDXXQLODWHUDOHSHQWUXFVHGLVSXQ
GRX FkWH GRX vQ FkWH XQ VLQJXU SODQ DO OLPELL FHHDFHvQVHDPQFHOHPHQWHOHORU
constitutive sunt ele însele unilaterale: fonemele dispun numai de expresie, iar
sememele – nXPDL GH FRQ LQXW 3ULPHOH VXQW DQDOL]DELOH vQ WUVWXUL GLVWLQFWLYH GH
expresie, celelalte –vQWUVWXULGLVWLQFWLYHGHFRQ LQXWVHPH
8QLW LOHúLHOHPHQWHOHFRQVWLWXWLYHDOHVLVWHPXOXLOLPELLVXQWvQDQVDPEOXOORU
invariante. Aceste invariante, ca uQLW L úL HOHPHQWH GH VLVWHP VH UHDOL]HD] vQ PRG
FRQFUHW vQ SURFHVXO FRPXQLFULL YHUEDOH SULQWU-XQ QXPU PDL PDUH GH YDULDQWH
(QXQ XO VH UHDOL]HD] SULQWU-R YDULHWDWH GH SURSR]L LL OH[HPXO VH UHDOL]HD] SULQWU-o
YDULHWDWH GH FXYLQWH SROLVHPDQWLFH úL de forme gramaticale (numite alolexeme),
morfemul – de asemenea printr-R YDULHWDWH GH IRUPH DOH UGFLQLORU DIL[HORU
GHVLQHQ HORU QXPLWH DORPRUIH LDU IRQHPXO VH UHDOL]HD] SULQ YDULDQWHOH QXPLWH
alofone (sunete rostite).
 21

Membrii inventarelor de invariante constituie sistemul, în care, în fiecare

FRPSDUWLPHQWDFHLPHPEULVHRUJDQL]HD]vQVHULLSDUDGLJPDWLFHLDUFRPELQDUHDORU
GXSUHJXOLúLUHVWULF LLVSHFLILFHvQODQ XULVLQWDJPDWLFHUHDOL]HD]VWUXFWXULOHYHUEDOH
SURSULLILHFUHLOLPEL

PRINCI3,8/675$7,),&$,21$/$//,0%$-8/8,
,QYDULDQWHOHVXQWXQLW LIXQF LRQDOHDOHOLPELL(OHVHDIOvQUDSRUWXULLHUDUKLFH
úL VWUXFWXUDOH XQHOH ID  GH DOWHOH FDUH VH H[SULP VXE IRUPD SULQFLSLXOXL
VWUDWLILFD LRQDO DO OLPEDMXOXL )RUPXODUHD DFHVWXL SULQFLSLX HVWH XUPWRDUHD R XQLWDWH
dintr-XQ FRPSDUWLPHQW DO VLVWHPXOXL OLQJYLVWLF VH VWUXFWXUHD] GLQ FHO SX LQ R XQLWDWH
GLQ FRPSDUWLPHQWXO LPHGLDW LQIHULRU $VWIHO HQXQ XO SRDWH FRQVWD GLQWU-un lexem
H[URP1LQJHVDXGLQPDLPXOWHOH[HPH$IDUQLQJHOLQLútit cu fulgi mari), lexemul
poate consta dintr-XQ PRUIHP SRP GLQ GRX SRPXO SRPL VDX PDL PXOWH
SRPLúRUL SRPLúRULL ODWXUD GH H[SUHVLH D PRUIHPXOXL SRDWH FRQVWD GRQWU-un
IRQHP R GLQ FRPELQD LD URPR FDV GLQ GRX OD SH FH" DP HWF Vau mai multe
SRP >SRP@ FDV >NDV@ GLQ IRUPD JUDPDWLFDO FDV VDX FDUW- [kart] din forma
JUDPDWLFDOFDUWHHWF

1X WUHEXLH V VXUSULQG IDSWXO F vQWUH VLQWD[ GRPHQLXO HQXQ XULORU úL
PRUIRORJLH GRPHQLXO IRUPHORU úL VWUXFWXULORU JUDPDWLFDOH FRQceput în gramatica
FODVLF GUHSW FRPSRQHQWH DOH VWUXFWXULL JUDPDWLFDOH ÄVH LQWHUFDOHD]´ OH[LFXO
YRFDEXODUXO GRPHQLXO FXYLQWHORU )DSWXO VH H[SOLF SULQ DFHHD F vQ PDMRULWDWHD
OLPELORU HQXQ XULOH XQLW L VLQWDFWLFH VXQW GLYL]LELOH PDL vQWkL vQ OH[HPH XQLW L GH
YRFDEXODU úL DELD DFHVWHD GLQ XUP OD UkQGXO ORU VH GLYLG vQ PRUIHPH XQLW L
PRUIRORJLFH 'H H[ HQXQ XO URP 6WXGHQWD FLWHúWH OHF LD HVWH VHJPHQWDELO GLUHFW vQ
WUHL FXYLQWH 6WXGHQWD FLWHúWH úL OHF LD úL QXPDL LQGLUHFW vQ úDSWH PRUfeme
(substantivul studenta fiind analizabil în morfemul student- UGFLQ úL –a, articol
GHILQLW FX YDORDUH GH GHVLQHQ  YHUEXO FLWHúWH – vQ UGFLQD FLW-, sufixul –HúW- úL
GHVLQHQ D–HVXEVWDQWLYXOOHF LDvQUGFLQDOHF L-úLGLQQRXDUWLFROXO–a). Numai în
XQHOHOLPELYRUELWHvQ([WUHPXO2ULHQWFXPVXQWFKLQH]DúLYLHWQDPH]DHVWHSUREDELO
FDOH[HPHOHVÄFRLQFLG´VWUXFWXUDOFXPRUIHPHOHFHHDFHvQVHDPQFDQDOL]DXQRU
HQXQ XUL vQ OH[HPH V ÄFRLQFLG´ WRWRGDW FX DQDOL]D OH[HPHORU vQ PRUIHPHOH lor
constitutive. Limbile de acest fel sunt considerate radical-izolante din perspectiva
tipurilor de limbi.
Mai este necesar de subliniat un detaliu relativ la modul de manifestare a
XQLW LORU VLVWHPXOXL OLQJYLVWLF úL DQXPH FDUDFWHUXO VHFYHQ LDO DO HQXQ XULORU
OH[HPHORU PRUIHPHORU úL IRQHPHORU vQ VHQVXO F DVWIHO GH XQLW L SRW FRQVWLWXL
VHFYHQ H DGLF VH SRW ÄvQúLUD´ XQHOH GXS DOWHOH vQ ÄODQ XUL´ VLQWDJPDWLFH GDU
FDUDFWHUXO IDVFLFXODU DO WUVWXULORU GLVWLQFWLYH GH H[SUHVLH DO VHPHPHORU úL DO
IRQHPHORUvQVHQVXOFDVWIHOGHHOHPHQWHFRQVWLWXLHIDVFLFXOHDGLFQXVHSRWvQúLUD
XQHOH GXS DOWHOH FL VH SURGXF UHVSHFWLY VH SHUFHS VLPXOWDQ vQ SURFHVXO GH
FRPXQLFDUH ([HPSOH WUVWXULOH FDUDFWHU YRFDOLF GHVFKLGHUH PD[LP FDUDFWHU
QHODELOúLORFDOL]DUHFHQWUDOVHUHDOL]HD]FRQFRPLWHQWvQIRQHPXOYRFDOLFD>D@DVH
YHGHDFDSLWROXOFRQVDFUDW)RQRORJLHLVHPHPHOHÄSDUWHDLQIHULRDUDGLQWHOXL´ÄSDUWHD
LQIHULRDU D XQXL DUERUH VDX D XQHL SODQWH´ ÄPRIHPXO SULQFLSDO GLQ VWUXFWXUD XQXL
cuvânt´ÄQXPUFDUHvQPXO LWFXHOvQVXúLSURGXFHXQDQXPLWDOWQXPU´VXQWSURSULL
PRUIHPXOXL UGFLQ- GLQ OH[HPXO UGFLQ vQ PRG VLPXOWDQ vQ VLVWHP FHHD FH
FRQILJXUHD] XQ FXYkQW SROLVHPDQWLF QXPDL vQ YRUELUH UHDOL]kQGX-se dor unul sau
altul dintre cele patru sememe, în mod distinct de celelalte.
 22

(VWH GH SUHFL]DW DSRL F IUD]D úL VLQWDJPD QHILLQG XQLW L IXQF LRQDOH DOH
VLVWHPXOXLVHDEDWGHODSULQFLSLXOVWUDWLILFD LRQDODOOLPEDMXOXLÌQWU-DGHYURIUD]QX
HVWH QLFLRGDW IRUPDW ÄGLQ FHO SX LQ R SURSR]L LH´ FL vQWRWGHDXQD GLQ PDL PXOWH
SURSR]L LL FHO SX LQGRX,DUVLQWDJPDvQFRQFHS LDFXQRVFXWvQVLQWD[DPRGHUQ
nu s-DU SXWHD GHILQL FD VWUXFWXU IRUPDW GLQ ÄFHO SX LQ´ GRX SU L GH SURSR]L LH FL
FRQVWvQWRWGHDXQDvQPRGREOLJDWRULXGLQGRXSU LGHSURSR]L LHFDvQVLQWDJPHOH
VXERUGLQDWLYH(OHYXOVLOLWRUVLQWDJPQRPLQDOúLFLWHúWHPXOWVLQWDJPYHUEDOVDX
FDvQVLQWDJPDSUHGLFDWLY(OHYXOFLWHúWH'LQDFHDVWSHUVSHFWLYUH]XOWFvQWU-un
HQXQ  VXQW DWkWHD VLQWDJPH FkWH SU L GH SURSR]L LH PLQXV XQX ÌQWU-DGHYU HQXQ XO
URP(OHYXOVLOLWRUFLWHúWHPXOWFRQVWkQGGLQSDWUXSU LGHSURSR]L LHVXELHFWDWULEXW
SUHGLFDW FRPSOHPHQW VH VWUXFWXUHD] vQ DFHODúL WLPS vQ WUHL VLQWDJPH FHOH
PHQ LRQDWH PDL VXV FHHD FH UHYLQH OD HFKLYDOHQ D  SU L GH SURSR]L LH –1 = 3
VLQWDJPH 1HILLQG XQLW L IXQF LRQDOH IUD]D úL VLQWDJPD VXQW vQ VFKLPE XQLW L
OLQJYLVWLFH UHOD LRQDOH DOWIHO VSXV FRPELQD LL GH XQLW L IXQF LRQDOH IUD]D HVWH
ÄFDGUXO´vQFDUHSURSR]L LLOHLQWUvQUHOD LLXQHOHFXDOWHOHLDUVLQWDJPDHVWHÄFDGUXO´
vQ FDUH LQWHUUHOD LRQHD] SU LOH GH SURSR]L LH $FHDVWD vQVHDPQ F úL SU LOH GH
SURSR]L LHVXQWXQLW LOLQJYLVWLFHIXQF LRQDOHVHVXSXQSULQFLSLXOXLVWUDWLILFD LRQDODO
limbajului, din moment ce o proSR]L LHSRDWHFRQVWDGLQWU-RSDUWHGHSURSR]L LHFHHD
FH VH QXPHúWH vQ VLQWD[D FODVLF SURSR]L LH PRQRPHPEU VDX GLQ PDL PXOWH
SURSR]L LHSOXULPHPEULDUSDUWHDGHSURSR]L LHSRDWHFRQVWDODUkQGXOHLGLQWU-un
OH[HPSDUWHGHSURSR]L LHVLPSOVDXGLQPDLPXOWHSDUWHGHSURSR]L LHFRPSOH[
IRUPDW GH UHJXO GLQWU-un cuvânt autonom: substantiv, verb la modul infinitiv sau
SDUWLFLSLX DGYHUE GH ORF GH WLPS VDX GH PRG HWF úL XQXO VDX PDL PXOWH FXYLQWH
DMXWWRDUH SUHSR]L LH DUWLFRO QHKRWUkW UHVpectiv verb auxiliar sau adverb indicând
JUDGXOGHFRPSDUD LH
&RPSDUWLPHQWHOH OLPELL SUH]LQW JUDGH YDULDWH GH FRPSOH[LWDWH DWkW GLQ
SXQFWXO GH YHGHUH FDOLWDWLY FkW úL GLQ SXQFWXO GH YHGHUH FDQWLWDWLY 'LQ SXQFWXO GH
vedere calitativ, sintaxa, lexicul úL PRUIRORJLD VXQW PDL FRPSOH[H GHFkW IRQRORJLD úL
VHPDQWLFD SHQWUX F LQYDULDQWHOH VSHFLILFH SULPHORU WUHL HQXQ XO OH[HPXO úL
PRUIHPXO VXQW ELSODQH GLVSXQ DWkW GH H[SUHVLH FkW úL GH FRQ LQXW LDU LQYDULDQWHOH
VSHFLILFHXOWLPHORUGRXVXQWPDLSX LQFRPSOH[HGDWILLQGFLQYDULDWHOHVSHFLILFHORU
(fonemul, sememul) sunt monoplane, dispun fie numai de expresie (fonemul) fie
QXPDL GH FRQ LQXW VHPHPXO 'LQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH FDQWLWDWLY VLQWD[D OH[LFXO úL
morfologia sunt mai complexe decât fonologia, penWUXFLQYDULDQWHOHSURSULLSULPHORU
trei sunt mai numeroase decât invariantele din fonologie (în medie, sistemul lingvistic
DO OLPELORU FXSULQGH  GH IRQHPH 0DL PXOW GHFkW DWkW HQXQ XULOH VXQW PDL
QXPHURDVHGHFkWOH[HPHOHSHFDUHOHvQJOREHD]vQVWUucturile lor), iar lexemele sunt
PDL QXPHURDVH GHFkWPRUIHPHOHGXSFXP– printre morfeme –UGFLQLOHVXQWPDL
QXPHURDVH GHFkW DIL[HOH úL GHVLQHQ HOH ÌQWU-R DVWIHO GH FRQFHS LH DVXSUD VLVWHPXOXL
OLQJYLVWLF vQ FDUH VH DGPLWH F FHOH GRX SODQXUL DOH OLPELL VXQW L]RPRUIH SUH]LQW
VWUXFWXUUL SDUDOHOH úL VLPLODUH FRPSDUWLPHQWXO VHPDQWLF IDFH WRWXúL ILJXU DSDUWH
&RQIRUPSULQFLSLXOXLL]RPRUILVPXOXLHODUWUHEXLVILHVUDFvQHOHPHQWHvQWRFPDLFD
IRQRORJLD FX FDUH ÄVH vQYHFLQHD]´ vQ SODQXO RSXV DO limbii; or, lucrurile nu stau în
UHDOLWDWH DúD VHPHPHOH VXQW PXOW PDL QXPHURDVH vQ VLVWHPXO RULFUHL OLPEL GHFkW
IRQHPHOH D FURU ÄFDQWLWDWH´ HVWH GXS FXP DP SUHFL]DW GH RUGLQXO ]HFLORU
3DUDOHOLVPXOVWUXFWXUDOGLQWUHFHOHGRXSODQXULDOHOLPELLQXPDLFRUHVSXQGHUHDOLW LL
OLQJYLVWLFHGDFFRPSDUPLQYDULDQWHOHIRQRORJLFHFXFHOHVHPDQWLFHGLQSXQFWXOGH
vedere cantitativ.
6WUXFWXUDOLVPXOGLQDPLFFHUFHWDUHDLVWRULFDVLVWHPXOXLOLQJYLVWLFDIRUPXODW
ROHJHLPSRUWDQWFXSULYLUHODHYROX LHGLQSHUVSHFWLYDSULQFLSLXOXLVWUDWLILFD LRQDODO
 23

