Chapter 1

Adjusting to
Modern Life
 The Paradox of Progress

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe three examples of the paradox of
progress.
• Explain what is meant by the paradox of
progress and how theorists have explained it.
 The Paradox of Progress, continued 1

What is the “Paradox of Progress”?

• Modern technology has provided us with an
abundance of time-saving devices.
• Yet, we complain about not having enough time.
• The range of life choices available to people is
greater than ever.
• Yet, this has unexpected costs.
• Too many choices leads to “choice overload” and
struggles with decisions.
 The Paradox of Progress, continued 2

• Modern technology provides us with economic

abundance and “possession overload.”
• Yet, most people do not feel very good about
their financial well-being.
• In conclusion, despite progress, we are not
necessarily healthier or happier.
The Paradox of Progress, continued 3

Possible explanations:
• The mental demands of modern life have
become too complex and confusing.
• Our obsession with self-improvement
undermines our sense of security and
satisfaction with our identity.
• We are “crazy busy” and too overwhelmed by
information overload.
• We spend more time with technology and
less time with others, which results in an
intimacy deficit.
• We suffer from “affluenza,” which undermines
our physical health and emotional well-being.
 The Search for Direction

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Provide some examples of people’s search for
direction.
• Describe some common problems with self-help
books and what to look for in quality self-help
books.
• Summarize the philosophy underlying this
textbook.
 The Search for Direction, continued 1

• The greatest challenge of modern life may be

our search for meaning or a sense of
direction.
• In desperation, people turn to many ineffective
and/or self-destructive sources for
enlightenment (e.g., radio personalities, self-
realization programs).
• One of the most prominent sources is self-
help books.
• But, how valuable are they?
 The Search for Direction, continued 2

The value of self-help books

• Excellent self-help books do exist. However,
many are not effective.
• Their message is too vague to be useful, as
they are dominated by “psychobabble.”
• They are not based on solid, scientific
research.
• They don’t provide explicit directions for
changing behavior.
• They encourage a narcissistic (self-
centered) approach to life.
 The Search for Direction, continued 3

What to look for in a good self-help book:

1. Books that are realistic, that don’t promise
too much change too soon.
2. Books by authors with good credentials.
3. Books with a theoretical or research basis.
4. Books that provide detailed, explicit
directions about how to alter your behavior.
5. Books that focus on a particular kind of
problem or behavior.
 The Approach of This Textbook

1. This text is based on the premise that

accurate knowledge about the principles of
psychology can be of value to you in
everyday life.
2. This text attempts to foster a critical attitude
about psychological issues and to enhance
your critical thinking skills.
3. This text should open doors.
 The Psychology of Adjustment

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe the two key facets of psychology.
• Explain the concept of adjustment.
The Psychology of Adjustment, continued

• Psychology is “the science that studies

behavior and the physiological and mental
processes that underlie it, and it is the
profession that applies the accumulated
knowledge of this science to practical
problems.”
• Behavior is “any overt (observable)
response.”
• Adjustment is “the psychological processes
through which people manage or cope with the
demands and challenges of everyday life.”
 The Scientific Approach to Behavior

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Explain the nature of empiricism and the
advantages of the scientific approach to behavior.
• Describe the experimental method, distinguishing
between independent and dependent variables
and between experimental and control groups.
• Distinguish between positive and negative
correlation, and explain what the size of a
correlation coefficient means.
• Describe three correlational research methods.
• Compare the advantages and disadvantages of
experimental versus correlational research.
 The Scientific Approach, continued 1

Psychology’s commitment to empiricism

• Empiricism is “the premise that knowledge
should be acquired through observation.”
• Thus, the conclusions of scientific psychology
are based on careful, systemic observation
rather than speculation or “common sense.”
 The Scientific Approach, continued 2

