Julia Wang

Study Guide – Food Science Lab

Safety Material: Cross contamination factors and hazards

Cross contamination is the transfer of bacteria from one object to another. Hazards can be
biological (natural occurring, like virus, bacteria, mold and protozoa), chemical (food additives
and toxins) or physical (non-edible surfaces in food, like wood, bones, metals). Danger zone: 41 –
140F.

Unit 1: Evaluation Methods

Describe the difference between qualitative and quantitative analysis.

Qualitative analysis is based on sensory evaluation and personal preferences of taste,

appearance, odor, and texture. Examples are triangle (analysis of mimic products) and ranking test
(rank by preference). Quantitative analysis is based on measurable and objective results by
specialized machines, which analyze chemical and physical changes, safety and content of food.

Unit 2: Food Preparation Basics

Common Measurements

1 tbsp 3 tsp 15 ml
1 cup 16 tbsp 8 fl oz 240 ml
1 pint 2 cups
1 quart 4 cups
1 gallon 4 quarts 16 cups
1 lb 16 oz 454 g
1 oz 28 g
1 fl oz 30 ml 2 tbsp

Review the procedures for measuring flours and sugars:

o Measuring flour: white flour should be sifted, spooned and then leveled with a spatula. It
is harder to measure due to its tiny particles that vary in size and shape and can pack.
o Measuring sugar: white sugar should be poured and then leveled, sifting is done when it is
lumpy. Brown sugar should be pressed and then leveled due to its 2% moisture.

Unit 6: Milk

Qualitative difference between various sources of milk based on composition. (i.e.,

sweetness, thickness, color, etc.)

o Whole milk: strong and thick flavor, very white color due to fat content (3.5% fat)
o 1%: more sweet and stronger color than 2% because it has less fat and more carbs
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o 2%: less sweet and lighter color

o Skim: more fluid and less flavor, mild flavor
o Lactose free: very sweet and white due to break down of lactose
o Kefir: slightly condensed and acid flavor due to addition of bacterial culture
o Buttermilk: creamy and acid due to bacterial culture that converts lactose into lactic acid
o Evaporated: more flavor and yellow due to evaporation of 50% of water
o Condensed: very sweet and yellow due to heat process, less water and 44% sucrose (+
kcal)

Unit 7: Cheese

Difference between enzyme and acid coagulation?

Cheese is made through coagulation of milk by addition of enzyme or acids:

o Enzyme: milk is heated to achieve the temperature for optimal enzyme activity and rennet
is added to start coagulation. The curd is cut or sliced to increase surface area. It is heated
again for separation of whey (release of whey serum liquid) and increase of firmness. It
takes less time and produces a tougher rubbery, slightly sweet cheese.
o Acid coagulation: direct addition of acid or indirect addition of bacterial culture that
produces lactic acid in milk. It takes more time and produces a softer creamy, sour, light in
flavor cheese.

Unit 8: Eggs

Key evaluation differences between fresh and deteriorated eggs?

o Fresh eggs: have concentrated thick albumin and spread thin albumin, higher and centered
yolk, small air cells.
o Deteriorated eggs: have darker, spread and loose albumin (less elasticity), lower and not
centered yolk, with bigger air cells

Hard cooked eggs: differences among cooking times. Why do we see changes in the
outcome of the product based on length of time? What are the changes that are seen?

The less the cooking time, the whiter color and stronger aroma. Overcooking turns the
white darker, the aroma weaker and the color green due to reaction of sulfur (white) and iron
(yolk).

Stirred custard versus cooked custards: qualitative difference, procedural methods?

o Stirred custards: creamy color, not jelly texture, sweet flavor (more liquid). Mix of
ingredients and stirring over hot water boiler, followed by ice water bath to stop further
cooking.
o Cooked custards: gelled color, eggy aroma, coagulated texture, less sweet (evaporation
of water). Blend of ingredients followed by baking if custard.
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Egg foams: effects of sugar, temperature, acids, salt, etc?

