j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l .

2 0 2 0;9(3):4968–4977

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Original Article

Influence of design durability on concrete columns

fire performance

Fabrício Longhi Bolina a , Augusto Masiero Gil b , Bruno Fernandes c ,

Guilherme Gunther Hennemann a , Jordana Gonçalves a , Bernardo Fonseca Tutikian a,∗
a University of Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
b Michigan State University, Michigan, United States
c Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Reinforced concrete structures must be designed to meet minimum durability requirements
Received 28 January 2020 throughout service life and, as well as in case of a fire, to fulfill fire resistance demands to
Accepted 4 March 2020 guarantee user’s safety. This study experimentally evaluated the behavior of column proto-
Available online 30 March 2020 types built of different concrete durability design parameters when exposed to fire, confined
by a masonry wall. The evaluation consisted of 16 precast columns of 25 × 25 × 300 cm
Keywords: divided into 4 groups of different concrete mix design. The elements were tested in a
Fire safety standardized vertical furnace for 240 min, exposed to the heating curve from ISO 834. The
Concrete structures results showed that the concrete durability parameters influenced the spalling degree and
Fire resistance fire resistance performance of the columns. Nevertheless, the concrete cover thickness and
Structural durability the diameter of the longitudinal reinforcing steel bars presented greater influence in fire
resistance than concrete mix design.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

