Reducing sugars contain either aldehydes or hemiacetals (which become aldehydes during mutarotation)

● In scientific research, to ​operationalize a variable​ means that a variable that is

not directly measurable (eg, fatigue, depression) is ​defined​ in such a way that it
can be ​measured​ for the purposes of testing/assessment.

Methods of problem solving

Insight ● Solution occurs in an “A-ha!” moment, typically after a

mental break from the problem
● Valuable, occurs infrequently

Trial & ● Series of potential solutions attempted until desired

error results achieved
● Time-consuming, unsystematic

Heuristics ● Strategy or shortcut yielding approximate results

● Fast, potentially error-prone

Algorithms ● Precise logical or mathematical rule yielding exact results

● Accurate, systematic, time-consuming
● A self-fulfilling prophecy is a belief about something (which may or may not be
true) that influences behavior such that the belief actually comes true. Beliefs
(I'm bad at chemistry) impact expectations (I won't do well on the chemistry test),
which then influence behavior (not studying). The results (failing the test) then
reinforce the belief.

● Belief perseverance is a type of cognitive bias in which a person steadfastly

holds a belief even when confronting strong evidence to the contrary.

● The fundamental attribution error is a cognitive bias in which a person

overemphasizes internal traits and underemphasizes the role of the environment
when attempting to explain another's behavior. For example, a peer assumes
that his classmate failed a test because he is stupid (internal trait) instead of
because his parents are getting divorced (external stress).

● Stereotype threat occurs when someone's conscious or unconscious fear of

confirming a negative stereotype (belief about a group) hinders performance.
For example, females perform more poorly on math tests when they are first
reminded of the stereotype "girls are bad at math."

● Incentive theory​ of motivation suggests that organisms are ​motivated to act​ in

order to obtain ​external rewards​. For example, a student might spend many
 hours studying for an exam not because she is interested in the material (an
internal factor), but because she wants to get a good grade (an external reward).
○ Incentive theory suggests that behaviors are motivated by ​extrinsic
rewards​, not by internal factors such as preserving one's freedom to
smoke.
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● Radioactive ​beta decay​ can occur in three forms: β​−​-decay (electron emission),
β​+​-decay (​positron emission​), and ​electron capture​. In ​β​−​-decay​, a neutron
converts into a nuclear proton and emits an electron. In ​β+​ ​-decay​, a proton
converts into a neutron (the opposite of β​−​-decay) and emits a positron (an
electron with a positive charge). In electron capture, a proton captures an
electron near the nucleus and converts into a neutron without a positron or
electron emission.
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● A ​disproportionation reaction​ is a redox reaction in which both the ​oxidation
and the ​reduction​ occur to atoms of the ​same element
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● solubility product constant ​K​sp​:
● K​sp​=[X]​c​[Y]​d
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Characteristics Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

Cell type Unicellular Unicellular Unicellular or

multicellular

Nucleus Absent Absent Present

Organelles Absent Absent Present

 Cell wall with Present Absent Absent
peptidoglycan

Method of Binary Binary Mitosis

cellular fission fission
division

Chromosome Circular Circular Linear

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