OLPEDMXOXL(VWHOHJHDLQHJDOHLPRELOLW LúLSHQHWUDELOLW LDFRPSDUWLPHQWHORUOLPELL

3ULQ PRELOLWDWH VH vQ HOHJH PRGLILFDUHD UDSRUWXULORU LQWHUQH GLQWUH XQLW LOH ILHFUXL
compartiment lingvistic. De exemplu, formarea derivatului porumbel, ca nume de
SDVUHvQGLDOHFWXOPXQWHDQDOOLPELLURPkQHSHQWUXDHYLWDFROL]LXQHDRPRQLPLFFX
QXPHOH SODQWHL SRUXPE vQ GLDOHFWXO PROGRYHDQ SDVUHD VL-D SVWUDW YHFKLXO QXPH
QHGHULYDWSRUXPESHQWUXFQXULVFDVVe confunde cu numele plantei, care este, în
0ROGRYDSSXúRL
3ULQ SHQHWUDELOLWDWH VH vQ HOHJH SRVLELOLWDWHD XQRU UHSHUFXVLXQL vQ VLVWHPXO
OLPELLFDXUPDUHDUHOD LLORUGLQWUHOLPEúLDOWHIHQRPHQHUHDOL]DWvQWUHDOWHOHSULQ
FUHúWHUHD VDX GHVFUHúWHUHD QXPUXOXL GH XQLW L OLQJYLVWLFH 'H H[HPSOX R GDW FX
HYROX LD VRFLHW LL R GDW FX GLVSDUL LD XQRU YHFKL LQVWLWX LL DX GLVSUXW GLQ OH[LFXO
FRQWHPSRUDQ úL XQ QXPU GH FXYLQWH DUKDLVPH FD URP KDWPDQ VWROQLF SDKDUQLF
HWFLDURGDWFXGH]YROWDUHDFXOWXULLúLFLYLOL]D LHLDSUkQGFRQFHSWHQRLOHJDWHGH
SLOG GHLQVWUXPHQWHPRGHUQHvQOH[LFDXLQWUDWúLGHQXPLULOHGHDVHPHQHDQRLDOH
acestora ( ca neologisme, de felul substantivelor: binoclu, telescop, microscop etc.).
Exemplele furnizate aLFL LQ GH FRPSDUWLPHQWXO OH[LFDO YRFDEXODU DFHVWD FD úL
FRPSDUWLPHQWXO VLQWD[HL ILLQG PDL XúRU SHQHWUDELO PDL VXSXV LQIOXHQ HORU
extralingvistice.
0RELOLWDWHDFRPSDUWLPHQWHORUOLPELLHVWHXQIHQRPHQGHOLQJYLVWLFLQWHUQLDU
penetrabilitatea lor – XQXO GH OLQJYLVWLF H[WHUQ vQ WHUPLQRORJLD LQWURGXV GH ) GH
6DXVVXUH7UHEXLHIFXWSUHFL]DUHDFH[LVWRUHOD LHGHGLUHFWSURSRU LRQDOLWDWHvQWUH
PRELOLWDWH úL SHQHWUDELOLWDWH SH GH R SDUWH úL JUDGXO GH FRPSOH[LWDWH FDQWLWDWLY úL
FDOLWDWLY D compartimentelor limbii. Cu alte cuvinte, cu cât un compartiment
OLQJYLVWLFHVWHPDLFRPSOH[FXDWkWHOHVWHPDLPRELOúLPDLSHQHWUDELOvQWU-RDQXPLW
XQLWDWHGHWLPSúLLQYHUVFXFkWHVWHPDLSX LQFRPSOH[FXDWkWHVWHPDLSX LQPRELO
úL PDL JUHX SHQHWUDELO vQ DFHHDúL XQLWDWH GH WLPS $FHDVWD HVWH IRUPXODUHD OHJLL
LQHJDOHLPRELOLW LúLSHQHWUDELOLW LDFRPSDUWLPHQWHORUOLPELLÌQWU-DGHYUVLQWD[DúL
PDLDOHVOH[LFXOOLPELLURPkQHGHH[HPSOXDXHYROXDWPXOWvQXOWLPHOHGRXVHFROH
pe când morfolRJLDDDFKL]L LRQDWXQQXPUUHODWLYPDLPLFGHPRUIHPHLDUIRQRORJLD
URPkQHDVFQXV-DPRGLILFDWGHORFvQDFHODúLLQWHUYDOFURQRORJLF
$PIFXWPDLVXVRUHIHULUHODWLSXOGHOLPELUDGLFDO-L]RODQWHFDUHvQVQXHVWH
singurul tip lingvistic. Prin tip liQJYLVWLF VH vQ HOHJH DQVDPEOXO SDUWLFXODULW LORU
VWUXFWXUDOHRSXQkQGROLPERFODVGHOLPELDOWHLDDOWRUDLQGHSHQGHQWGHRULJLQHD
HYROX LD úL GLVWULEX LD VSD LDO D OLPELORU ÌQ OLPELOH GH WLS L]RODQW FXYLQWHOH QX-úL
PRGLILF IRUPD vQ SURFHVXO FRPXQLFULL HOH VXQW LQWHJUDO QHIOH[LELOH $FHVW WLS VH
subdivide în subtipul radical-L]RODQW GHMD PHQ LRQDW vQ FDUH vQ DIDUD SDUWLFXODULW LL
GHDQXIOH[LRQDFXYLQWHOHVHUHGXFVWUXFWXUDOODXQLW LRPRORJHUGFLQLORUGLQDOWH
WLSXULGHOLPELúLvQVubtipul tematic-L]RODQWvQFDUHUPkQkQGQHIOH[LELOHFXYLQWHOH
DXWRWXúLRVWUXFWXUSX LQPDLFRPSOH[VFKL kQGX-VHDLFLIHQRPHQXOGHULYULLVXQW
SRVLELOHvQDVWIHOGHOLPELFXPHVWHLQGRQH]LDQDFXYLQWHIRUPDWHGLQUGFLQLODFDUH
VH DWDúHD] SUHIL[H 6XQW SRVLELOH DOWH WUHL WLSXUL GH OLPEL QHL]RODQWH úL DQXPH
IOH[LRQDU vQ FDUH XQHOH FXYLQWH vúL VFKLPE IRUPHOH JUDPDWLFDOH SULQ IOH[LXQH –
GHFOLQDUH FRQMXJDUH FKLDU FRPSDUD LH DGMHFWLYDO vQ FXUVXO FRPXQLFULL YHUEDOH
aglutinant (în care VXQW SRVLELOH IRUPD LL OH[LFDOH ÄOXQJL´ FX DWDúDUHD D QXPHURDVH
DIL[HSHOkQJUGFLQLvQVIkUúLWLQFRUSRUDQWvQFDUHFHHDFHFRUHVSXQGHGLIHULWHORU
SU L GH SURSR]L LH GLQ OLPELOH GH FHOH GLQWkL WLSXUL VH FRPELQ vQ VWUXFWXUL OH[LFDOH
complexe, în DúD IHO vQFkW XQ FXYkQW GH WLS LQFRUSRUDQW SRDWH IL HFKLYDOHQW FX R
SURSR]L LHXQHRULFKLDUFXRIUD]GLQOLPELOHGHFHOHODOWHWLSXUL
7LSXULOH IOH[LRQDU úL DJOXWLQDQW VH VXEGLYLG vQ VXEWLSXULOH VLQWHWLF vQ FDUH
IOH[LXQHD VH UHDOL]HD] SULQ DIL[H úL GHVLQHQ H FD URP WDWOXL (genitiv sau dativ),
 24

FkQWDVHUPPDLPXOWFDSUHIHFWHWFúLDQDOLWLFvQFDUHFXYLQWHOHDúD-zise flexibile

nu-úLVFKLPEIRUPDFDvQOLPELOHL]RODQWHGDUFDWHJRULLOHJUDPDWLFDOHVHH[SULPvQ
ORF GH DIL[H úL GHVLQHQ H SULQ LQVWUXPHQWH JUDPDWLFDOH VDX FXYLQWH DMXWWRDUH
SUHSR]L LL FRQMXQF LL YHUEH DX[LOLDUH DGYHUEH GHOH[LFDOL]DWH SHQWUX H[SULPDUHD
JUDGHORU GH FRPSDUD LH FD vQ IU du père (genitiv), au père (dativ) sau nous avions
chanté (mai mult ca perfect etc.).
În secolul al XIX-OHD  D DSUXW R UDPXU VSHFLDO D OLQJYLVWLFLL tipologia,
având ca obiect de studiu tipurile structurale de limbi. La conturarea ei au contribuit
OLQJYLúWLL JHUPDQL :LOKHOP YRQ +XPEROGW IUD LL 6FKOHJHO úL $XJXVW 6FKOHLFKHU 2
QRX FODVLILFDUH WLSRORJLF PDL GHWDOLDW úL LQkQG VHDPD QX QXPDL GH VWUXFWXUD
FXYLQWHORUFLúLGHSDUWLFXODULW LDOHXQLW LORUGLQFHOHODOWHFRPSDUWLPHQWHDOHOLPELL
DSURSXVvQHSRFDLQWHUEHOLFOLQJYLVWXODPHULFDQ(GZDUG6DSLU
&ODVLILFDUHD WLSRORJLF FODVLF QXPLW úL PRUIRORJLF D OLPELORU UHGXV OD
OLQLLOHHLPDULSRDWHILSUH]HQWDWFDvQDFHDVWGLDJUDP

Tipuri de limbi

izolant neizolant

radical tematic flexionar aglutinant

H[YLHWQDPH]H[LQGRQH]LDQ
sintetic analitic sintetic analitic incorporant
(ex.: (ex.: (ex.: (ex.: (polisitetic)
ODWLQIUDQFH]PDJKLDUDWLEHWDQDH[OLPELOH
amerindiene)

FONETICA – Studiul sunetelor vorbirii

)RQHWLFD HVWH R GLVFLSOLQ OLQJYLVWLF DYkQG FD RELHFW VXQHWHOH YRUELULL 3ULQ
VXQHW DUWLFXODW VH vQ HOHJH HPLVLXQHD YRFDO PLQLPDO FDSDELO FD vPSUHXQ FX DOWH
ÄSURGXVH´ VLPLODUH DOH YRFLL V IRUmeze corpuri fonetice (complexe sonore).
&RUSXULOH IRQHWLFH DOFWXLHVF ODWXUD VRQRU D FXYLQWHORU VLQWDJPHORU SURSR]L LLORU
frazelor.
)RQHWLFD D IRVW LQL LDW vQ DQWLFKLWDWH vQ YHFKHD *UHFLH úL vQ YHFKHD ,QGLH vQ
special în India ajungând la rezultateUHPDUFDELOHYHFKLLLQGLHQLDXGDWRDGPLUDELO
FODVLILFDUH D VXQHWHORU SURSULL URVWLULL VDQVNULWH OLPED GH FXOWXU D ULL ORU vQ
Antichitate). Ea s-a dezvoltat în Europa, mai ales în secolul al XIX-OHD OD VIkUúLWXO
FUXLD D DSUXW PHWRGD GH FHUFHWDUH QXPLW IRQHWLF H[SHULPHQWDO SULQ FDUH VH
UHFXUJHODXQQXPUGHDSDUDWHGHPVXUDSDUWLFXODULW LORUDUWLFXOULLGHHPLWHUHúL
DFXVWLFHGHUHFHSWDUHDOHVXQHWHORU/HJDWGHDFHDVWDHVWHIRQHWLFDLQVWUXPHQWDOR
PHWRGGHSUHGDUHDURVWLULLOLPELORUVWULQHFXDMXWRUXODSDUDWXULLHOHFWURQLFH
$OWH GLVFLSOLQH OLQJYLVWLFH DSURSLDWH GH IRQHWLFVXQWFHOHQRUPDWLYHRUWRHSLD
DQVDPEOXOUHJXOLORUGHSURQXQ DUHFRUHFWvQOLPEDOLWHUDUúLRUWRJUDILDDQVDPEOXO
 25

