Important Examples of Booth algorithm

Example 1:

Perform multiplication 7X3 using booth algorithm

Solution:

Let, multiplier QR=7(0011) and multiplicand(M) BR=7(0111)

Qn Qn+1 BR=0111 Ac QR Qn+1 SC

BR~+1=1001
initial 0000 0011 0 100
10 subtract BR 1001
1001
ASHR 1100 1001 1 011
11 ASHR 1110 0100 1 010
01 Add BR 0111
(1)0101
ASHR 0010 1010 0 001
00 ASHR 0001 0101 0 000

Therefore the final product= AC QR=00010101=21

Note : Q_1=Qn+1 and C/P=compare between Qn and Qn+1 where the value of Q=1010 -2’s complement of 0110, thus
it is (-6)………Don’t take comment if make any confusion
Some examples of division algorithm
The division=7/3 the division=(7)/(-3)

The division=(-7)/(3) the division=(-7)/(-3)

Data transfer and manipulation

Instruction:
The command given to the computer to carry out some computational tasks is known as instruction.

Instruction set:
The group of instructions used in computer to perform various kinds of operations is called instruction set.

Classification of computer instruction:

Most computer instructions can be classified into three categories.

1. Data transfer instructions

2. Data manipulation instructions
3. Program control instructions

Data transfer instructions:

Data transfer instructions move data from one in the computer to another without changing
the data content. The most common transfers are between:

Memory and processor registers,

Processor and input/output and

Processor registers themselves.

Example:

The load instruction has been used to designate a transfer from memory to a processor
register, usually an accumulator.

The store instruction designates a transfer from a processor register into a memory.

The PUSH and POP instructions transfer data between processor register and a memory stack.

some data transfer instructions are:

Name Mnemonic Functions

Load LD Load from memory to accumulator
Store ST Store from accumulator to memory
Move MOV Move from register to memory and vice versa.
 Exchange XCH Exchange data between registers and meory
and vice versa
Input IN Read the data from input device to accumulator
Output OUT Send data out from accumulator to output
devices
Push PUSH Push data into stack
pop POP Retrieve data from stack

Data manipulation instructions:

Data manipulation instructions perform operations on data and provide the

computational capabilities for the computer. Types of data manipulation instructions
are:

1. Arithmetic instructions
2. Logical and bit manipulation instructions
3. Shift instructions

Arithmetic instructions:

The four basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.

Some arithmetic instructions are:

Name Mnemonic functions

Increment INC Increment the value of
accumulator with one
Decrement DEC Decrement the value of
accumulator with one
Addition ADD Addition of two registers
Subtract SUB Subtraction of two registers
Multiply MUL Similarly multiplication
Divide DIV Similarly division
Add with carry ADDC Addition of two registers with
carry
Subtraction with borrow SUBB Subtraction of two registers with
borrow
Negate(2’s complement) NEG To take 2’s complement of a data
Logical and bit manipulation instructions:

Logical instructions perform binary operations on strings of bits stored in registers. They
are useful for manipulating individual bits or a group bits that represent binary coded
information. The logical instructions consider each bit of the operand separately and
treat it as a Boolean variable. By proper applications of the logical instructions it is
possible to change bit values, to clear a group of bits, or to insert new bit values into
operands stored in registers or memory words.

Typical logical and bit manipulation instructions:

Name Mnemonic
Clear CLR
Complement COM
AND AND
OR OR
Exclusive-OR XOR
Clear carry CLRC
Set carry SETC
Complement carry COMC
Enable interrupt EI
Disable interrupt DI

Shift instructions:

Shifts are operations in which the bits of a word are moved to the left or right. The bit shifted
in at the end of the word determines the type of shift used. Shift instructions may specify
either logical shift, arithmetic shift or rotate type operations. In either case the shift may be to
the right or to the left.

Typical shift instructions:

Name Mnemonics
Logical shift right SHR
Logical shift left SHL
Arithmetic shift right SHRA
Arithmetic shift left SHLA
Rotate right ROR
 Rotate left ROL
Rotate right through carry RORC
Rotate left through carry ROLC

Program control instructions:

Program control type of instructions, when executed, may change the address value in the
program counter and cause the flow of control to be altered. In other words, program control
instructions specify conditions for altering the content of program counter, while data transfer
and manipulations instructions specify conditions for data processing operations. The change
in value of program counter as a result of the execution of program control instruction causes
a break in the sequence of instruction execution.

Typical program control instructions:

Name Mnemonics
Branch BR
Jump JMP
Skip SKP
Call CALL
Return RET
Compare(by CMP
subtraction)
Test(by ANDing) TST

Branch and jump instructions may be conditional or unconditional. An unconditional branch

instruction causes a branch to the specified address without any conditions. The conditional
branch instruction specifies a condition such a branch if positive of branch if zero. If condition
is met, the program counter is loaded with the branch address and next instruction is taken
from the address. If condition is not met, the program counter is not changed and the next
instruction is taken from the next location is sequence.

The skip instruction does not need an address field and is therefore a zero-address instruction.
It only skips the instruction and follows the sequence.

The call and return instructions are used in conjunction with subroutine to call subroutine and
return to the main program.
Conditional branch instructions:

Mnemonic Branch condition Tested condition

BZ Branch if zero Z=1
BNZ Branch if not zero Z=0
BC Brach if carry C=1
BNC Branch if no carry C=0
BP Branch if plus S=0
BM Brach if minus S=1
BV Branch if overflow V=1
BE Branch if equal A=B
BNE Branch if not equal A=/B
BNT Branch if less than A<b