maximum water-cement ratio, as well as a minimum com-

1. Introduction pressive strength and cement consumption.
Regarding fire safety design criteria, standards such as ACI
The durability criteria of the main international structural o
216-R [7], CEB Bulletin n 208 [8], BS 8110-2 [9], AS 1530-1 [10],
design standards, such as ACI 318 [1], AS-3600 [2], BS 8500-
NZS 3101 [11], IS 456 [5] and NBR 15200 [12] are based on
1 [3], EN 206-1 [4], IS 456 [5] and NBR 6118 [6], are based
fixed structural verification methods. In some of these meth-
on the relationship between the environmental aggression,
ods, design parameters usually refer to a minimum concrete
the concrete specifications and the concrete cover thickness.
cover thickness and dimensions of the elements. However,
For each type of aggressive environment, it is specified a
these methods do not admit constitutive concrete mix design
minimum concrete cover thickness for reinforcing bars, a
in the analysis, such as compressive strength, cement con-
sumption, water-cement ratio (w/c). Therefore, a detailed fire
analysis should be considered as an alternative to the pre-
∗
Corresponding author. scriptive method [13].
E-mail: bftutikian@unisinos.br (B.F. Tutikian).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.03.015
2238-7854/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):4968–4977
Moreover, the main international structural design stan-
dards [5,7–12], especially the simplified methods of analysis,
do not completely relate the durability and fire resistance cri-
teria. The fire safety structural design standards are based,
usually, on a concrete cover thickness necessary for protect
the steel bars temperature. Differently from durability, the w/c
ratio and the concrete strength are not considered in the fire
resistance analysis. If, on the one hand, concretes of reduced
w/c ratios tend to increase the durability, on the other hand,
researches show that when subjected to high temperatures,
concretes could produce the explosive spalling phenomenon
[14]. Nevertheless, an opposite behavior was verified [15] and,
thus, further investigation is necessary.
2. Relevance of this research
The durability parameters specified in technical standards of
reinforced concrete, as cover thickness, cement consumption,
water-cement ratio and compressive strength, affect not only
the behavior of concrete at ambient temperature, but also infer
in the behavior of concrete and reinforced concrete elements
exposed to high temperatures [16,17]. Among the processes
that involve the behavior of column prototypes, it is possible
to verify that the increase in the environmental aggressive-
ness class produced greater resistance to compression of this
material, an increase in the spalling and the degradation of
concrete structures.
The build-up of resistance of concrete and reduction in the
water/cement ratio, caused a highlight durability and low per-
meability, also control aggressive agents in the interior of the
concrete [18].
Under these circumstances at elevated temperatures, the
disintegration of hydrated cement products, rupture of bonds
in the microstructure of cement paste and the extent of reduc-
tion be contingent on moisture loss [19]. Despite the beneficial
effect on durability, the greater thickness of concrete cover can
intensify the mechanism. An inverse relationship between
durability and fire resistance is not considered by the pre-
scribed standards of the project in these conditions [20].
Regarding the influence of the concrete cover thickness,
Guo and Shi [21] verified that a cover increment of 10–30 mm
at beam’s maximum moment zone increase its fire resistance.
However, such influence reduces when the cover increment is
greater than 20 mm. In terms of concrete spalling, Kyu and
Hoon [22] verified an increase in the degree of spalling with
the increase of concrete cover thickness in a study involving
reinforced concrete columns. Furthermore, Dwaikat [23] stud-
ied the behavior of beams and verified that the cover thickness
increment reduces the temperature in the reinforcement steel
bars and, thus, reduces the element deflection.
Regarding cement consumption, Ergün et al. [24] verified
the residual mechanical behavior of concrete specimens with
different cement consumptions (250 and 350 kg/m3 ) and found
that, despite affecting the behavior at ambient temperature,
this parameter does not influence the residual compressive
strength of concretes exposed to high temperatures. The type
of aggregate is another variable influence [25].
Lastly, there is a relevant amount of studies that evaluate
the compressive strength and the water-cement ratio, which
4969
are directly related to each other [26]. Dwaikat and Kodur [27]
highlight that the fire resistance of ultra-high-performance
concrete beams is lower than of regular concrete beams.
The authors also indicate that ultra-high-performance con-
crete beams also present a greater degree of spalling and the
increase in the concrete performance increases the probability
of explosive spalling [28].
Nevertheless, other authors indicate an opposite behav-
ior, in which the performance reduces the incidence of such
mechanism. This would be associated with material’s tensile
strength, which balances or exceeds the effect of low w/c ratio.
It was highlighted in the study by Ali [29], which presented a
comparative study on the occurrence of spalling in ultra-high
performance and regular concrete columns. In such study,
a direct relationship between the material strength and the
spalling occurrence was not identified, and, in some cases,
the spalling was more severe in the regular concrete columns.
Overall, a significant number of experimental programs
evaluating durability parameters can be found in the liter-
ature. However, most part of them are isolated and do not
show a direct relationship between such parameters and the
behavior under fire conditions. Therefore, this study aimed to
evaluate the design durability parameters influence on the fire
resistance of reinforced concrete columns subjected to high
temperatures.
3. Experimental investigation
In order to analyze the influence of durability design param-
eters of concrete elements in fire conditions, 16 reinforced
concrete columns prototypes were produced. The specimens
had dimensions of 25 × 25 × 300 cm and were built of concretes
with different strengths, cement consumptions and w/c ratios.
For each durability parameter, four columns with the same
concrete mix design were built having only one variable, which
was the concrete cover thickness. Table 1 presents the overall
information about the specimens tested.
Concrete mixtures were determined by the mix design
method proposed by Tutikian and Helene [30]. The dry mortar
ratio was fixed in 52%. The w/c ratio and cement consumption
were defined according to the durability requirements. Table 2
presents the proportioning of concrete mixtures.
The column’s fabrication procedure was performed in an
automated concrete batcher at a precast plant. Column’s
structural details is indicated in Fig. 1.
In the laboratory, the tests of high temperature were con-
ducted in a standardized vertical test furnace and followed
the temperature curve from ISO 834 [31]. The temperature
progress in the reinforcement steel bars was analyzed both
on the exposed concrete surface and in different points and
layers of the cross section of the columns.
The columns were tested in pairs, resulting in 8 tests. The
location of thermocouples followed the guidelines from JIS
A1304 [32]. The installation of thermocouples in the column P1
of each concrete mixture was performed according to Fig. 2a.
Besides the alignment of the thermocouples fixed into the
reinforcement steel bars (alignment A and B), the element
also received thermocouples to measure the progress of the
temperatures in the interior of the cross section (alignment
4970 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):4968–4977

Table 1 – Overall information about the specimens tested.