UHJXOLORU GH VFULHUH FRUHFW vQ DFHODúL DVSHFW DO OLPELL &X UGFLQL vQ VHFROXO DO
XIX-OHD vQ VHFROXO XUPWRU V-D GH]YROWDW IRQRORJLD VDX IRQHWLFD IXQF LRQDO VWXGLXO
VXQHWHORU GLQ SXQFWXO GH YHGHUH DO IXQF LXQLL ORU vQ SURFHVXO GH FRPXQLFDUH YHUEDO
într-RIRUPXODUHFRQFLVVWXGLXOIRQemelor.
)RQHWLFD JHQHUDO VWXGLXO WHRUHWLF DO VXQHWHORU OLPEDMXOXL LQGLIHUHQW GH
GHRVHELULOH GLQWUH OLPEL VW vQ UHOD LH FX IRQHWLFD VSHFLDO VWXGLXO VXQHWHORU GLQ
YRUELUHDXQHLOLPELDQXPLWHDFHDVWDGLQXUPSRDWHILRIRQHWLFGHVFULSWLYVWXGLX
al sunetelor din vorbirea unei limbi într-R HWDS GDW GLQ HYROX LD HL VDX R IRQHWLF
LVWRULFVWXGLXDOHYROX LHLVXQHWHORUSURSULLXQHLOLPELGH-a lungul istoriei acesteia).
$FHDVW GLVFLSOLQ OLQJYLVWLF SUH]LQW LQWHUHV SHQWUX GH]YROWDUHD XQRU
discipOLQH úL FKLDU WHKQLFL H[WUDOLQJYLVWLFH FD GLF LXQHD WHKQLFD GLF LHL XWLO
SHUIHF LRQULL DUWHL GH LQWHUSUHWDUH VFHQLF GHIHFWRORJLD DFXVWLF WHKQLFD FRUHFWULL
GHIHFWHORU GH DXGL LH ORJRSHGLD úL RUWRIRQLD WHKQLFL DOH FRUHFWULL GHIHFWHORU GH
pronuQ DUH
6XQHWHOHYRUELULLVHvPSDUWvQGRXFODVHLPSRUWDQWHYRFDOHúLFRQVRDQHXQLWH
SULQFODVDLQWHUPHGLDUDVRQDQWHORU
9RFDOHOH VXQW VXQHWH DUWLFXODWH vQWRWGHDXQD VRQRUH DGLF URVWLWH FX YLEUD LD
FRDUGHORU YRFDOH FDUH VH SURQXQ  IU HIRUW DUWLFXODWRULX úL VXQW FDSDELOH GH D
constitui centri silabici.
(OH VH FODVLILF GXS ]RQD GLQ FDYLWDWHD EXFDO vQ FDUH VH SURGXF YRFDOH
DQWHULRDUH vQ SDUWHD DQWHULRDU D FDYLW LL EXFDOH YRFDOH SRVWHULRDUH vQ SDUWHD
SRVWHULRDU D DFHOHLDúL FDYLW L úL Yocale centrale sau neutre (în zona mijlocie a
FDYLW LLEXFDOH
9RFDOHOHDQWHULRDUHVXQW>0@FDîn fr. mère (m05ÄPDP•”, [œ], ca în fr. boeuf
[boef] „bou”, [e], ca în fr. gai [ge] „vesel, -´>¡], ca în fr. feu [f¡], „foc”, [y], ca în
fr. lune (lyn] „OXQ´YRFDODURPkQHDVF>H@GLQSOHFGHH[HPSOXVHVLWXHD]GHIDSW
vQWUH>H@úL>0@GLQIUDQFH]QHILLQGDWkWGHvQFKLVFDIU>H@QLFLDWkWGHGHVFKLVFDIU
>0@
Vocale posterioare sunt: [λ], ca în engl. son [sλQ] „fiu”, [ã], ca în engl. dog
[dãg] „câine”, [ò], ca în vietnam. òt [ò t] „piper”, [o], ca în engl. bone [boun] „os”,
[m], ca în japon. mizu [mim}@ÄDS´>X@FDvQJHUPNXQG>NXQG@ÄFXQRVFXW´YRFDOD
>R@ GLQ URVWLUHDURPkQHDVFvQMRFGHH[HPSOXVHSURQXQ PDLGHVFKLVGHFkWHngl.
>R@GDUPDLvQFKLVGHFkWHQJO>ã]).
Vocale centrale sunt: [è@FDvQHQJOQLQH>QDLQ@ÄQRX´>è], ca în engl. [taè]
ÄVDUFLQ´>á], ca în engl. [tá p] „vârf”, [è@FDvQURPYG>÷], ca în rom. fân, [÷÷],
ca în rus. ue>[÷÷ t] „a fost”.
Dup JUDGXO GH DSHUWXU GHVFKLGHUH UH]XOWDW GLQ GLVWDQ D GLQWUH PXúFKLXO
OLQJXDOúLSDODWvQPRPHQWXODUWLFXOULLYRFDOHOHVHFODVLILFvQGHVFKLVH>è], [α], [á]
– YH]L PDL VXV H[HPSOLILFUL VHPLGHVFKLVH >0@ >œ], [λ], [ã], cu exemple mai sus;
semiînchise: [e], [øë], [ò@>R@ODIHOGHQRWDWF>è@VHVLWXHD]vQOLPELFDIUDQFH]D
JHUPDQD HQJOH]D URPkQD vQWUH YRFDOHOH VHPLGHVFKLVH úL FHOH VHPLvQFKLVH vQFKLVH
[i], [y], [τ], [t], [÷÷], [u].
'XSUROXOEX]HORUvQURVWLUHYRFDOHOHVXQWODELDOHURtunjite): [è], [ã], [o], [u],
[œ], [ø], [y], iar nelabiale (nerotunjite) – toate celelalte.
ÌQ URVWLUHD XQRU OLPEL FD IUDQFH]D SRUWXJKH]D SRORQD úDVHGLVWLQJYRFDOH
RUDOHFXH[SXO]DUHDFXUHQWXOXLGHDHUIRQDWRUH[FOXVLYSHFDOHRUDOúLYRFDOHQD]ale
 26

FX H[SXO]DUHD XQHL SU L GLQ FXUHQWXO GH DHU SULQ IRVHOH QD]DOH 9RFDOH RUDOH VXQW
toate acelea cu care am exemplificat mai sus. Vocalele nazale sunt: [ã], ca în fr. plante
ÄSODQW´ >0@ FD în fr. magasin „magazin”, [Ÿ@ FD vQ SRUW HP ÄvQ´ >v@ Fa în port.
intacto „intact”, [ã], ca în fr. bon „bun”, [œ], ca în fr. un „un”, [Ê@FDvQSRUWXQÄXQ´
ÌQ URVWLUHD DOWRU OLPEL FD ODWLQD YHFKH JUHDF VDQVFULWD JHUPDQD HQJOH]D
PDJKLDUD úD VH GLVWLQJ YRFDOH OXQJL FX R GXUDW GH DUWLFXODUH XúRU SUHOXQJLW úL
vocale scurte. Exemple de vocale lungi: [α:], ca în engl. father [fα/ è@ÄWDW´>0@FD
în finl. mitenkään ['mitek0Q@ÄGHORF´>H@FDîn germ. Schnee [œQH@Ä]SDG´>L@FD
vQ HQJO HDW >LW@ ÄD PkQFD´ >R@ FD vQ Y JUHDF 2&. >
so:ma] „corp”, [ã:], ca în
germ. Ofen [ã:f ãn] „sob•”, [ø:], ca în magh. tör [t ø:r] „pumnal”, [u:], ca în engl. two
>WX@ÄGRLGRX´>\@FDvQJHUPEHU>
\E è r] „deasupra, peste”.
'RX YRFDOH URVWLWH vQ DFHHDúL VLODE IRUPHD] JUXSXO YRFDOLF QXPLt diftong,
LDU WUHL YRFDOH URVWLWH vQ DFHHDúL VLODE IRUPHD] JUXSXO YRFDOLF QXPLW WULIWRQJ
'LIWRQJL úL WULIWRQJL DXWHQWLFL VH vQWkOQHVF vQ OLPELOH JHUPDQLFH FD JHUPDQD HQJOH]D
ÌQURVWLUHDOLPELLURPkQHVHvQWkOQHVFIDOúLGLIWRQJLúLWULIWRQJLSHQWUXFvQDVWIHOGH
JUXSXUL ILJXUHD] vQWRWGHDXQD FkWH R YRFDO QX FkWH GRX UHVSHFWLY WUHL FHOHODOWH
VXQHWHFDUHLQWUvQDOFWXLUHDORUILLQGVHPLYRFDOH
&RQVRDQHOH VXQW VXQHWH DUWLFXODWH QX vQWRWGHDXQD VRQRUH SURQXQ DWH FX XQ
oarecare efort articulatorLX úL FDUH QX VXQW vQ JHQHUDO FDSDELOH GH D IRUPD FHQWUL
silabici.
(OHVHFODVLILFGXSPRGXOGHDUWLFXODUHPDQLHUDGHH[SXO]DUHDFXUHQWXOXLGH
aer fonator) în oclusive (cu obstacol total în calea curentului de aer fonator), fricative
sau constrictive FX REVWDFRO SDU LDO vQ FDOHD FXUHQWXOXL IRQDWRU úL DIULFDWH VDX
VHPLRFOXVLYHRULSORVLYHFXREVWDFROWRWDOWUDQVIRUPDWvQREVWDFROSDU LDO
&RQVRDQHOH RFOXVLYH VXQW >E@ >S@ >G@ >W@ >J@ >N@ >J¶@ >N¶@ FHOH GRX GLQ
XUPFDvQURPJKHDUúLFKLDUILLQGSDODWDOHvQUDSRUWFXSUHFHGHQWHOHGRXFDvQ
URPJDUúLFDUFDUHVXQWGXUH>Jw], [kw@FDvQODWOLQJXDÄOLPE´TXLVÄFLQH´
Consoanele fricative sunt: [Ú], ca în span. cabeza [ka'ÚHD@ ÄFDS´ >@ FD în
OLPEDQLJHULDQKDXVDH[ILOILOR>LOLOR@ÄIOXWXUH>Y@>I@>/@FDîn engl. then [δen]
ÄDWXQFLDSRL´>@FDîn engl. there [UL@ÄWUHL´>]@>V@>!], ca în rom. joc, [œ@FDvQ
URP úL >@ FD în neo-JUHF !..2 >UDPDWL
NL@ ÄJUDPDWLF´ >[@ FD vQ JHUP
Buch [bux@ÄFDUWH´>K@FDvQURPKDLQ
Consoanele africate sunt: [p3], ca în germ. Apfel ['ap3èO@ÄPU´>G]@FDvQ
LWDO]HUR>
G]HUR@Ä]HUR´>WV@FDvQ kQ DU>G!], ca în rom. rogi, [tœ@FDvQURPIDFL
1RWD LD GLQWUH SDUDQWH]H GUHSWH UHSUH]HQWkQG WUDQVFULS LD IRQHWLF DSDU LQH DúD-
QXPLWXOXLÄDOIDEHWIRQHWLFLQWHUQD LRQDO´úLHVWHXQDÄDQDOLWLF´DGLFQRWkQGvQPRG
GLVWLQFW REVWDFROXO WRWDO LQL LDO GLQ DUWLFXODUHD DIULFDWHORU SULQ S W G úL REVWDFROXO
SDU LDO ILQDO GLQ DUWLFXODUHD ORU SULQ  ], s, !, œ $FHVW OXFUX QX vQVHDPQ DúDGDU F
DIULFDWHOH YRU FRQVWD GLQ FRPELQD LL GH FkWH GRX FRQVRDQH ÌQ WUDQVFULHUHD IRQHWLF
URPkQHDVFVHUHFXUJHODRQRWD LHÄVLQWHWLF´DDIULFDWHORU> @SHQWUX>WV@>÷@SHQWUX
[d!@úL>þ@SHQWUX>Wœ@
'XS ORFXl de articulare, consoanele pot fi: bilabiale – >@ >3@ >E@ >S@
labiodentale – [v], [f], [p3]; dentale – [d], [t], [z], [s], [dz], [ts]; interdentale –>/@>@
alveolare –>G@úL>W@GLQURVWLUHDHQJOH]HLSDODWDOH–>J
@>N
@úLDOWHOHSURSULLOLPbilor
slave cu deosebire; velare –>J@>K@>@>[@IDULQJDOH– [h].
'XS UROXO FRDUGHORU YRFDOH vQ URVWLUH FRQVRDQHOH SRW IL VRQRUH URVWLWH FX
YLEUDUHDFRDUGHORUYRFDOHúLVXUGHIUYLEUDUHDFRDUGHORUYRFDOH&RQVRDQHVRQRUH
 27