Experimental research: looking for causes

• The experiment is “a research method in
which the investigator manipulates one
(independent) variable under carefully
controlled conditions and observes whether
any changes occur in a second (dependent)
variable as a result.”
• Psychologists depend on this method more
than any other.
 The Scientific Approach, continued 3

Independent and dependent variables

• An independent variable “is a condition or
event that an experimenter varies in order to
see its impact on another variable.”
• It is the variable the researcher
manipulates in the experiment.
• The dependent variable “is the variable that
is thought to be affected by the manipulations
of the independent variable.”
• It is usually a measurement of behavior.
 The Scientific Approach, continued 4

Experimental and control groups

• The experimental group “consists of the
subjects who receive some special treatment
in regard to the independent variable."
• The control group “consists of similar
subjects who do not receive the special
treatment given to the experimental group."
The Scientific Approach, continued 5
 The Scientific Approach, continued 6

• Determining cause and effect in experiments

• If the experimental and control groups are
alike in every way except for the treatment
from the independent variable (whether
shock will be painful), and
• if a difference in the dependent variable is
found (e.g., desire to affiliate), then
• the difference in their response must be
due to the independent variable (e.g., fear
of the painful shock).
 The Scientific Approach, continued 7

• The advantage of using experiments is that:

• precise control allows cause and effect
conclusions to be drawn.
• The disadvantage of using experiments is
that:
• there are some variables of interest that
cannot, for ethical reasons, be manipulated
in an experiment.
 The Scientific Approach, continued 8

Correlational Research: Looking for Links

• A correlation exists when two variables are
related to each other.
Measuring Correlation
• A correlation coefficient is “a numerical index
of the degree of relationship that exists
between two variables."
• It provides two pieces of information:
1. How strongly related two variables are.
2. The direction (positive or negative) of the
relationship.
 The Scientific Approach, continued 9

• Positive Correlations “indicate that two

variables covary in the same direction.”
• High scores on variable x are related to
high scores on variable y, and low scores
on variable x are related to low scores on
variable y.
• Negative Correlations “indicate that two
variables covary in the opposite direction.”
• High scores on variable x are related to low
scores on variable y.
The Scientific Approach, continued 10
 The Scientific Approach, continued 11

• Strength of the correlation is indicated by the

size of the correlation coefficient.
• Correlation coefficients can range from 0 to
+1.00 (if positive) and from 0 to −1.00 (if
negative).
• Coefficients near 0 indicate there is no
association between variables.
• Coefficients near either +1.00 or −1.00
indicate strong associations.
The Scientific Approach, continued 12
 The Scientific Approach, continued 13

• Common methods of finding correlations

between variables
• Naturalistic observation – “careful
observation of behavior without intervening
directly with the subjects”
• Case studies – “in-depth investigation of
an individual participant”
• Surveys – “structured questionnaires
designed to solicit information about
specific aspects of participants’ behaviors”
 The Scientific Approach, continued 14

Advantages and Disadvantages of Correlations

• Advantages of using correlations:
• They allow us to explore variables not
suitable or ethical for manipulation in
experimental research.
• (e.g., the effect of psychological trauma
on males versus females)
• Thus, correlations allow investigation of a
broader array of psychological phenomena
than is possible in experimental research.
 The Scientific Approach, continued 15

• Disadvantages of using correlations:

• Correlations only tell us that two variables
are related, not how the two variables are
related.
• x could be causing changes in y,
• y could be causing changes in x, or
• z, a third variable, could be causing
changes in x and y.
• Thus, we cannot determine cause and
effect from correlations alone.
The Scientific Approach, continued 16
The Roots of Happiness: An Empirical Analysis

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Identify the various factors that are
surprisingly unrelated to happiness.
• Describe the factors that are somewhat or
very important to subjective well-being.
• Summarize conclusions about the
determinants of happiness.
 The Roots of Happiness, continued 1

Commonsense hypotheses about the roots of

happiness abound.
• Many survey studies have been conducted
to explore the determinants of subjective
well-being, defined as “individuals’ personal
assessments of their overall happiness or
life satisfaction.”
 The Roots of Happiness, continued 2

What isn’t very important?

