Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 1
CHAPTER ONE
Defining Psychology

• The scientific study of behaviour and mental

processes
• Psychology is more than the study of mental
disorders and emotions; it is the study of who
we think, behave, learn, our sensations and
perception, reasoning, memories and the
biological processes behind it all (just to name a
few)
Goals of Psychology

• Psychology, like other sciences, seeks to

• (1) Describe; (2) Explain; (3) Predict; (4) Influence

Goal Definition Example

Description Describe behaviour or mental process as Calculate average video game scores for males and females.
accurately as possible.

Explanation Suggest causes for behaviour or mental Propose that males score higher on video games because they
processes of interest. practise more than females do.
Prediction Specify conditions under which behaviour or Hypothesize that males and females will obtain equivalent video
mental process is likely to occur. game scores if they practise the same amount of time.

Apply the results of a study to change a

condition to bring about a desired real-world Use the results of video game practice studies to develop games
Influence outcome or prevent an undesired real-world that can enhance females’ achievement in math and science.
outcome.
Research & Research Methods
Theory

Theory:
• A general principle or set of principles that explains how a
number of separate facts are related to one another
• An attempt to explain why something happens

Hypothesis
• A prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested
Basic & Applied research

• Two main types of research that psychologists pursue:

• Basic Research: to seek new knowledge and to explore and advance scientific
understanding
• E.g. nature of memory, brain function, motivation

• Applied Research: conducted with the specific goal of solving practical problems
and improving people’s quality of life
• E.g. methods to improve memory or increase motivation, therapies to treat
mental disorders
Descriptive research methods
• When using these methods, the intent is not to identify causes of
behavior, only to describe the behavior
• Usually most appropriate in the early stages of research
 Descriptive Research
• Naturalistic observation
• Observation of naturally occurring behaviour without intervention (Ex.
Jane Goodall’s research on primates)
• Case study
• An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of
people
• Survey research
• Research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are
asked a series of questions about their behaviour, thoughts, or
attitudes.
 Survey research: important terms

• Population

• Sample

• Representative Sample
 Correlational Research

• Correlational Research is research in which the

relationship between two sets of variables is
examined to determine whether they are
associated, or “correlated.”
• Variables are behaviours, events, or other
characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way.
 Correlational Research
Correlation coefficient
• Ranges from +1 to -1
• A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable
increases, the value of the other variable will also increase.
• A negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable
increases, the value of the other decreases.
• A zero (0) coefficient indicates no relationship between the two
variables

Correlation does NOT mean “causation”

 The experimental method
 Experiment
 In Experimental Research, the relationship between two
(or more) variables is investigated by deliberately
producing a change in one variable in a situation and
observing the effects of that change on other aspects of
the situation

 Thisis the only method of research that seeks to

determine CAUSE-and-EFFECT
 Variables

• Variables are behaviour, event, or other characteristic that can

change or vary in some way
• Independent variable
• The variable that is manipulated by the experiment
• Ex. Number of hours spent studying
• Dependent variable
• The variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused
by the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable
• Ex. The grades obtained
Confounding variables

• Any variable that can influence your

results but is NOT the independent
variable
 Groups

1.Experimental Group: A group participating in an experiment that

receives a treatment (i.e. the manipulation implemented by the
experimenter)

2.Control Group: A group participating in an experiment that receives no

treatment

NOTE: In some experiments there can be more than one experimental group and/or more than one
control group
Placebo Group
• The group that is given a bogus treatment that have the
appearance of being genuine
Limitations of experimental method
• Confounding Variables

• Selection Bias
• Random assignment to control

• Placebo Effect

• Experimenter Bias
Controls for bias

Single-Blind
Conditions under which participants are unaware of, or are
blind to, the treatment

Double Blind
A studying in which neither the participants nor the
observers know who has received the treatment
Assessing Participants in research

• Reliability
• Consistency of the test

• Validity
• Tests ability to measure what it is intended to measure
 Ethics in research

The Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists

1. Respect for the dignity of persons. This includes basic human right, fair
treatment, informed consent, privacy, and confidentiality.
2. Responsible caring. This includes competence and self-knowledge,
maximizing benefits and minimizing risks/harm analysis for participants.
3. Integrity in relationships. This includes honesty, objectivity, and avoidance
of conflict of interest.
4. Responsibility to society. This includes respect and development of society
through psychological research.
 Deception studies
CPA allows deception under the following circumstances:
1. if the benefits of the research are weighed against the research participant’s moral right to
self-determination and the importance of public and personal trust in psychology
2. if full and accurate disclosure would likely influence the responses of the research
participants and thus invalidate the results.
3. if the researcher does not withhold information about the level of risk, discomfort or
inconvenience that might affect their willingness to participate; and
4. if research participants are debriefed as soon as possible after their involvement when
incomplete disclosure or deception is used and to clear up any misconceptions they may have
had about what occurred during the study. Researchers want to erase any harmful effects of
the deception and to ensure that participants understand that no other participants were
actually harmed.
Ethics in research

Stanford Prison Experiment

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sZwfNs1pqG0
Ethics in research
Milgram Obedience Study

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCVlI-_4GZQ
Historical progression
of psychology
Wilhelm wundt

• Founder of Psychology
• 1879 “birthplace” of psychology as a formal academic discipline

• Subject matter was experience – the actual, immediate,

conscious experience of individuals
• Mental experiences could be reduced to basic elements
• Searching for the structure of conscious experience
 Titchener & Structuralism

• Introduced psychology to North America

• Structuralism: aimed at analyzing the basic elements, or the

structure, of conscious mental experience
• Relied heavily on introspection

• *note: structuralism was not considered a viable school of thought for long
 functionalism

• Functionalism: concerned not with the structure of consciousness

but with how mental processes function – that is, with how humans
and animals use mental processes in adapting to their environment

• Broadened the scope of psychology to include the study of behavior

as well as mental processes
• Included the study of children, animals, and people who were mentally
impaired
• Also established the subfield of applied psychology
 Gestalt psychology

• Gestalt Psychology: emphasized that individuals perceive objects and

patterns as whole unites, and that the whole thus perceived is more
then just the sum of its part

• Max Wertheimer
• Introduced a famous experiment demonstrating the phi phenomenon
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-phi-phenomenon-definition-lesson.
html
 behaviourism

• John B. Watson
• In his view the study of mental processes, the concept of mind and consciousness, and the
primary investigative technique of introspection were not scientific
• He argued that all the strictly subjective techniques and concepts in psychology must be thrown
out

• Behaviourism: confined itself to the study of behavior because it was observable and
measurable and, therefore, objective and scientific
• Also emphasized that behavior is determined primarily by factors in the environment
 psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud
• Emphasized that unseen, unconscious mental forces were the key to
understanding human nature and behavior

• Psychoanalysis:
• Human mental life is like an iceberg
• Unconscious threatens the conscious life of the individual
 Humanistic psychology
• Humanistic Psychology: focuses on the uniqueness of human beings and
their capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health

• Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers

• Maintained that people are innately good and possess free will
• People are capable of making conscious, rational choices that can lead to growth
and psychological health
 Cognitive psychology

• Cognitive Psychology: focuses on the mental processes such as

memory, problem solving, concept formation, reasoning and decision
making, language and perception
• See humans not as passive recipients but as active participants who seek out
experience, who alter and shape them, and who use mental processes to
transform information in the course of their own cognitive development