VXQW>@>E@>G@>]@>G]@>/@>J’@>J@>@LDUVXUGHVXQW>3@>S@>S3], [t], [s], [ts],

>@>N
@>N@>[@>K@
ÌQ XQHOH OLPEL FD VDQVNULWD úL OLPELOH LQGLHQH DFWXDOH YHFKHD JUHDF VXQW
SRVLELOH úL FRQVRDQH DVSLUDWH URVWLWH FX H[SXO]DUHD UHODWLY SXWHUQLF D Furentului de
DHU IRQDWRU GLQ FDYLWDWHD EXFDO úL FRQVRDQH QHDVSLUDWH FX H[SXO]DUHD PDL SX LQ
SXWHUQLF D FXUHQWXOXL IRQDWRU ([HPSOH GLQ YHFKHD JUHDF FRQVRDQH QHDVSLUDWH Œ
>S@2>W@úLN>N@úLFRQVRDQHDVSLUDWH3>SK@>WK@$>NK@
În alte limbi FD LWDOLDQD PDJKLDUD úL ILQODQGH]D VXQW SRVLELOH úL FRQVRDQH
OXQJL UHVSHFWLY FRQVRDQH VFXUWH ([HPSOH GLQ ILQODQGH] VDQRLVLW ÄDL ]LFH´ FX W
VFXUWVDQRLVLWWHÄD L]LFH´FXWOXQJ
&ODVD LQWHUPHGLDU GH VXQHWH vQWUH YRFDOH úL FRQVRDQH HVWH D Vonantelor.
$FHVWHD VXQW FD úL YRFDOHOH VXQHWH vQWRWGHDXQD VRQRUH VH URVWHVF FX XQ VODE HIRUW
DUWLFXODWRULXFHHDFHOHDSURSLHGHFRQVRDQHúLvQDQXPLWHOLPELSRWFRQVWLWXLQXFOHH
VLODELFH 6RQDQWHOH VXQW GH GRX IHOXUL FRQVRDQH LPSURSULL FD >U@ URPânesc, [R]
francez, [l] românesc, [à@VODYYHODU>@SDOHWDOFDîn ital. famiglia, span. Sevilla,
port. Magelhães „Magellan”), [m], [m+@FDvQURPDvQY D>Q@GHQWDO>@QYHODU
FDvQHQJOWKLQJÄOXFUX´>@SDODWDOFDvQVSDQQL a n RÄFRSLO´úLVHPLYRFDOHFD>M@
úL>Z@GLQHQJOH]IUDQFH]FURUDOHFRUHVSXQGLúLXVHPLYRFDOLFLGLQURPkQGDL
GDXOLPEDGLQXUPDGXJkQGDOWHVHPLYRFDOHHFDvQSOHDFúLRFDvQMRDF
8QLWDWHD IRQHWLF LPHGLDW VXSHULRDU sunetului articulat este grupul de sunete
YRFDOLFGLIWRQJVDXWULIWRQJUHVSHFWLYFRQVRQDQWLH$OWXQLWDWHIRQHWLFVXSHULRDU
HVWHVLODEDFDUHVHGHILQHúWHFDHPLVLXQHDUWLFXODWDYRFLLXPDQHGHOLPLWDWGHGRX
LPSXOVXUL VXFFHVLYH DOH PXúFKLORU LQWHUFRVWDOL 6LODEHOH VH FODVLILF GXS QXPUXO GH
VXQHWHFDUHVHvQúLUvQVWUXFWXUDORUúLGXSFDUDFWHUXOVXQHWXOXLWHUPLQDO'XSSULPXO
FULWHULX VH GLVWLQJ VLODEH IRUPDWH GLQ FkWH XQ VLQJXU VXQHW GH UHJXO R YRFDO FX
VWUXFWXUDVLPEROL]DELOSULQ9GLQFkWHGRXVXQHWH&9VDX9&XQGH&UHSUH]LQW
FRQVRDQDGLQFkWHWUHL&9&&&9VDX9&&HWFÌQURPkQGHH[HPSOXQXPUXO
FHO PDL PDUH GH VXQHWH FXSULQVH vQWUH R VLODE HVWH GH FLQFL H[ VWUkPW VWUkPE úL
GDF VH FRQVLGHU VXQHW GLVWLQFW úL-L ILQDO DVLODELF FD vQ IRUPHOH GH QXPU SOXUDO DOH
DGMHFWLYHORU GH PDL VXV VWUkP L VWUkPEL VH SRDWH DGPLWH F VLODEHOH URPkQHúWL
ÄPD[LPDOH´ FXSULQG úDVH VXQHWH 'XS DO GRLOHD FULWHULX VH GLVWLQJ VLODEH GHVFKLVH
WHUPLQDWH vQ YRFDO FD úL V GLQ URP FDV VDX D GLQ URP DFXP úL VLODEH vQFKLVH
WHUPLQDWHvQFRQVRDQDFúLWRUGLQURPDFWRUVDXFXPGLQURPDFXP8QHOHOLPEL
PDQLIHVW WHQGLQ D VSUH VLODEH GHVFKLVH DOWRUD OH VXQW VSHFLILFH QXPDL VLODEHOH
GHVFKLVHFXPLFLH[FHS LLWRDWHVLODEHOHOimbii japoneze sunt deschise, închiderea lor
ILLQGSRVLELOQXPDLSULQVRQDQWDQD]DOGHQWDOQFKLQH]DOLPEFXVLODEHGHVFKLVH
vQPDMRULWDWHDDEVROXWDGPLWHvQFKLGHUHDORUQXPDLSULQQGHQWDOúL>@QYHODU@
În rostirea corpurilor fonetice ale cXYLQWHORUúLIRUPHORUORUJUDPDWLFDOHFDúLD
SURSR]L LLORU úL IUD]HORU DX ORF DúD-numitele accidente de coarticulare. Prin
FRDUWLFXODUHVHvQ HOHJHIDSWXOFVXQHWHOHXQXLFRUSIRQHWLFVDXDOHXQXLúLUGHFRUSXUL
IRQHWLFHQXVHDUWLFXOHD]GLVWLQFWDGLFVWULFWVHSDUDWHXQHOHGHFHOHODOWHGLPSRWULY
vQFvQDLQWHGHDVHvQFKHLDDUWLFXODUHDXQXLVXQHWvQFHSHLPHGLDWDUWLFXODUHDVXQHWXOXL
XUPWRU $OWIHO VSXV PRPHQWXO ILQDO GLQ DUWLFXODUHD XQXL VXQHW VH VXSUDSXQH SDU LDO
SHVWH PRPHQWXO LQL LDO GLQ DUWLFXODUHD VXQHWXOXL FDUH XUPHD] FHOXLODOW vQWU-un corp
fonetic. Accidentele fonetice rezultate în urma fenomenului de coarticulare sunt:
asimilarea, disimilarea, afereza, sincopa, apocopa, haplologia, proteza, epenteza,
anaptixa, metateza, sinereza, diereza,VLQDOHIDHFWKOLSVDHOL]LXQHD8UPHD]GHILQLUHD
ORUFXH[HPSOLILFULVXPDUH
$VLPLODUHD UHSUH]LQW ÄvPSUXPXWDUHD´ XQHL WUVWXUL DUWLFXDOWRULL VDX DFXVWLFH
GHODXQVXQHWODDOWXOH[FRQVRDQDVXUG>V@GLQSUHIL[XOURPGHV-, ca în derivatul
 28

desface, GHYLQH VRQRU >]@ VXE LQIOXHQ D FRQVRDQHL VRQRUH XUPWRDUH GLQ URP
dezbate, de exemplu).
'LVLPLODUHD UHSUH]LQW ÄSLHUGHUHD´  vQ DUWLFXODUHD XQXL VXQHW D WUVWXULL SH
FDUHHORDUHvQFRPXQFXDOWVXQHWGLQDFHODúLFRUSIRQHWLFH[XQDGLQWUHFHOHGRX
VXQHWH YLEUDQWH >U@ GLQ URP FRULGRU GHYLQH >O@ VXE LQIOXHQ D FHOHL GH OD VIkUúLW vQ
URVWLUHDQHOLWHUDUFROLGRU
$IHUH]D  UHSUH]LQW GLVSDUL LD YRFDOHL LQL LDOH D XQXL FRPSOH[ VRQRU H[ ODW
exponŸUHGHYHQLWURPDVSXQH
6LQFRSDUHSUH]LQWGLVSDUL LDXQHLYRFDOHLQWHULRDUHPDLDOHVQHDFFHQWXDWHH[
în lat. calidus devenit rom., it. caldo).
$SRFRSDFRQVWGLQGLVSDUL LDYRFDOHLILQDOHGLQWU-un complex sonor (ex. rom.
SRSDIDU¶vQURVWLUHDvQWHPSRUDSLGvQORFGHDIDU
+DSORORJLD FRQVW GLQ HOLPLQDUHD XQHLD GLQWUH FHOH GRX VLODEH DVHPQWRDUH
sau identice dintr-XQ FRUS IRQHWLF H[ URP MXPDWH GLQ MXPWDWH VDX WUDJLFRPHGLH
din tragico-comedie).
3URWH]DFRQVWGLQDWDúDUHDXQHLYRFDOHLQL LDOHODXQFRUSIRQHWLFvQFHSkQGGH
obicei, cu o VRQDQWH[URPSRSDPLURDVHvQORFGHPLURDVHPDJKLVNRODÄúFRDO´
din lat. schola).
(SHQWH]D UHSUH]LQW GH]YROWDUHD XQHL FRQVRDQH vQLQWHULRUXOXQXLFRUSIRQHWLF
H[DSDUL LDFRQVRDQHLEvQIUFKDPEUHGLQODWFDPHUD
$QDSWL[DHVWHDSDUL LDXQei vocale în interiorul unui grup de consoane ale unui
FRUS IRQHWLF H[ URP UHJ D KUQL GLQ D KUQL MDSRQ EDVXNHWRERUX GLQ HQJO
basketball).
0HWDWH]D HVWH VFKLPEDUHD UHFLSURF D ORFXOXL DQXPLWRU VXQHWH GLQWU-un
complex sonor (ex. rom. scluptor, în loc de sculptor; span. cocodrilo, din lat.
crocodylus).
6LQHUH]D HVWH FRQWRSLUHD D GRX YRFDOH vQYHFLQDWH vQWU-un diftong (ex. rom.
re-gio-QDOvQORFXOVLODED LHLOLWHUDUHUH-gi-o-nal).
Diereza este accidentul opus sinerezei, constând din separarea în silabe diferite
D HOHPHQWHORU FRPSRQHQWH DOH XQXL GLIWRQJ H[ URP HURXO IRUP DUWLFXODW KRWUkW
ID GHHURXIRUPQHDUWLFXODW
6LQDOHIDHVWHRVLQHUH]VLQWDFWLFDGLFSURGXVODOLPLWDGLQWUHGRXFRUSXUL
fonetice învecinate (ex. rom. pe-aici, din pe aici).
(FKWOLSVD HVWH DOW DFFLGHQW GH IRQHWLF VLQWDFWLF FRQVWkQG GLQ HOLPLQDUHD
YRFDOHL LQL LDOH D FXYkQWXOXL XUPWRU vQ FRQWDFW FX YRFDOD ILQDO D FXYkQWXOXL
precedent (ex. rom. ca-n, din ca în).
Eliziunea este eliminarea vocalei finale a unui cuvânt, în contact cu vocala
LQL LDODFXYkQWXOXLXUPWRUH[IUO¶pOève, „elevul”, în loc de *le élève).
ÌQDIDUGHYRFDOHFRQVRDQHVRQDQWHFDUHVXQWHOHPHQWHIRQHWLFHVHJPHQWDOH
SHQWUXFUH]XOWGLQVHJPHQWDUHDODQ XOXLIRQLFvQURVWLUHDRULFUHLOLPELVHUHDOL]HD]
úLHOHPHQWHIRQHWLFHVXSUDVHJPHQWDOHvQVR LWRDUHDOHXQRUFRUSXULIRQHWLFHVHJPHQWDOH
GHGLPHQVLXQLYDULDWHDFFHQWXOWRQXOúLLQWRQD LD3ULQDFFHQWVHvQ HOHJHURVWLUHDPDL
HQHUJLF DFFHQW GLQDPLF VDX PDL vQDOW DFFHQW WRQLF a unei silabe dintr-un corp
IRQHWLF SROLVLODELF /LPED URPkQ FD úL FHOHODOWH OLPEL URPDQLFH VH FDUDFWHUL]HD]
SULQ DFFHQW GLQDPLF OLPELOH FHK VkUE VXHGH] GLVSXQ GH DFFHQW WRQLF 7RQXO
UHSUH]LQW URVWLUHD PDL vQDOW PDL MRDV VDX FRPELQDW GLQ SXnctul de vedere al
vQO LPLLDXQHLVLODEHGLQWU-XQFRUSIRQHWLFPRQRVLODELF3ULQWRQXULVHFDUDFWHUL]HD]
rostirea unor limbi izolante din Extremul Orient: chineza (cu 4 sau 5 tonuri),
YLHWQDPH]D FX  WRQXUL $FFHQWXO úL WRQXO VXQW SURSULL XQLW LORU lingvistice numite
cuvinte.
 29

,QWRQD LD UHSUH]LQW YDULHWDWHD GH vQO LPH D URVWLULL XQXL HQXQ  (D SRDWH IL
DVFHQGHQW FD vQ SURSR]L LLOH URPkQHúWL LQWHURJDWLYH WRWDOH (úWL VWXGHQW"
GHVFHQGHQWFDvQSURSR]L LLOHURPkQHúWLHQXQ LDWLYHVDXGHFODUDWLYH7XHúWLVWXGHQW
vQVIkUúLWYDULDWGH-DOXQJXOHQXQ XOXLFDvQSURSR]L LLOHURPkQHúWLH[FODPDWLYH&H
VWXGHQWPDLHúWLúLWX

FONOLOGIA – studiul fonemelor sistemului

'DF vQ YRUELUH DYHP D IDFH FX VXQHWH vQ OLPE VLVWHP DYHP D IDFH FX
foneme )RQHPHOH VXQW VXQHWH IXQF LRQDOH DGLF VXQHWH FX IXQF LXQHD GH D GLVWLQJH
FRUSXULIRQHWLFHSXUWWRDUHGHLQIRUPD LLGLVWLQFWH
&kQG URVWLP vQ YRUELUHD URPkQHDVF FRUSXO IRQHWLF FDUWH FX R VRQDQW >U@
DSLFDOYLEUDQWSURGXVSULQYLEUDUHDYkUIXOXLOLPbii) sau corpul fonetic carte, cu o
VRQDQW>5@XYXODUYLEUDQWSURGXVSULQYLEUDUHDXYXOHLVDXRPXúRUXOXLvQ HOHJHP
GHILHFDUHGDWXQXOúLDFHODúLOXFUXVHQVXOÄFDUWH´
$FHDVWD vQVHDPQ F URVWLULOH GLIHULWH >U@ úL >5@ QX DX IXQF LXQL GLIHULWH vQ
pURFHVXO GH FRPXQLFDUH vQ OLPED URPkQ HOH VXQW VXQHWH IXQF LRQDO HFKLYDOHQWH
IRUPkQGvPSUHXQRFODVGHVXQHWHQXPLWIRQHP–IRQHPXOU'HQRWDWFvQWLPS
ce sunetele propriu-]LVH DOH YRUELULL QXPLWH vQ IRQRORJLH DORIRQH VH QRWHD] vQ
transcrierHvQWUHSDUDQWH]HGUHSWHFURúHWHvQVFKLPEIRQHPHOHVHQRWHD]vQFDGUDWH
GH EDUH REOLFH 6SXQHP F vQ URPkQ >U@ úL >5@ VXQW YDULDQWH DORIRQH DOH XQXL
fonem.
'DU GDF URVWLP FDUQH FX >Q@ vQ ORF GH >W@ QX PDL vQ HOHJHP XQXO úL DFHODúL
lucru. CorpuO IRQHWLF FDUQH FX >Q@ SRDUW R vQFUFWXU LQIRUPD LRQDO GLIHULW GH
FRUSXO IRQHWLF FDUWH FX >W@ 6SXQHP F >Q@ úL >W@ ILLQG úL HOH VXQHWH GLIHULWH VXQW vQ
DFHODúL WLPS úL YDULDQWH DOH XQRU IRQHPH GLIHULWH HOH DX URO IXQF LRQDO GLIHULW vQ
comunicDUHDvQOLPEDURPkQ
ÌQ IRQRORJLH IRQHWLF IXQF LRQDO VWXGLXO IRQHPHORU IRQHPHOH PDL SRW IL
GHILQLWH FD IDVFLFXOH GH WUVWXUL GLVWLQFWLYH 7UVWXULOH DUWLFXODWRULL úL DFXVWLFH VXQW
HOHPHQWHOHPLQLPDOHvQFDUHVHÄGHVFRPSXQH´VHDQDOL]HD]XQIRQHP. De exemplu,
YRFDODURPkQHDVFHVWHXQIRQHPGHFRPSR]DELOvQWUVWXULOHYRFDOFHQWUDOGXS
ORFXOGHDUWLFXODUHPHGLHGXSJUDGXOGHDSHUWXUúLQHODELDOGXSUROXOEX]HORU
vQ URVWLUH LDU FRQVRDQD URPkQHDVF E HVWH XQ IRQHP GHFRPSR]DELO vQ WUVWXULOH
FRQVRDQ RFOXVLY GXS PRGXO GH DUWLFXODUH ELODELDOGXSORFXOGHDUWLFXODUHúL
VRQRUGXSUROXOFRDUGHORUYRFDOHvQURVWLUH
)RQHPHOH VH GLVWLQJ XQHOH GH FHOHODOWH SULQ WUVWXULOH QXPLWH HOH vQVHOH
distinctive (sau relevante, pertLQHQWH 1X RULFH WUVWXU GLQ DUWLFXODUHD XQXL VXQHW
HVWH GLVWLQFWLY DP Y]XW PDL VXV F >U@ HVWH DSLFDO LDU >5@ XYXODU GDU GHRVHELUHD
DFHDVWD QX VHUYHúWH GLIHUHQ LHULL LQIRUPD LHL WUDQVPLVH ÌQ VFKLPE GHRVHELUHD GLQWUH
>U@FDUHHVWHRYLEUDQWúL>O@FDUHQXHVWHRYLEUDQWHVWHUHOHYDQWSHQWUXFSULQHD
VH GLIHUHQ LD] FRUSXUL IRQHWLFH SXUWWRDUH GH LQIRUPD LL GLIHULWH FD URP FDU úL FDO
vQFDUFúLvQFDOFFHUúLFHOUDFúLODFUHVWúLOHVWHWF