Foam is formed by through the beating of egg whites, stretching proteins and trapping air.
Ovalbumin is the main responsible due to 54% white content and easy denaturation. The smaller
the bubbles, the more incorporated the air. Room temperature allows easier whip because white is
already slightly denatured. Sugar is added at the end to stabilize (during the whip, it can decreases
stability by attracting water and inhibiting mechanical coagulation). Acid denatures the proteins,
unraveling the structure and allowing more trapped air in. Fat coats the structure, not allowing
penetration of air.

Unit 9: Fruits and Vegetables

How are vegetables preparations affected by acids, bases, heat, time/temperature?

o Acids: acidic ingredients increase cooking time by precipitating pectin and turning
vegetables more resistant to soft. Acids enhance color and crunchy texture of vegetables.
o Base: alkaline ingredients turn the texture soft and mushy by making pectin and cellulose
more susceptible to break down. Bases enhance chlorophyll color but changes
anthoxanthins (white) to yellow and anthocyanins (blue/purple) to green.
o Time: the longer the time, the more soft the texture. Overcooking turns the texture mushy.
Microwave requires shorter time and smaller amounts of water due to steam pressure
produced by covering the vegetables.
o Browning prevention techniques: blanching (denature oxidases through hot
temperature), antioxidants (binds to oxygen, preventing oxidation), submersion in
solutions (covers and block contact with oxygen), sugar (coats the enzyme, blocking
contact), wrapping (decrease contact with oxygen).

Unit 10: Legumes

Soaked versus unsoaked differences?

Soaking softens and rehydrate beans, allowing easier absorption of moisture and
thoroughly cooking, prevents loss of skin, decrease cooking time and amount of water needed.
Soaking also removes the anti-nutrients that cause flatulence. Unsoaked beans takes more time,
have loose skin, lighter color. Soaked beans have shorter cooking time, strong color and starchy
texture.

Acidic versus alkaline environment?

o Acid: acidic environment increases cooking time by decreasing break down of acids.
o Alkaline: bases decrease cooking time by increasing break down of acids.

Unit 11, 12, 13 &14: Cereals, Flours and Starches & Quick and Yeast Breads

Gluten formation, development, structure, separation?

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Gluten is the structure formed by the hydration and activation of gliadin and glutenin.
Hydration is made through addition of liquids. Activation is made through physical movements.
The gluten network structure is plastic and elastic, it expands while maintaining its shape and
trapping CO2, allowing rise of bread.

Chemical versus biological leavener sources: how they are used?

o Chemical leavener: baking soda (needs addition of acid and liquid) or baking powder
(needs liquid). Baking powder can be single acting (gas produced with addition of moist)
or double acting (gas produced in two steps: with addition of moist and with addition of
heat).
o Biological leavener: yeast, produces gases by consuming sugar source (lactose from milk)
through fermentation, needs activation (sold in dormant stage)

Quick breads versus yeast breads: time differences, preparation differences, leavening
differences?

o Quick breads: uses chemical leavener, needs to be right away baked (time concern), are
faster to be made (leavened during baking). The batter is mixed only until the ingredients
are all moistened to avoid gluten development.
o Yeast breads: uses biological leavener, needs to be leavened first (fermentation) so that it
takes more time to be made. Second rising can be made to further rise the dough. Over
rising results in collapsion due to over stretch of gluten, weaken its bonds.

Muffin method and gluten development?

o Muffin method: sift dry ingredients together and blend liquids in a separate bowl. Stir dry
and liquid together with few strokes to avoid gluten development. Over kneading results
in a dense and though bread, with more air pockets and large crumble.

Unit 16, 17: Cakes and Pastry

Preparation styles between shortened, unshortened, and chiffon cakes?

o Shortened cakes: leavened by baking powder or baking soda, contribution of steam from
liquid ingredients for rising.
o Unshortened cakes (angel): no chemical leavener but beaten eggs that release steam
during baking. White foam gives structure, while sugar stabilizes the foam and allow more
air to be trapped in, resulting in a spongy texture. Sugar also interferes with gluten
development, raise the coagulation temperature of eggs and gelatinization temperature of
starch. Sugar is gradually added to white foam and flour is sifted gradually over mixture to
avoid collapse of air cells.
o Chiffon cake (hybrid): whipped eggs white folded into a mixture of cake flour, sugar,
beaten egg yolks and vegetable oil. Addition of oil makes the cake tender.