1. Money – the correlation between income
and happiness is very weak (between .12
and .20) in the U.S.
2. Age – is unrelated to global estimates of
happiness.
3. Gender – has little impact on subjective
well-being.
The Roots of Happiness, continued 3

4. Parenthood – good and bad aspects of

parenthood balance each other out.
5. Intelligence – there is no association
between IQ and happiness.
6. Physical attractiveness – attractive
people enjoy many advantages in society,
but the relationship with happiness is very
weak.
 The Roots of Happiness, continued 4

What is somewhat important?

1. Health – health and happiness have a positive
correlation of .32.
2. Social relations – people who are satisfied with
their friendships and are socially active report
above-average levels of happiness.
3. Religious belief – people with sincere religious
convictions are more likely to be happy.
4. Leisure activity – leisure time is associated with
subjective well-being.
5. Culture – more affluent nations are more likely to
be happy.
 The Roots of Happiness, continued 5

What is very important?

1. Relationship satisfaction – across cultures,
for men and women, married people are
happier than people who are single or
divorced.
2. Work – job satisfaction is strongly related to
happiness.
3. Genetics and personality – extraversion (or
positive emotionality) is a strong predictor of
happiness, while neuroticism (an anxious
temperament) is negatively correlated with
happiness.
The Roots of Happiness, continued 6
 The Roots of Happiness, continued 7

Conclusions
1. Subjective feelings of happiness are more
important than objective measures.
2. Happiness is relative.
• We evaluate our happiness relative to
what others around us have, and
• We evaluate our happiness relative to
our own expectations.
3. It is hard for people to predict what will
make them happy.
• Affective forecasting — efforts to predict
one’s emotional reactions to future events.
The Roots of Happiness, continued 8

4. People adapt to their own circumstances.

• Happiness is affected by hedonic
adaptation. This occurs when “the
mental scale that people use to judge
the pleasantness/unpleasantness of
their experiences shifts so that their
neutral point, or baseline for
comparison, is changed."
Application: Improving Academic Performance

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• List three steps for developing sound study
habits.
• Discuss some strategies for improving
reading comprehension and getting more
out of lectures.
• Describe various study strategies that can
aid memory.
Improving Academic Performance, continued 1

Developing sound study habits

1. Set up a schedule for studying.
2. Find a place to study where you can
concentrate.
3. Reward your studying.
Improving Academic Performance, continued 2
Improving Academic Performance, continued 3

Improving your reading

• Preview reading assignments section by
section.
• Actively process the meaning of the
information.
• Identify the key ideas of each paragraph.
• Carefully review key ideas after each
section.
• Use text chapter outlines, summaries, and
learning objectives.
Improving Academic Performance, continued 4

Tips for getting more out of lectures:

1. Use active listening procedures.
2. Prepare for lectures by reading ahead.
3. Write down the lecturers’ thoughts in your
own words.
4. Look for subtle clues about what the
instructor thinks is important.
5. Ask questions during lectures.
Improving Academic Performance, continued 5

Applying memory principles

1. Engage in adequate practice.
• Use overlearning – “continued rehearsal
of material after you have first appeared to
master it."
2. Use distributed practice – breaking up
studying is more effective than cramming.
3. Organize information – outline material from
your text to enhance retention.
Improving Academic Performance, continued 6

4. Emphasize deep processing – try to make

material personally meaningful.
5. Use mnemonic devices (strategies for
enhancing memory).
• Use verbal mnemonics such as acrostics or
acronyms.
• Use visual mnemonics such as the link
method or the “method of loci.”
Improving Academic Performance, continued 7

Source: Adapted from Bower, G.H. (1970). Analysis of a mnemonic device. American Scientist, 58, 496-499. Copyright © 1970 by Scientific Research Society.
Reprinted by permission.