Alofonele, ca variante de foneme, sunt GH GRX IHOXUL OLEHUH úL FRQWH[WXDOH
&HOHGLQWkLQXGHSLQGGHORFXOORUvQFRUSXOIRQHWLFFHOHGLQXUPvQVGHSLQGGHHO
9DULDQWHOH VDX DORIRQHOH OLEHUH SRW IL LQGLYLGXDOH úL DFFLGHQWDOH VDX RFD]LRQDOH
Variantele individuale depind de particulariW LOHGHURVWLUHDOHLQGLYL]LORUYRUELWRULGH
FRQILJXUD LD DSDUDWXOXL ORU IRQDWRU H[ URP >U@ úL >5@ FHOH DFFLGHQWDOH GHSLQG GH
VWDUHD IL]LF D DSDUDWXOXL IRQDWRU XQ YRUELWRU UFLW VDX vQ VWDUH GHHEULHWDWHSURQXQ 
sunetele în alt fel decât într-o VWDUHQRUPDO9DULDQWHOHLQGLYLGXDOHúLFHOHRFD]LRQDOH
 30

VH PDL QXPHVF YDULHW L GH IRQHPH 9DULDQWHOH VDX DORIRQHOH FRQWH[WXDOH SRW IL
FRPELQDWRULLúLSR]L LRQDOH9DULDQWHOHFRPELQDWRULLGHSLQGGHVXQHWHOHvQYHFLQDWHGH
H[ QD]DOD GLQ URP EDQG HVWH R GHQWDO >Q@ GDW ILLQG F VH vQYHFLQHD] FX R
FRQVRDQ GHQWDO SULQ QDWXUD HL >G@ GDU QD]DOD GLQ URP EDQF HVWH R YHODU >@
SHQWUX F VH vQYHFLQHD] FX R FRQVRDQ YHODU SULQ QDWXUD HL >N@ FHOH SR]L LRQDOH
GHSLQG GH ORFXO SH FDUH vO RFXS vQ FRrpul fonetic în raport cu limitele (începutul,
VIkUúLWXO DFHVWXLD úL vQ UDSRUW FX VLODED DFFHQWXDW GLQ DFHO FRUS IRQHWLF GH H[
IRQHPXO SRUWXJKH] D VH URVWHúWH >α] sub accent, dar [Ë@ vQ VLODE QHDFFHQWXDW vQ
VSHFLDOILQDOFDvQSRUWFDVD>
ND]Ë]ÄFDV´IRQHPXOUXVHVFRVHURVWHúWHFD>R@VXE
accent, dar ca [Ë@vQVLODEQHDFFHQWXDWFDvQUXV]hjh^>
JRUËW@ÄRUDú´

Fonemele se disting prin raportul de comutare, pe când variantele lor – prin

UDSRUWXOGHYDULD LH5HYHQLQGODH[HPSOHOHGDWHPDLVXVVSXQHPFvQOLPEDURPkQ
>U@úL>5@QXFRPXWVHDIOvQUDSRUWGHYDULD LHSHQWUXFVXEVWLWXLUHDORUUHFLSURF
într-XQ FRUS IRQHWLF GDW QX GXFH OD PRGLILFDUHD LQIRUPD LHL YHKLFXODWH GH DFHO FRUS
IRQHWLF vQ VFKLPE >W@ úL >Q@ FRPXW VDX VXQW vQ UDSRUW GH FRPXWDUH SHQWUX F
substituirea lor într-XQ FRUS IRQHWLF GDW GXFH OD PRGLILFDUHD FRQ LQXWXOXL VHPDQWLF
YHKLFXODWGHDFHOFRUSIRQHWLF&RUSXULOHIRQHWLFHFXDMXWRUXOFURUDVHGHPRQVWUHD]
UDSRUWXO GH FRPXWDUH SRDUW QXPHOH GH SHUHFKL PLQLPale, cum sunt acelea din
H[HPSOHOH GDWH PDL VXV SHQWUX D HYLGHQ LD FDUDFWHUXO GH IRQHP H GLVWLQFWH vQ OLPED
URPkQDOOXL>U@úLDOOXL>O@
Dar ceea ce este distinct în fonologia unei limbi, este indistinct în fonologia
DOWHLD 'DF vQ URPkQ O úL U VXQW IRQHPH GLVWLQFWH OD IHO FD vQ UXV JHUPDQ
PDJKLDUvQVFKLPE>O@úL>U@VXQWYDULDQWHDOHDFHOXLDúLIRQHPvQFRUHHDQ>O@DSDUHOD
VIkUúLW GH VLODE LDU >U@ OD vQFHSXW GH VLODE FHHD FH vQVHDPQ F HOH VXQW YDULDQWH
SR]L LRQDOHvQDFHDOLPE extrem-RULHQWDO(VWHYRUEDDLFLGHIRUPDGLIHULWGHODR
OLPE OD DOWD SH FDUH R FDSW XQD úL DFHHDúL VXEVWDQ  IRQLF D VH YHGHD FDSLWROXO
UHIHULWRU OD FkWHYD GLVWLQF LL FRQFHSWXDOH vQWUH FDUH DFHHD GLQWUH IRUP úL VXEVWDQ 
aici, mai sus).
LinJYLVWXO DPHULFDQ 5RPDQ -DNREVRQ D SURSXV XQ LQYHQWDU DO WUVWXULORU
DUWLFXODWRULL úL DFXVWLFH GLQWUH FDUH ILHFDUH VLVWHP OLQJYLVWLF úL OH VHOHFWHD] SH FHOH
GLVWLQFWLYH /LVWD OXL FXSULQGH SHUHFKL GH WUVWXUL GLQWUH FDUH  GH VRQRULWDWH  GH
WLPEUXúLSUR]RGLFHDGLFSULYLQGHOHPHQWHOHIRQLFHVXSUDVHJPHQWDOH
&HOH  SHUHFKL GH WUVWXUL GH VRQRULWDWH VXQW  YRFDOLF  QRQYRFDOLF 
consonantic / nonconsonantic; 3) compact / difuz; 4) încordat / relaxat; 5) sonor
(fonic) / surd (afon); 6) nazal / oral; 7) întrerupt / continuu; 8) strident / mat; 9) blocat
DEUXSWLY  QRQEORFDW QRQDEUXSWLY &HOH  SHUHFKL GH WUVWXUL GH WLPEUX VXQW 
grav / acut; 2) bemolat / nonbemolat; 3) diezat / nondiezat. Iar cele 4 perechi de
WUVWXULSUR]RGLFHVXQW ascendent / nonascendent; 2) descendent / nondescendent;
LQWHQVQRQLQWHQVúLOXQJVFXUW
2 DQDOL] vQ WUVWXUL GLVWLQFWLYH D IRQHPHORU YRFDOLFH úL FRQVRQDQWLFH
URPkQHúWLvQVSLULWXOFRQFHS LHLÄELQDULVWH´MDNREVRQLHQHHVWHLOXVWUDWvQWDEHlele ce
XUPHD]
 31

a e i  o o u
deschis/nondeschis + – – – – – –
închis/nonînchis – – + – + – +
anterior/nonanterior Ø + + – – – –
rotunjit/nonrotunjit Ø Ø Ø – – + +

)LJ6XEVLVWHPXOYRFDOLFDOOLPELLURPkQH3HUHFKLOHGHWUVWXULGLVWLQctive
DOHYRFDOLVPXOXLURPkQHVFVXQWQRWDWHvQH[WUHPLWDWHDVWkQJUHSUH]LQWSUH]HQ D–
UHSUH]LQW DEVHQ D Ø exprim• lipsa de relevan  IRQRORJLF D WUVWXULORU UHVSHFWLYH
GXS(PDQXHO9DVLOLX

p b f v t d s z œ
! þ ÷ k g h l r m n k’ g’
întrerupt/nonîntrerupt + + – – + + – – – – – – – + + – – + + + + +
continuu/noncontinuu – – + + – – + + – + + – – – – + + – – – – –
anterior/nonanterior + + + + – – – – – – – – – – – – – – + – – –
posterior/nonposterior – – – – – – – – – – – – – + + + – – – – – –
palatal/nonpalatal – – – – – – – – – + + + + – – – – – – – + +
oral/nonoral + + + + + + + + – Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø – – Ø Ø
sonor/nonsonor – + – + – + – + Ø – + – + – + – Ø Ø Ø Ø – +

Fig. 2. Subsistemul consonantic al limbii române, semnele +, – úL ‘ DYkQG

DFHOHDúLVHPQLILFD LLFDvQILJGXS(9DVLOLX

Înainte de a încheia acest capitol sunt de tratat, pe scurt, alte câteva chestiuni
vQUHOD LHFXIRQRORJLDúLDQXPHUDSRUWXOGLQWUHIRQHPHúLJUDIHPHOLWHUHIRQHPHOH
priviWHGLQSHUVSHFWLYLQIRUPD LRQDOúLIRQRVWDWLVWLF
7UHEXLH SUHFL]DW GLQ FDSXO ORFXOXL F vQ WLSXO GH VFULHUH OLWHUDO DOIDEHWLF
OLWHUHOH QX QRWHD] DORIRQH FL IRQHPH $ILUPD LD HVWH SHUIHFW YDOLG SHQWUX VFULHUHD
OLWHUDO GRPLQDW GH SULQFLSLXO IRQRORgic în ortografie, cum este scrierea limbii
URPkQH VDX D OLPELL VSDQLROH 'DF VFULHUHD OLWHUDO HVWH GRPLQDW GH SULQFLSLXO
WUDGL LRQDO-istoric (sau etimologic) în ortografie, atunci raportul de 1 la 1 dintre litere
úL IRQHPH HVWH ÄFDPXIODW´ ÄDVFXQV´ ÄGHQDWXUDW´ ILLQG SRVLELO FD XQXO úL DFHODúL
IRQHP V ILH QRWDW SULQ OLWHUH YDULDWH úL FKLDU SULQ FRPELQD LL GH OLWHUH (VWH FD]XO
RUWRJUDILLORUIUDQFH]HQJOH]úLLUODQGH]3HQWUXFDVWULQLLFDUHvQYD DFHVWHOLPEL
V SRDW FLWL FRUHFW vQ DFRUG FX URVWLUHD WH[WH UHGDFWDWH vQ HOH HVWH QHFHVDU V VH
UHFXUJ OD WUDQVFULHUHD IRQHWLF D WH[WHORU SULQ FDUH VH WLQGH OD UHVWDELOLUHD
FRUHVSRQGHQ HORU GLQWUH JUDILL úL URVWLUL 'DU WUDQVFULHUHD IRQHWLF QRWHD] vQ VFULV
rostirea, cu toate (sau aproape toate) SDUWLFXODULW LOH GH DUWLFXODUH DúDGDU R DVWIHO GH
WUDQVFULHUH QRWHD] úLUXUL GH DORIRQH 2 WUDQVFULHUH GLQ SHUVSHFWLYD VLVWHPXOXL
OLQJYLVWLF HVWH WUDQVFULHUHD IRQHPLF VDX IRQHPDWLF vQ FDUH ILHFDUH VHPQ JUDILF
corespunde câte unui fonem realizat în comunicare.
'LQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH LQIRUPD LRQDO FRQVRDQHOH VXQW vQ PRG PDL SUHJQDQW
SXUWWRDUH GH LQIRUPD LH GHFkW YRFDOHOH GDU VXQW WRWRGDW PDL YXOQHUDELOH GHFkW
DFHVWHD vQ FD]XO vQ FDUH FDQDOXO GH WUDQVPLVLH D LQIRUPD LHL HVWH DIHFWDW GH IDFWRUL GH
bruiaj. 9RFDOHOH SULQ QDWXUD ORU VRQRUH SRW vQYLQJH PDL XúRU GLILFXOW LOH LPSXVHGH
 32

un mediu de comunicare zgomotos, se percep mai lesne, dar ele nu servesc în mod
LUHSURúDELO WUDQVPLWHUHD LQIRUPD LHL 'H DFHHD vQ FRPXQLFULOH WHOHIRQLFH vQ OLPED
URPkQVHUHFXUJHXQHRULODvQORFXLUHDFRUSXOXLIRQHWLFOLWHUDUDOQXPHUDOXOXLúDSWH
FRQIXQGDELOFXúDVHSHQWUXFJUXSXOGHFRQVRDQHptULVFVQXILHSHUFHSXWFRUHFW
FXFRUSXOIRQHWLFQHOLWHUDUUHJLRQDOúHSWH
7RWRGDW vQ VFULHUHD OLPELORU VHPLWLFH DUDE QHRHEUDLF VXQW QRWDWH QXPDL
FRQVRDQHOHGLQFRUSXULOHJUDILFHDOHFXYLQWHORUDXRPRWLYD LHVLPLODUVXV LQXWúLGH
R DQXPLW SDUWLFXODULWDWH VWUXFWXUDO D DFHORU OLPEL IOH[LXQHD LQWHUQ FRQVWkQG GLQ
conservarea în flexiune a unui schelet consonantic, dar varierea vocalelor în forme
IOH[LRQDUH GLIHULWH DOH DFHOXLDúL FXYkQW IHQRPHQXO VH SURGXFH GH IDSW QX QXPDL vQ
IOH[LXQHDVHPLWLFFLúLvQIRUPDUHDFXYLQWHORUvQOLPELOHGLQDFHDIDPLOLH
ÌQ VIkUúLW vQ VXEVLVWHPHOH IRQRORJLFH DOH RULFUHL OLPEi, consoanele sunt, în
JHQHUDO PDL QXPHURDVH GHFkW YRFDOHOH 7RWXúL vQ YRUELUH HVWH SRVLELO FD vQ DQXPLWH
OLPELYRFDOHOHVDSDUPDLGHVGHFkWFRQVRDQHOH/LPELOHvQFDUHIUHFYHQ DYRFDOHORU
este mai mare decât aceea a consoanelor în vorbire, sunt considerate ca vocalice (cum
HVWH ILQODQGH]D FX  YRFDOH ID  GH  FRQVRDQH vQ WH[WH LDU DFHOHD vQ FDUH
FRQVRDQHOH DSDU FX R IUHFYHQ  PDL PDUH GHFkW D YRFDOHORU VXQW FRQVLGHUDWH OLPEL
FRQVRQDQWLFH FXP HVWH HQJOH]D DPHULFDQ FX  YRFDOH ID  GH  consoane în
WH[W /LPED URPkQ HVWH R OLPE FH SRDWH IL FRQVLGHUDW UHODWLY YRFDOLF GLQ DFHVW
SXQFW GH YHGHUH FX  YRFDOH úLFRQVRDQH3HQWUXRSRVLELOFRPSDUD LHGLQ
SHUVSHFWLYD IRQRORJLF V PDL SUHFL]P UDSRUWXULOH UHVSHFWLYH GLQ LWDOLDQ (48%
YRFDOH  FRQVRDQH IUDQFH]  YRFDOH  FRQVRDQH PDJKLDU 
YRFDOHFRQVRDQHúLJHUPDQYRFDOHFRQVRDQH