How does the incorporation of fat into pastry products affect the outcome?
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Fat determines flakiness in pastries. When incorporated without being creamed or

absorbed, the pieces of fat melts during baking and leave air holes between layers of dough which
results in flaky texture. Cold fat increases flakiness by less absorption from flour and more
dispersion and therefore air holes. Fat also coats gluten proteins, impairing gluten development
and creating a softer and more delicate texture.

How does liquid versus solid fat determine its effects?

Liquid fats are more readily absorbed by flour and coats each flour particle, leaving not
flaky but undesirable grainy texture. Solid fats are more desirable because they are cut into the
dough, leaving layers of air holes when baked.

What are the difference between filo, puff, and pie dough?

o Puff: series of folding and rolling that increases altered layers of butter and dough,
resulting in laminated light pastry.
o Phyllo: melted butter is brushed in sheets of dough that can be folded or rolled in different
shapes.
o Pie: fat is cut into the dough with addition of minimal water to bind ingredients together.
Dough is relaxed and minimally worked to control gluten development and results in a
more compact and crumbly pastry rather than flaky.

Unit 15: Fats and Oils

Describe: liquid versus solid fats.

Liquid fats come from plants and are called oils. Oils are high in unsaturated fats, which
gives the liquid texture. Solid fats come from animals and its texture is due to the high amount of
saturated chains. Animal fat does not boil and has a higher smoke point (requires higher
temperature to combust).

How does the flavor profile affect the usage of fats?

The flavor is important for the usage of fats. Unrefined oils contain impurities, which gives
them its desirable strong flavor. Therefore, oils like olive oil and sesame oil are better used as salad
dressings. Refined oils, such as soybean and corn oil, had its impurities removed. They have a
neutral flavor, which is beneficial for preparations such as baking, since they do not affect the taste
of the food.

Describe the role of egg yolk in an emulsion.

Egg yolk is an emulsifier, meaning it has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. Because
of this, it can combine water and oil agents together in an emulsion. An emulsion is he dispersion
of one liquid (dispersed) into another (dispersion), which would naturally not come together.
Emulsions can be temporary, permanent or semi-permanent, depending on how much the agents
stay together. The three parts of emulsion are: the dispersed (discontinuing sphere), the dispersion
medium (continuing sphere) and the emulsifying agent.
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Unit 18: Candy

Crystalline candies versus non-crystalline candies.

o Crystalline candies: smooth texture due to quick agitation when cooling.

o Non-crystalline candies: thick texture due to addition of interfering agents (acid, sugar,
fat) which results in difficult movement of molecules and non-crystallization.

What are the four steps of confectionary preparation?

o 4 steps: dissolve sugar solution (increases water boiling point), concentrate through
heating, supersaturate the solution by evaporation of water, beating / no beating (agitation
creates crystallization). The more water removed, the more saturated and non-crystalized
the candy will be.

How does cooling rate affect the size of the crystals?

A slow cooling results in larger crystals due to more time for aggregation around sugar
nuclei’s. A fast cooling results in smaller crystals because the sugar has less time to aggregate and
crystalize.

Unit 19: Frozen Desserts

What changes occur in the making of ice cream from start to finish? Why do these
changes occur?

The mix is place in a container surrounded by rock salt and crushed ice to lower the freezing
point (temperature in which solid and liquid coexist in equilibrium). Heat from the mix is
conducted into the salt and ice mixture and melts the ice, dissolving the salt. Agitation of mixture
breaks down crystals, producing crystals higher in number and smaller in size, with a smoother
texture.

What are the qualitative differences between non-custard and custard based ice creams?

Custard based ice creams are creamier due to higher fat content from added beaten eggs,
sugar or cream. Non-custard ice creams are smoother and grainier, having a sherbet consistency.

What does agitation cause? Slow Churning? Fast Churning?

Agitation distributes evenly ice crystals, resulting in a smooth and creamy texture. Slow
churning produces a denser ice cream due to less air trapped. Fast churning results in lighter ice
cream due to more incorporation of air.