Specimen MRa EAC CT w/c Ratio CC (kg/m3 ) Concrete Class

T1P1 25
T1P2 30
1 I (Weak) 0.65 260 ≥C20
T1P3 40
T1P4 50
T2P1 25
T2P2 30
2 II (Moderate) 0.60 280 ≥C25
T2P3 40
T2P4 50
T3P1 25
T3P2 30
3 III (Strong) 0.55 320 ≥C30
T3P3 40
T3P4 50
T4P1 25
T4P2 30
4 IV (Very Strong) 0.45 360 ≥C40
T4P3 40
T4P4 50

a
MR: Mixing Ratio; EAC: Environmental Aggression Class; CT: Cover Thickness (mm); CC: Cement Consumption (kg/m3 ).

Table 2 – Concrete mixtures proportioning.

MRa Constituent (kg/m3 ) fc,28 (MPa)

Cement CS NS CA (e = 9,5 mm) CA (e = 19 mm) Water

1 260 312 578 321 750 169 47.9

2 280 308 572 321 749 168 61.9
3 320 292 543 320 745 176 40.2
4 360 280 519 322 751 162 75.6

a
MR: Mixing Ratio; Cement: CP V ARI; CS: Crushed sand; NS: Natural sand; CA: Coarse aggregate.

Fig. 1 – Overall structural detailing of columns P1, P2, P3 and P4.

D and E) in every 5 cm, starting from the surface. Further- the vertical furnace is illustrated in Fig. 3. A floor plan of the
more, a thermocouple was installed in the concrete cover layer system, highlighting the column lines, is shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 5
(alignment C). The other columns of equal mixing ratio (P2, P3 illustrates one of the specimens coupled with the furnace.
and P4) received a thermocouple in the concrete cover (align-
ment C) and two alignments to measure the temperature in
the reinforcing steel bars, (alignments A and B), according to
4. Experimental results and discussion
Fig. 2b.
The testing system consisted of two columns confined in
a masonry wall in order to expose 45% of the column cross
4.1. Pathological manifestations during the tests
section to high temperatures, because it is a usual situation
The explosive noises were preceded and classified by low-
in most of residential buildings. The coupling of the wall and
and medium-intensity noise. The duration of such manifes-
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):4968–4977 4971

Fig. 2 – Location of the thermocouples in the columns (a) P1 and (b) P2, P3 and P4.

Fig. 3 – Perspective of the system coupling with the vertical furnace.

Fig. 4 – Detailing (floor plan) of the system coupled with the vertical furnace.

tations did not last longer than 35 min of testing, as shown
in Fig. 6. The main manifestations occurred between 5 and
15 min and were accompanied by the release of water and
vapor through the surface not exposed to high temperatures,
what accentuates the thermo-hydrualical spalling hypothesis.
The total amount of noises described in Fig. 6 is representa-
tive for each pair of columns taken from the total amount
of noises that had low, moderate and high intensities. It
is noticed the trend of more concrete cover layer, more
noises.
4972 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):4968–4977
Fig. 5 – Columns T4P1 and T4P2 coupled with the vertical
furnace.
4.2. Pathological manifestations after the tests
The aspect of the 16 columns after the tests is presented in
Fig. 7.
The spalling occurred in different intensities and in all
columns, except P1 of Concrete III, which predominantly pre-
sented spalling on the corners. In some cases, the cracks on
the corners of the columns occurred with higher intensity.
However, without causing the detachment of the concrete
cover layer from the cross section. Such cracks occurred
Fig. 6 – Frequency of sound manifestations registered.
as a result of differential thermal tensions on the corners.
The cases in which the detachment of the superficial layers
occurred, the indication of internal tension became more evi-
dent. In the cross sections without the occurrence of spalling,
the cracks generated by the thermo-mechanical tensions may
have created a relief point for the internal pore pressure, which
reduced the magnitude and left insufficient energy for the ten-
sions to detach the concrete cover layer. In almost all cases,
reinforcing steel bars were not directly exposed to high tem-
peratures. A smaller degree of spalling predominated, which is
limited to the cover region without exposing directly the rein-
forcing bars. The cases in which such exposure was observed,
only up to half the perimeter of the reinforcing bars was
directly exposed to high temperatures. The whole perimeter
of the bars was exposed in none of the cases tested.
4.3. Degree of spalling
A greater trend of spalling was identified as a result of the
increment of concrete cover thickness, as seen by Morita et al.
[20] and Majorana et al. [33]. Fig. 8 demonstrates, through the
curves of “spalling degree versus concrete cover”, the ten-
dency of an increment cross section loss as the cover thickness
increases, regardless of concrete mixture. The concrete mix-
ture, on the other hand, influenced the magnitude of such
losses. Most of spalling occurred on the corners and with
greater intensity in the larger diameter reinforcing bar.
Furthermore, the frequency of spalling occurrence was
overall predicted by a curve in which critical compressive
strengths are shown according to the respective concrete
cover thickness. Fig. 9 presents the curves of “spalling degree
versus compressive strength”. It was also observed from the
graph that there is a tendency of increasing spalling as the
compressive strength increases up to 60 MPa, from where such
tendency reverses and the degree of spalling starts to reduce.
The column T1-P3 presented an anomalous behavior when
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):4968–4977 4973