Morfemul

0RUIHPXO HVWH R XQLWDWH PLQLPDO GH H[SUHVLH SXUWWRDUH GH VHQV FH
corespunde, în general, valorilor graPDWLFDOHGLQJUDPDWLFDWUDGL LRQDO
Criteriile de clasificare a morfemelor sunt reprezentate de:
 SRVLELOLW LOH GH FRPELQDUH D DFHVWRUD FDUH GHOLPLWHD] PRUIHPH
LQGHSHQGHQWHFHSRWVDSDUVLQJXUHRULFRPELQDWHFXXQPRUIHP]HURYkQWORFúL
morfemHGHSHQGHQWHGHVLQHQ HVXIL[HSUHIL[HFHQHFHVLWSUH]HQ DXQXLDOPRUIHP
FUXLDVLVHDWDúH]HUH– fac – e, pix-uri;
 VWUXFWXUD H[SUHVLHL FDUH FODVLILF PRUIHPHOH vQ FRQWLQXH IRUPDWH GLQWU-un
VLQJXUIRQHPVDXXQúLUQHvQWUHUXSWGHIRQHPHIRF-a, -L úLGLVFRQWLQXHDvQWUHUXSWH
–FHOHvQLQWHULRUXOFURUDVHLQWHUFDOHD]FRUSXOIRQHWLFDOXQXLDOWPRUIHPDGHVHQD
DO IUDWHOXL úL E UHSHWDWH vQWkOQLWH vQ OLPELOH vQ FDUH H[LVW DFRUG JUDPDWLFDO FDUWH
LQWHUHVDQWFU LLQWHUHVDQWH
3) natura FRQ LQXWXOXL PRUIHPHORU GHOLPLWHD] PRUIHPXO OH[LFDOH UGFLQL
bun, elev, floar-, vorbe - úL DIL[H GHULYDWLYH SUH- VWU -este, -L  PRUIHPH
gramaticale: sufixe: aleg – ând, desen – a – se, desinente: scri – a – m frumoasei fete,
úL PRUIHPH OH[LFR-grDPDWLFDOH FDUH IRUPHD] FXYLQWH QRL GDU DX úL YDORDUH
JUDPDWLFDODUKL-plin, hiper-VHFUH LHSUHIL[HOHVXQWúLPUFLDOHVXSHUODWLYXOXL
SR]L LDID GHPRUIHPXOLQGHSHQGHQWGLVWLQJHSUHIL[HDIL[HDúH]DWHvQID D
morfemului independent: bi-anual, sWU-PRú UH-VFULH VXIL[H DIL[H DGXJDWH GXS
UGFLQ FDUH IRUPHD] WHPH VDX FXYLQWH QRL OXG-a-VH FV-X  IUXPXú-el), în fine
DIL[H LQWURGXVH vQ UGFLQD FXYkQWXOXL UXPSL 8Q PRUIHP DSDUWH DGXJDW GXS
UGFLQ úL WHP HVWH UHSUH]HQWDW GH GHVLQHQ D FDUH PDUFKHD] OD VXEVWDQWLYH QU úL
 33

cazul: mes-ei (sg., G-' JHQXO QXPUXO úL FD]XO OD DGMHFWLYH EXQHL FRQGXLWH IHP
sg., G-'QXPUXOúLSHUVRDQDYHUEHORUGRU-i-m (pl., pers.I);
GLVWDQ DPRUIHPHORUGHSHQGHQWHID GHDOLQGHSHQGHQWGHOLPLWHD]VXIL[HúL
GHVLQHQ HOLSLWHGHUGFLQFDUHRFXSSR]L LD,FkQW-a, cit-HVFVDXDIODWHODGLVWDQ H
PDLPDULID GHDFHDVWDRFXSkQGSR]L LDD,,-a: cânt-a-se, a III-a: cânt-a-se-UD,9-a:
cânt-a-se-U-PSUHIL[HOHSRWRFXSDSR]L LD,FkQGVXQWSODVDWHLPHGLDWOkQJUGFLQ
a-SRHWLFVDXSR]L LDD,,-a: re-în-VFXQ-a;
E QXPUXO GH PRUIHPH GHSHQGHQWH FRPELQDELOH GHOLPLWHD] PRUIHPH FDUH
QHFHVLW SUH]HQ D XQXL VLQJXU PRUIHP LQGHSHQGHQW -HúWH HQJOH]-HúWH DúFRSLO-Dú
sau a morfemului independenWúLDFkWRUYDPRUIHPHGHSHQGHQWHGHVHQ-a-se-U- L
 QDWXUD H[SUHVLHL FODVLILF PRUIHPHOH vQ VHJPHQWDOH UHSUH]HQWDWH SULQ
foneme propriu-zise: scoal-, -LúLPRUIHPHVXSUDVHJPHQWDOHUHSUH]HQWDWHGHDFFHQWúL
LQWRQD LH
Cazuri particulare de morfeme dependente sunt reprezentate de:
 PRUIHPXO ]HUR XQ PRUIHP OLSVLW GH H[SUHVLH PDWHULDO IRQLF vQ]HVWUDW
vQV FX FRQ LQXW SXUWWRU GH LQIRUPD LH JUDPDWLFDO IRUPD ]L UDSRUWDW OD ]LOH VDX
PHUJ UDSRUWDW OD IRUPH FXP VXQW PHUJL PHUJH DX vQ VWUXFWXUD lor un asemenea
PRUIHP FH PDUFKHD] vQ SULPXO FD] IHPLQLQXO VLQJXODU LDU vQ FHO GH-al doilea
persoana I singular;
2) interfix – XQ VHJPHQW GH H[SUHVLH OLSVLW GH DFFHQW úL GH VHQV GH FRQ LQXW
SURSULXDIODWvQWUHUGFLQúLVXIL[HOHXQRUFXYLQWHGHULYate: camarad-er-ie, jandarm-
er-ie.
5ROGHPRUIHPHJUDPDWLFDOHSRWDYHDúL
‡DFFHQWXOúLLQWRQD LDYpVHOYHVpOiFHOHDFpOHUHVSHFWLY9LQHEXQLFD9LQH
bunica?);
• reduplicarea –UHSHWDUHDSDU LDOVDXWRWDODXQXLDVDXDPDLPXOWRUIRQHPH
GLQ UGFLQD XQXL FXYkQW VDX D vQWUHJLL UGFLQL WHPH VDX FXYkQW SHQWUX D-i da
FXYkQWXOXL R QRX YDORDUH PRUIRORJLF RUL VWLOLVWLF VDX SRW IL FUHDWH IRUPH QRL vQ
limba hausa – biri - ÄPDLPX ´ SOELULELUL vQ MDSRQH] \DPD - „munte”, pl.
yamayama, rom. a da – dGXLDVWD–VWWXL
‡OXQJLUHDYRFDOHLvQOLPELOHvQFDUHH[LVWYRFDOHOXQJLúLVFXUWHSRDWHPDUFDR
YDORDUHJUDPDWLFDOFXPHVWHFHDGHFD]ODWVLOYD19RFVJVLOY—$EOVJFHDGH
timp: fÎJLWSHUIHFWIÌJLWSUH]HQW
• geminarea (dublarea saX OXQJLPHD FRQVRDQHORU SRDWH IL úL HD PDUF D XQXL
morfem gramatical: est.kapi - „al dulapulai”, kappi - „în dulap”;
‡ IOH[LXQHD LQWHUQ FRQVW vQ PRGLILFDUHD VXQHWHORU GLQ UGFLQ vQ VFRSXO
PDUFULLXQRUIRUPHJUDPDWLFDOHHQJOVLQJ– sang – sung, rom. sunt, eram, fui, fusei,
fost;
• topica – RUGLQHD FXYLQWHORU vQ SURSR]L LH SRDWH IL LQGLFH DO IXQF LHL
JUDPDWLFDOH D DFHVWRUD vQ OLPELOH OLSVLWH GH IOH[LXQH VDX FX R IOH[LXQH UHGXV 'DQ
seas Mary, în care primul substantiv are valoare de subiect, iar cel de-al doilea de
obiect.
‡FXYLQWHOHDX[LOLDUHSURSR]L LLFRQMXQF LLYHUEHDX[LOLDUHDUWLFROHDGYHUEH
SRW FRQWULEXL úL HOH OD UHGDUHD XQRU VHQVXUL JUDPDWLFDOH SH ELDW V vQ HOHJ DO
RPXOXLDPJVLWYHLILDX]LWIRDUWHDSURDSH
Morfemele (invarLDQWH VH UHDOL]HD] SULQWU-R FODV GH HOHPHQWH FRQFUHWH FH
DSDU GH UHJXO vQ SR]L LL GLQ FDUH WRDWH FHOHODOWH YDULDQWH VXQW H[FOXVH 'LIHULWH FD
expresie, -e din floare, -• din student• Ø din zi, reprezint•, toate trei, alomorfele
YDULDQWHOHDFHOXLDúL morfem de feminin, N.-Ac., singular).
 34

Sintaxa
ÌQ JUDPDWLFD WUDGL LRQDO FXYkQWXO HVWH FRQVLGHUDW XQLWDWHD GH ED] úL HO HVWH
WUDWDW VXE VSHFLH IOH[LXQH )OH[LXQHD PRUIRORJLD VH RFXS GH VWUXFWXUD LQWHUQ D
FXYLQWHORU HD HVWH FRUHODW FX VLQWD[D FDUH vúL SURSXQH V H[SOLFH ÄPRGXO vQ FDUH
FXYLQWHOHVHFRPELQSHQWUXDIRUPDSURSR]L LL´ÌQDFFHS LDOLQJYLVWLFLLPRGHUQHGLQ
JUDPDWLF IDF SDUWH QXPDL IOH[LXQHD úL VLQWD[D úL VXQW H[FOXVH GHVFULHUHD IRQRORJLF
VDXVHPDQWLFDFXYLQWHORUúLDSURSR]L LLORU.
*UDPDWLFD WUDGL LRQDO QXPLW úL ÄQR LRQDO´ SRUQHD GH OD LSRWH]D F H[LVW
categorii universale ale gramaticii - ÄSU LOH GH YRUELUH´ úL ÄFDWHJRULLOH JUDPDWLFDOH´
WLPSXO PRGXO JHQXO QXPUXO YDODELOH SHQWUX WRDWH OLPELOH *UDPDWLFLHQLL GLQ
Europa, ocupându-VH GH OLPEL LQGRHXURSHQH úL-DX ED]DW DQDOL]D JUDPDWLFDO SH
VWDELOLUHDPRGXOXLvQFDUHFXYLQWHOHRSHUHD]FXVHPQHLQVWUXPHQWHSHQWUXGHVFULHUHD
úL vQ HOHJHUHD UHDOLW LL FX FODVLILFDUHD ORU FD SU L GH YRUELUH úL FX VWDELOLUHD
paradigmelor (PRGHOHORUGHGHFOLQDUHúLGHFRQMXJDUH
0HWRGDJUDPDWLFLLWUDGL LRQDOHHVWHFRQVLGHUDWLQGXFWLYSHQWUXFGHVFULHUHD
SOHDF GH OD SDUWLFXODU VSUHJHQHUDO(DSUH]LQWLQFRQYHQLHQWXOGHDXWLOL]DFRQFHSWH
care au valoare numai în cadrul unui sistem lingvLVWLF SDUWLFXODU R OLPE SH FDUH R
DYHPvQYHGHUH/+MHOPVOHYDFRQVLGHUDWFWHUPLQRORJLDIRORVLWVXIHUGHDFHDVW
inadecvare la general, de exemplu, definirea categoriilor – genitiv, dativ, subjonctiv,
pasiv etc. – QX SRDWH IL DSOLFDW WXWXURU OLPELlor. Alt exemplu, „imperfectul” (timp
YHUEDO HVWH GLIHULW vQ OLPED IUDQFH] vQ FDUH DFHDVW FDWHJRULH VH RSXQH XQHL DOWH
FDWHJRULLÄSHUIHFWXOVLPSOX´FRPSDUDWLYOLPELOHJHUPDQVDXHQJOH]vQFDUHDFHDVW
RSR]L LHQXH[LVW–H[LVWXQVLQJXUWLPSSHQWUu trecut, numit imperfectul. Sau, unele
OLPELFXQRVFGRXFDWHJRULLDOHQXPUXOXLVLQJXODUúLSOXUDOvQWLPSFHDOWHOLPELDX
úLDOWUHLOHDQXPUGXDOXO
ÌQ WUDWDUHD PRGHUQ D WHRULHL JUDPDWLFDOH FD úL D GH]YROWULL WHRULHL VLQWDFWLFH
generale s-a adopWDWFXSUHGLOHF LHRDERUGDUHSXUIRUPDO(LQDU+DXJHQDSUH]HQWDW
WHQGLQ HOHFHOHPDLLPSRUWDQWHúLPHWRGHOHFHOHPDLUHFHQWHúLPDLPDWHPDWL]DWHFDUH
DXGHSODVDWLQWHUHVXOOLQJYLúWLORUGHODFXWDUHDLGHQWLW LLOLPELORUVSUHGLVWULEX LDORU
cu scopulGHDLGHQWLILFDUHOD LLOHGLQWUHXQLW LOHOLQJYLVWLFH
0XO LPHD WXWXURU FRQWH[WHORU vQ FDUH DSDUH R XQLWDWH OLQJYLVWLF UHSUH]LQW
GLVWULEX LD DFHVWHLD $ERUGDUHD GLVWULEX LRQDO D DQDOL]HL JUDPDWLFDOH SUHVXSXQH
FRQVWUXLUHDXQHLPXO LPLGHSURSR]L LLDFFeptabile, prin plasarea unor cuvinte diferite
vQDFHODúLFDGUX)LHFDUHOLPESRDWHILGHVFULVvQWHUPHQLLXQHLPXO LPLGHXQLW L–
IRQHPH VDX XQLW L IRQRORJLFH – VDX SRW IL VSHFLILFDWH FRPELQD LLOH DFFHSWDELOH GH
FXYLQWH SURSR]L LL &XYLQWHOH FDUH VH pot substitui unele cu altele în mai multe
SURSR]L LLGLIHULWHVXQWJUXSDWHvQFODVHGLVWULEX LRQDOH
1R LXQHDSULPLWLYDXQHLJUDPDWLFLPRGHUQHHVWHHQXQ XOGHILQLWGUHSWÄRULFH
SRU LXQH GLQ YRUELUHD XQHL SHUVRDQH vQDLQWH GH FDUH úL GXS FDUH XUPHD] R SDX]
IFXW GH DFHD SHUVRDQ´ 7UHEXLH V DYHP vQ YHGHUH F vQWUH HQXQ  úL SURSR]L LH
JUDGXOGHFRUHVSRQGHQ HVWHDOHDWRUvQJHQHUDOHQXQ XOQXHVWHLGHQWLFFXSURSR]L LD
$QDOL]D JUDPDWLFDO D XQXL FRUSXV GH HQXQ XUL GHFL ÄUHFXQRDúWHUHD´ ORU vQ
perVSHFWLYDIOH[LXQLLúLDVLQWD[HLGHILQHúWHJUDPDWLFDDQDOLWLFWUDGL LRQDO*UDPDWLFD
JHQHUDWLY VH ED]HD] SH VLQWH] úL HVWH FRQVWUXLW GLQ ÄSURGXFHUHD SURSR]L LLORU´
7HRULD OLQJYLVWLF DYkQG FDSDFLWDWHD GH MXVWLILFDUH D HQXQ XULORU UHDOH FD PHPEUL DL
FODVHL PDL vQWLQVH D HQXQ XULORU SRWHQ LDOH HVWH QXPLW JHQHUDWLY (D VH ED]HD] SH
HQXQ XO PLQLPDO GHQXPLW SURSR]L LH-QXFOHX VH XUPUHúWH DSRL GH]YROWDUHD SRVLELO
SULQFHUFHWDUHDGLYHUVHORUUHJXOLGHWUDQVIRUPDUH2ULFHHQXQ HVWHFRQVWLWXLWGLQJUXS
nRPLQDOGDUSRDWHILúLXQVLQJXUQXPHúLJUXSYHUEDOVDXQXPDLYHUE(QXQ XULOH
FRPSOH[HGHSLQGGHFDSDFLWDWHDOLQJYLVWLFDYRUELWRUXOXL&DSDFLWDWHDHVWHQXPLWúL
 35

FRPSHWHQ  úL HD UHSUH]LQW ÄDQVDPEOXO GH UHJXOL JUDPDWLFDOH GH LQXWH GH RULFH
vorbitoU DO OLPELL´ 3XQHUHD vQ SUDFWLF D FRPSHWHQ HL HVWH QXPLW SHUIRUPDQ 
'HVFULHUHDFRPSHWHQ HLWDFLWHDYRUELWRUXOXL-DVFXOWWRUDFUXLFRPSHWHQ VWODED]D
UHDO D SURGXFHULL úL SHUFHSHULL vQ HOHJHULL YRUELULL UHSUH]LQW GXS 1&KRPVN\
GHILQL LDJUDPDWLFLLJHQHUDWLYHúLWUDQVIRUPD LRQDOH
*UDPDWLFDJHQHUDWLYvúLSURSXQHVUHSUH]LQWHGHVFULHUHDLQWHJUDODOLPELLFD
DWDUHúLQXDXQHLDGLQWUHOLPELOHJOREXOXL(DSRDWHILFRQVLGHUDWXQÄVFHQDULX´FDUH
LPDJLQHD]IHOXOvQFDUHYRUELWRUXO-DVFXOWWRULQWHUSUHWHD]vQPRGJOREDOIDFWRULLFDUH
GXFGHODFRPSHWHQ ODSHUIRUPDQ 

Lexematica
/H[HPDWLFD HVWH R GLVFLSOLQ WkQU UDPXU D OH[LFRORJLHL (D úL-a propus
VWDELOLUHD DVSHFWHORU SDUDGLJPDWLFH úL VLQWDJPDWLFH DOH YRFDEXODUXOXL GLQ OLPELOH
IXQF LRQDOH 8QLWDWHD PLQLPDO HVWH GHQXPLW OH[HP GLQ FDX]D DPELJXLW LL
termenului cuvânt.
$6WUXFWXULOHSDUDGLJPDWLFHVXQWSULPDUHFkPSOH[LFDOúLFODVOH[LFDOE
VHFXQGDUHPRGLILFDUHDGH]YROWDUHDFRPSXQHUHDOH[LFDO
a) Câmpul lexical este o sWUXFWXU SDUDGLJPDWLF FDUH FRQVW GLQ XQLW L
OH[LFDOH OH[HPH FDUH vúL vPSDUW R ]RQ GH VHPQLILFD LH úL FDUH VH DIO vQ RSR]L LH
QHPLMORFLWXQHOHFXDOWHOHÌQWUHJYRFDEXODUXOXQHLOLPELHVWHFRQVWLWXLWGLQDVWIHOGH
câmpuri lexicale care sunt tangente GDU úL VHFDQWH XQHOH FX DOWHOH =RQHOH GH
VHPQLILFD LH FRPXQ VH D[HD] DúD FXP OH LQGLF úL GHQXPLUHD vQ MXUXO XQHL
ÄVHPQLILFD LLFRPXQH´9HUEHÄGHPLúFDUH´VDXFDUHVHPQLILFÄDPXQFL´ÄDVWULJD´
a visa”, substantive ce denumesc culori sau referitoare la „fericire”, „moarte”,
DGMHFWLYHFHLQGLFWHPSHUDWXUDVXQWFkWHYDH[HPSOHDOHVHODvQWkPSODUHGHFkPSXUL
lexicale (în rom. rece –UFRURVFDOGFOGX ILHUELQWHvQIUDQFH]WUDYDLOOHU– oeuvrer
– bricoler – bucher – buriner – trimer – gratter – chiner – pilonner – bosser –
boulonner – turbiner – PDUQHU úD vQ JHUPDQ JHKHQ – rennen – fliegen –
schwiemmen – fahren etc.
&ODVD OH[LFDO HVWH R FODV GH OH[HPH FDUH LQGHSHQGHQW GH VWUXFWXUDUHD
FkPSXOXLOH[LFDOVXQWOHJDWHGHXQÄFODVHP´DGLFGHRWUVWXUGLVWLQFWLYFRPXQ
FDUH IXQF LRQHD] vQWU-R vQWUHDJ FDWHJRULH JUDPDWLFDO UHVSHFWLY vQ DOW FODV
H[LVWHQW GHMD vQ FDGUXO XQHL FDWHJRULL JUDPDWLFDOH &ODVHOH VH HYLGHQ LD] SULQ
GLVWULEX LH JUDPDWLFDO úLVDX OH[LFDO GH H[HPSOX vQ FDWHgoria substantivului,
„animat” - „inanimat”, „maculin” - ÄIHPLQLQ´ UHSUH]LQW ÄFODVH´ GDF OH[HPHOH
FRUHVSXQ]WRDUHFHUDQXPLWHFRPELQD LLVSHFLILFHORU
Ä0RGLILFDUHD´ ÄGH]YROWDUHD´ úL ÄFRPSXQHUHD´ VXQW VWUXFWXUL VHFXQGDUH vQ
VHQVXO F SUHVXSXQ VWUXFWXUDUHD FkPSXOXL OH[HPDWLF VDX D FODVHORU OH[HPDWLFH úL
FRUHVSXQG XQHL ÄJUDPDWLFDOL]UL´ D  YRFDEXODUXOXL ÌQ FDGUXO ÄPRGLILFULL´ VH LQFOXG
GHULYDUHD GLPLQXWLYDO GHULYDUHD FROHFWLY úL SUHIL[DUHD YHUEDO /H[HPHOH UHDOL]DWH
prin modificare fac parte dinDFHHDúLFDWHJRULHJUDPDWLFDOFXOH[HPHOHFDUHOHVWDXOD
ED] ÌQ VFKLPE ÄGH]YROWDUHD´ SUH]LQW R GHWHUPLQDUH JUDPDWLFDO LDU OH[HPHOH
IRUPDWH DSDU LQ DOWHL FDWHJRULL JUDPDWLFDOH GHFkW OH[HPHOH FDUH VWDX OD ED]D ORU
Ä&RPSXQHUHD´LQGLFFHOSX LQDVRFLHUHDDGRXXQLW LvQWUHFDUHH[LVWRGHWHUPLQDUH
JUDPDWLFDO&DWHJRULDJUDPDWLFDOHVWHWRWGHDXQDFHDDOH[HPHORUFDUHOHFRQVWLWXLH
% 6WUXFWXULOH OH[HPDWLFH VLQWDJPDWLFH VXQW VROLGDULW LOH OH[LFDOH VDX
FRPELQUL OH[LFDOH FRQGL LRQDWH (OH VXQW ÄDILQLW L´ ÄVHOHF LXQL´ úL ÄLPSOLFD LL´
DYkQGHOHPHQWXOFRQGL LRQDWDOFRPELQD LHLXQFODVHPVDXXQOH[HP
Ä$ILQLWDWHD´HVWHRFRPELQD LHFRQGL LRQDWGHFODVHPGHH[HPSOXvQWUHERXúL
D UDJH QXPDL GHVSUH DQLPDOH DILQLWDWHD HVWH FRQGL LRQDW GH FODVHPXO lexemului
 36

ÄERX´ FODVD ÄDQLPDW´ Ä6HOHF LXQHD´ HVWH FRPELQD LD FRQGL LRQDW GH HOHPHQWXO
GHWHUPLQDQW GH XQ DUKLOH[HP GH H[HPSOX vQWUH JHUP :DJHQ ÄPDúLQ YDJRQ´ úL
IDKUHQÄDPHUJHFXXQYHKLFRO´FRQGL LRQDUHDRIDFH)DKU]HXJÄYHKLFXO´GHFDUH LQH
lexemul Wagen.
Ä,PSOLFD LD´HVWHFRPELQD LDvQFDUHOH[HPXOHVWHFRQGL LRQDWGHDOWOH[HP
ÌQ FHHD FH SULYHúWH FkPSXULOH OH[LFDOH RSR]L LLOH VH VWDELOHVF vQWUH OH[HPHvQ
FDGUXO XQXL FkPS GDU úL vQWUH XQ PLFURFkPS vQ WRWDOLWDWHD OXL úL XQ DOW PLFURFkPS
Câmpurile lexicale sunt studiate în cadrul semanticii structurale. Tipologia câmpurilor
OH[LFDOH VH ED]HD] SH FODVLILFDUHD RSR]L LLORU OH[HPDWLFH 2SR]L LLOH FD úL vQ
IRQRORJLHVXQWJUDGXDOHHFKLSROHQWHúLSULYDWH
Câmpurile lexicale pot fi clasificate: GXS FRQILJXUD LD ORU GXS VHQVXO ORU
RELHFWLY GXS H[SULPDUHD ORU &RQILJXUD LD GHSLQGH GH QXPUXO GH GLPHQVLXQL
VHPDQWLFHGHWLSXULOHIRUPDOHGHRSR]L LLvQOHJWXUFXDFHOHGLPHQVLXQLVHPDQWLFHúL
GXS IHOXO vQ FDUH OH[HPHOH VH FRPELQ vQ LQWHULRUXO acestor paradigme. În cadrul
VHQVXOXLRELHFWLYVHIRORVHúWHÄFULWHULXOVHPDQWLF´LDUH[SULPDUHDFkPSXOXLGLQSXQFW
GH YHGHUH DO QXPUXOXL GH GLPHQVLXQL VDX FULWHULL VHPDQWLFH VH vPSDUW vQ
unidimensionale; pluridimensionale.

Semantica
Obiectul de studiu a semanticii este sensul cuvintelor. Sensul coincide,
GHVHRUL FX QR LXQHD IU FD IHQRPHQXO V ILH JHQHUDO YDODELO 2 SHUIHFW LGHQWLWDWH
sens-QR LXQH VH vQWkOQHúWH OD WHUPHQLL úWLLQ LILFL úL WHKQLFL PRUIHP QDIWRO R[LGULO
Toate cuvintele au sens, nu WRDWH H[SULP vQV úL GHQXPHVF QR LXQL FL QXPDL
VXEVWDQWLYHOHDGMHFWLYHOHSURQXPHOHQXPHUDOHOHDGYHUEHOHúLYHUEHOHFXVHQVOH[LFDO
,QWHUMHF LLOHH[SULP–IUDGHQXPL–HPR LLVHQWLPHQWHLPLW]JRPRWHVDXVWULJWH
SUHSR]L LLOHFRQMXQF LLOHDUWLFROHOHYHUEHOHDX[LOLDUHH[SULPUDSRUWXULvQWUHQR LXQLúL
PDUFKHD]GLIHULWHUDSRUWXULJUDPDWLFDOHvQWUHFXYLQWH
1R LXQLOH H[SULP vQVXúLULOH FHOH PDL JHQHUDOH HVHQ LDOH úL QHFHVDUH
SUHSRQGHUHQW RELHFWLYH FROHFWLYH DOH RELHFWHORU úL IHQRPHQHORU LDr sensul se poate
UHIHULúLODWUVWXULSDUWLFXODUHILLQGPDUFDWXQHRULGHIDFWRULGHQDWXULQGLYLGXDO
VXELHFWLYLVDXFDUHDSDU LQXQHLFROHFWLYLW LOLPLWDWH
,QGHSHQGHQWGHLQWHQ LDYRUELWRUXOXLFXYLQWHOHDXXQVHQVGHQRWDWLYFDUHDUHR
valoare RELHFWLY &XYLQWHOH DX vQV úL XQ VHQV UHIHUHQ LDO GDW GH UDSRUWDUHD ORU OD
UHDOLWDWHD FRQFUHW LDU XQHRUL úL XQ VHQV FRQRWDWLY FDUH OH DGDXJ QXDQ H VXELHFWLYH
DIHFWLYHFVX EXQLFX 
7HUPHQLL WHKQLFL úL FHL úWLLQ LILFL VXQW vQ JHQHUDO PRQRVHPDntici: elipoid,
FRORGLXPGLDWH]D]RW0DMRULWDWHDFXYLQWHORUVXQWvQVSROLVHPDQWLFH–DXGRXVDX
PDL PXOWH vQ HOHVXUL FDUWH –  ÄVFULHUH WLSULW VDX EURúDW vQ IRUP GH YROXP´ 
„diviziune mai mare decât un capitol, „într-o scriere de mari propor LL´ÄvQY WXU
úWLLQ FXOWXU´ÄUHJLVWUX´ÄEXFDWGHFDUWRQSHFDUHVXQWLPSULPDWHXQHOHGDWH
úLFDUHDUHGLIHULWHvQWUHEXLQ UL´ÄVFULVRDUHHSLVWRO´úD
8QHOHFXYLQWHúL-au schimbat, în timp, sensul. La baza schimburilor se pot afla
FDX]H H[WUDOLQJYLVWLFH GDWRUDWH VFKLPEULL UHDOLW LL GHQXPLWH HYROX LHL JkQGLULL
trecerii cuvintelor dintr-XQPHGLXVRFLDOvQDOWXOLQWHUGLF LLORUGHYRFDEXODUúD$VWIHO
vQ YHFKLPH VH VFULD FX SDQ GH JkVF WHUPHQXO DFWXDO SHQL  ILLQG XQ GLPLQXtiv al
FXYkQWXOXLSDQSULQWU-un transfer de sens, termenul a trecut asupra obiectului metalic
IRORVLW OD VFULVXO FX FHUQHDO GHúL DWRPXO VH úWLH F QX HVWH FHD PDL PLF GLQWUH
componentele materiei (a-tomos - „invizibil”) numele cuvântului s-DSVWUDW
$OWH FDX]H DOH VFKLPEXULORU GH VHQV VXQW GH QDWXU OLQJYLVWLF DSURSLHUHD
IRUPDOGLQWUHFXYLQWH–IRUWXLWGHSLOGSXVvQOHJWXUFXIRU DWHVWHIRORVLWXQHRUL
 37