Fig. 8 – Tendency Curves: degree of spalling versus concrete

cover thickness.

Fig. 9 – “Spalling degree versus compressive strength”

curve.

compared to the curve generated by the columns of different

mixing ratios.
This smaller degree of spalling in concretes of strengths
lower than 60 MPa is explained because such concretes are
more permeable, which diminishes the pore pressures caused
by the process of water evaporation in the interior of the con-
crete. On the other hand, the smaller degree of spalling for
strengths higher than 60 MPa is explained by Ali et al. [34] and
Tutikian et al. [35], where the authors confirmed that concretes
of high values of compressive strength also possess signifi-
cant values of tensile strength and, thus, are more capable
of absorbing the tensions that cause spalling. Therefore, it is
possible to state that, for the conditions studied, the spalling
phenomenon occurs in a greater degree in concrete columns
with strength around 60 MPa.

4.4. Temperature distribution in concrete

From the temperature values measured in the cross sections of

the columns, heat maps were elaborated, and the intermedi-
ate values were calculated through interpolation algorithms.
The interpolation method used was Polynomial Regression for
Trend Surface Analysis. Fig. 10 presents the isotherms from
concrete mixture 2.
The temperature distribution in the cross sections shows
Fig. 7 – Frequency of sound manifestations registered.
a low thermal conductivity of concrete, which insulate the
reinforcing steel bars. After 30 min of testing, the core of the
columns at ambient temperature was identified. The tem-
perature gradient between the column surface and the layer
4974 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):4968–4977

Fig. 10 – Isotherms of columns from mixing ratio 2.

Fig. 11 – Temperature distribution curves in the cross section of the columns.

of 25 mm reached 700 ◦ C, which justifies the spalling of con-
crete caused by differential thermal movements of the layers.
The thermo-mechanical mechanism may generate cracks that
induce, together with the pore pressures from vapor, the con-
crete spalling [36].
The growth of vapor pressure in the cross section, com-
ing from thermo-hydraulic mechanism, combines with the
internal stress state of the element, which produces a weak-
ening of the section by the formation of cracks, coming from
the thermo-mechanical mechanism, are ideal conditions for
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):4968–4977 4975

Fig. 12 – Temperature distribution curves in the cross section of the columns.