FX VHQVXO ÄIFXW VDX LPSXV FX IRU D´ DOWHRUL VH SLHUGH OHJWXUD FX IDPLOLD GLQ FDUH
provLQH FXYkQWXO SDUWLFXOHOH SRLQW SDV IRORVLWH vQ IUDQFH] SHQWUX H[SULPDUHD
QHJD LHL VXQW OD RULJLQH VXEVWDQWLYH ÄSXQFW´ ÄSDV´ DOWH VFKLPEUL VH GDWRUHD]
FRQWH[WXOXL GDWRULW GHVHL vQWUHEXLQ UL vQ DQXPLWH vPELQUL XQHOH FXYLQWH SUHLDX
sensul cuvântului al•turat: fr. pêche provine din lat. malum persicum - ÄPU GLQ
Persia”.
De-D OXQJXO WLPSXOXL VHQVXO FXYLQWHORU SRDWH IL OUJLW FHUQHDO GHVHPQD vQ
YHFKLPHQXPDLFHUQHDODQHDJULDUDFXPGHQXPHúWHRVXEVWDQ GHGLIHULWHFXORULFH
VHUYHúWH OD VFULV VDX UHVWUkQV WHUPHQXO YDU] QXPH DO XQHL SODQWH OHJXPLFROH
GHQXPHD vQ XUP FX FkWHYD VXWH GH DQL SODQWHOH YHU]L YHUGHD  vQ JHQHUDO 8QHRUL
VHQVXO FXYLQWHORU D HYROXDW GH OD DEVWUDFW FWUH FRQFUHW DOWHRUL GH OD FRQFUHW OD
abstract: lat. anima „sufOHWYLD ´DGHYHQLWvQURPkQLQLPUHVSHFWLYODWSHQVFLQ-
ÄJUHXWDWH FkQWULW´ D GDW vQ URPkQ SV - ÄVXSUDUH JUHXWDWH VXIOHWHDVF´ XQHOH
FXYLQWHúL-au înnobilat sensul: lat. minister -ÄVHUYLWRU´VWODED]DFXYkQWXOXLPLQLVWUX
DOWHOHDXFSWat un sens peiorativ: sl. prost - „simplu” e la baza românescului prost -
ÄOLSVLWGHLQWHOLJHQ QHURG´
Ultimele decenii au consemnat dezvoltarea unei semantici de tip sincronic,
GHVFULSWLY8QDGLQWUHPHWRGHOHXWLOL]DWHGHDFHDVWDHVWHDQDOL]DVHPLFFH-úLSURSXQH
GHVFRPSXQHUHDVHQVXOXLFXYLQWHORUúLDQDOL]DDFHVWXLDvQXQLW LVHPDQWLFHHOHPHQWDUH
numite seme, la fel cum fonemul – IDVFLFXO GH WUVWXUL GLVWLQFWLYH – era analizat în
DFHVWH WUVWXUL 6HQVXO ILHFUXL FXYkQW HVWH XQ IDVFLFXO GH VHPH GLVWLnct de alte
fascicule.
&XYLQWHOH FDUH SRW IL GHVFULVH JUXSDWH SH ED]D XQXL QXPU GH VHPH FRPXQH
DOFWXLHVF XQ FkPS VHPDQWLF JUDGHOH GH UXGHQLH VDX JUDGHOH PLOLWDUH GHQXPLUHD
FXORULORUQXPHOHGHIORULGHOHJXPHGHDQLPDOHVOEDWLFHHWF
Din punct de vedere al raportului sens-IRUP FXYLQWHOH SRW IL FODVLILFDWH vQ
XUPWRDUHOHFODVH
• omonime –FXYLQWHFXDFHODúLvQYHOLúVRQRUGDUFXVHQVXULGLIHULWHFDOFDQ-
ÄSHúWH´ úL FDOFDQ - Ä]LG´ 2PRJUDIHOH VXQW FXYLQWH D FURU IRUP FRLQFLGH QXPDL vQ
scris, dar FDUH VH SURQXQ  GLIHULW úL DX VHQVXUL GLIHULWH iULQ DUtQ KiLQKDtQ
2PRIRQHOHVXQWFXYLQWHvQJUDILHúLVHQVXULGLIHULWHGDUFDUHVHSURQXQ ODIHOHQJO
dear -ÄGUDJ´úLGHHU- „cerb”; fr. vert - „verde”, verre -ÄVWLFO´YHUV-ÄFWUH´YHU-
„vierme”;
• paronime – FXYLQWH IRDUWH DVHPQWRDUH FD IRUP vQV GHRVHELWH FD VHQV
FHQ]XU–X]XUDSUHVFULH– a proscrie, distins – destins;
• sinonime – cuvinte cu forme diferite, dar sensuri identice sau foarte
apropiate: a compara – a confrunta, obosit –RVWHQLW UDQ–VWHDQ
• antonime – FXYLQWH FX IRUPH GLIHULWH úL VHQVXUL GLDPHWUDO RSXVH SULHWHQ –
GXúPDQELQH–UXDXUFD– a coborî.
3ULQ DQDORJLH FX WHUPHQLL ÄVLQRQLPLH´ úL ÄDQWRQLPLH´ QX GHPXOW D IRVW
LQWURGXV vQ OLQJYLVWLF WHUPHQXO GH KLSRQLPLH VDX LQFOX]LXQH $VWIHO vQ HOHVXO
FXYkQWXOXLJDURDIHVWHLQFOXVvQFHODOFXYkQWXOXLIORDUHvQ HOHVXOFXYkQWXOXLDUJLQWvQ
cel de metal etc.
 38

IV. BIBLIOGRAFIE PENTRU ÎNTREGUL CURS

a. Bibliografie obligatorie
1. Acad.Al.Graur, S.Stati, Lucia Wald (red.resp.) 7UDWDW GH OLQJYLVWLF
JHQHUDO(GLWXUD$FDGHPLHL%XFXUHúWL
2. Ion Coteanu, &UHVWRPD LHGHOLQJYLVWLFJHQHUDO%XFXUHúWL
3. (XJHQ&RúHULX, ,QWURGXFHUHvQOLQJYLVWLF, Cluj, 1995.
4. Al.Graur, 6WXGLLGHOLQJYLVWLFJHQHUDO%XFXUHúWL
5. Al.Graur (coord.), ,QWURGXFHUH vQ OLQJYLVWLF, (ed. a III-a), Editura
ùWLLQ LILF%XFXUHúWL

E%LEOLRJUDILHIDFXOWDWLY
1. Al.Graur, Lucia Wald, 6FXUWLVWRULHDOLQJYLVWLFLL%XFXUHúWL
2. Emil Ionescu, Manual de liQJYLVWLF JHQHUDO (GLWXUD $OO %XFXUHúWL
1992.
3. Dumitru Irimia, &XUV GH OLQJYLVWLF JHQHUDO 7LSRJUDILD 8QLYHUVLW LL
Ä$O,&X]D´,DúL
4. André Martinet, (OHPHQWHGHOLQJYLVWLFJHQHUDO%XFXUHúWL
5. Ferdinand de Saussure, Curs de linJYLVWLFJHQHUDO%XFXUHúWL
6. Emanuel Vasiliu, Introducere în teoria limbii%XFXUHúWL
7. Ariton Vraciu, /LQJYLVWLF JHQHUDO úL FRPSDUDW (GLWXUD 'LGDFWLF úL
3HGDJRJLF%XFXUHúWL

Teme – subiecte pentru referate

1. Lingvistica prHúWLLQ LILFvQ*UHFLDDQWLF
)DFWRULLFRQVWLWXWLYLDLDFWXOXLGHFRPXQLFDUHYHUEDO
3. Caracteristicile definitorii ale limbajului.
'LKRWRPLDGLVWLQF LDD[VLQWDJPDWLFD[SDUDGLJPDWLF
,PXWDELOLWDWHDúLPXWDELOLWDWHDVHPQXOXLOLQJYLVWLc.
 5H]XOWDWHOH SURFHVXOXL GH LQWHUIHUHQ  OLQJYLVWLF VXEVWUDW VXSHUVWUDW
adstrat).
7. Elemente caracterizante ale ariilor lingvistice.
&DUDFWHUL]DUHDDFKL]L LRQULLOLPELLGHFWUHFRSLO
3ULQFLSLXOVWUDWLILFD LRQDODOOLPEDMXOXL
10. Accidentele fonetice.
5DSRUWXOGLQWUHVXQHWHúLIRQHPH
12. Criterii de clasificare a morfemelor.
13. Principiile gramaticii generative –WUDQVIRUPD LRQDOH
14. Clasificarea claselor lexicale.
&DX]HDOHVFKLPEULORUGHVHQVúLFLOHGHUHDOL]DUHDDFHVWRUa.

3UHFL]UL
‡)LHFDUHVWXGHQWWUHEXLHVvQWRFPHDVFXQUHIHUDWFXXQVXELHFWDOHVGLQOLVWD
de mai sus.
‡0ULPHDDFHVWXLUHIHUDWHVWHPLQLPFXYLQWHPD[LPFXYLQWH
‡ 5HIHUDWXO DUH XUPWRDUHD VWUXFWXU  WLWOXO  LQWURGXFHUH  WUDWDUHD
subiectului; 4) concluzii –REVHUYD LL– propuneri; 5) bibliografie.
‡ (VWH DSUHFLDW FX vQWkLHWDWH FRQWULEX LD FkW PDL RULJLQDO D VWXGHQWXOXL
SUHULOHúLFRQFOX]LLOHSURSULLvQWUDWDUHDVXELHFWXOXL
 39

‡2ULFHSUHOXDUHGHLGHLFLWDWHVDXUHIHULQ HFXSULnse în referat se vor preciza la

VXEVROXO SDJLQLL VDX VXE IRUP GH QRWH ELEOLRJUDILFH OD VIkUúLWXO OXFUULL vQI LúkQG
exact locul de unde s-D SUHOXDW LGHHD VDX IUDJPHQWXO GH WH[W DXWRUXO WLWOXO OXFUULL
ORFXOúLDQXODSDUL LHL
• Referatele tratate VLPLODU vQ DFHODúL IHO GH FWUH VWXGHQ L GLIHUL L LQVSLUDUH
GLUHFWVHUHVSLQJ
‡ 5HIHUDWXO HVWH QRWDW úL FRQVWLWXLH FRQGL LH SHQWUX SURPRYDUHD H[DPHQXOXL OD
GLVFLSOLQDÄ/LQJYLVWLFJHQHUDO´
‡ 5HIHUDWHOH VH H[SHGLD] REOLJDWRULX SkQ OD GDWD  'HFHPErie 2000 prin
SRúWVDXSULQH-PDLOSRúWDHOHFWURQLFRULVHGHSXQSHUVRQDOODVHGLXOIDFXOW LL

TEORIA LIMBII

TEST DE AUTOEVALUARE

 0LMORDFHOH GH UHDOL]DUH DOH IXQF LXQLL PHWDOLQJYLVWLFH D OLPEDMXOXL FX
H[HPSOLILFULFRQFUHWHGLQOLPEDVWULQGHVSHFLDOLWDWH (1,70 puncte)
 3RUQLQG GH OD HQXQ XO URP &UHGH F VRUD OXL D FLWLW WH[WXO úL GH OD
HFKLYDOHQ D OXL vQ OLPED VWULQ GH VSHFLDOLWDWH DUWD L vQ FH FRQVWDX GHRVHELULOH GH
IRUPGLQWUHHOH (1,75 puncte)
 5HFRQVWLWXL L ILH úL SDU LDO VHULLOH DVRFLDWLYH GLQ FDUH IDF SDUWH XQLW LOH
OLQJYLVWLFH FRPELQDWH vQ HQXQ XO GLQ OLPED GH VSHFLDOLWDWH HFKLYDOHQW FX URP Copiii
DXvQ HOHVELQHvQWUHEULOH (1,80 puncte)
&RPHQWD LHYROX LDVHPDQWLFDDGMHFWLYXOXLURPPLúHO de la sensul originar,
„VUFX ´, la sensul tardiv „WLFORV´, a substantivului engl. queen GH OD vQ HOHVXO
originar, „femeie”ODvQ HOHVXOPRGHUQÄUHJLQ´, sau a substantivului fr. maison, de la
VHQVXOLQL LDOÄFRQDF´ODVHQVXOWDUGLYÄFDV´. (1,75 puncte)
 &RPSDUD L FkPSXO VHPDQWLF DO JUDGHORU GH vQUXGLUH GLQ OLPED URPkQ FX
FkPSXOVHPDQWLFFRUHVSXQ]WRUGLQOLPEDGHVSHFLDOLWDWH (2 puncte)