spalling [37] which occurs when the tensile stress is exceeded

Table 3 – Concrete Cover Thickness at the critical
[38]. temperature of 500 ◦ C.
Fig. 11 presents the temperature distribution diagrams
Time (min) Concrete thickness (mm)
in the interior of the cross section of the columns, which
were generated from (a) mixture I, (b) mixture II, (c) mix- Concrete number
ture III and (d) mixture IV. It is noted that, in general,
o I II III IV
the temperature evolution is similar to FIB Bulletin n 46
[39]. 30 08 09 10 11
The non-linear distribution in the first instants is related 60 14 23 16 19
90 19 31 22 28
to the amount of energy consumed by the heat produced dur-
120 48 42 30 40
ing the process, as well as by the transformation of hydrated
150 58 54 39 49
compounds in the paste, and by the evaporation of the water 180 67 67 56 56
contained in the concrete. The segment in the tempera- 240 90 90 96 68
ture distribution that presents a linear aspect indicated the
heat exchange without transforming the hydrated compounds
4.5. Temperature distribution in the reinforcing steel
(sensible heat).
bars
In Table 3, the concrete thickness that acts at tempera-
ture 500 ◦ C, which is defined by fib Bulletin n 38 [40] as being
o
The temperature in the longitudinal reinforcement steel bars
the critical temperature in concrete, is detailed. The spalling
of the columns and on the surface of the columns produced
degree influence is noticed after 30 min, when the thermal
from (a) mixture I, (b) mixture II, (c) mixture III and (d) mixture
insulation of concrete starts to decrease and the columns from
IV are presented in Fig. 12. It is noticed that the medium tem-
concrete II, most affected by spalling, starts to increase tem-
perature in reinforcement bars with larger diameter (16 mm)
perature over the cover thickness.
were lower than with smaller diameter (10 mm), as observed
by Kodur et al. [41].
4976 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):4968–4977
The spalling did not indicate an active influence on the
temperature of the main reinforcement bars during the ini-
tial instants. After 90 min of testing, the influence of such
phenomenon in the reinforcement bars was more noticeable.
The columns built from concrete III were the least affected by
the spalling mechanism and the temperatures measured were
the lowest, especially in those specimens of thinner concrete
covers. It demonstrates the negative influence of spalling in
reinforcement bars temperature.
Furthermore, the greater the cover thickness, the lower the
temperature in the reinforcing bars and the later the tem-
perature of 500 ◦ C was reached, which is defined by technical
standards as the critical temperature in the main reinforcing
bars. However, it was also observed that the temperature in
the reinforcing bars, for equal duration of exposure to fire, was
generally greater than the temperature of the concrete cover
thickness. This fact indicated that some crack might have cre-
ated a path and facilitated the entrance of hot gases into the
interior of the cross section, which subjected a segment of
reinforcing bars to be in touch with heat.
5. Conclusions
By evaluating the prototypes of precast concrete columns built
with the materials and conditions described, it was possible
to conclude that the increase concrete durability criteria pro-
moted, until determined compressive strength, an increase in
the degree of spalling and loss of cross section of the elements.
The magnitude of section reduction in the elements did not
influence the temperature in the main reinforcing steel bars
until 90 min of exposure.
Moreover, there was a tendency in the concrete spalling
not to expose the main reinforcement bars directly to high
temperatures and protect the bars for a longer period due to
the residual cover thickness around the bars and to the lower
thermal conductivity of concrete. In addition, the influence of
the spalling degree on the temperature in the reinforcement
steel bars was more noticeable after 120 min of testing. Until
90 min of testing, the temperature difference between rein-
forcing bars in the elements of different concrete mixtures
and different degrees of spalling was not significant, given the
thermal protection that the residual cover thickness provided.
The results demonstrated an influence of the diameters
of reinforcing steel bars on concrete spalling. It was verified
that the reinforcing bars with a diameter of 16 mm generated
greater cross section losses in the columns than bars with a
diameter of 10 mm. Furthermore, the duration of column’s fire
performance of different mixing ratios and equal cross section
and disposition of reinforcing steel bars changed. Neverthe-
less, the average temperatures in the reinforcing bars obtained
a greater variation with an alteration in the concrete cover
thickness and diameter of bars rather than in the concrete
mixture.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their gratitude and sincere appre-
ciation to the authority of itt Performance, Technological
Institute in Performance and Civil Construction from Unisinos
University, for financing this research work.
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