SELF-HEALING COMPOSITES FOR AIRCRAFT

APPLICATION

Seminar report submitted in the partial fulfillment of the award of the degree

Of
Bachelor of Technology
In
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Of
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University
By

TITU WILSON (REG NO. MZC16AN022)

Under the guidance of

Asst.Prof. SANJEEV KRISHNAN

November 2019

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Mount Zion College of Engineering

Kadamannitta, Pathanamthitta – 689 649

Phone: 0468 – 2217525, 2217325 Fax: 2217425

1
 APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
KERALA

MOUNT ZION COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

KADAMANITTA

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is a bonafied record of the work done by

TITU WILSON (Reg.No. MZC16AN022) of seventh semester

Aeronautical Engineering for the seminar (AO451) title SELF-

HEALING COMPOSITES FOR AIRCRAFT APPLICATIONS in the

year 2019-20

Dr. M. Yogesh Mr. Sanjeev Krishnan

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT PROJECT COORDINATOR

Professor Assistant Professor

Department Of Aeronautical Engineering Department Of Aeronautical Engineering

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 Acknowledgement

To bring something into existence is truly the work of

ALMIGHTY. I thank GOD ALMIGHTY for making this venture
a success.
I express our wholehearted thanks to the Management of the
college, Mr. Abraham Kalammannil, Chairman, for providing us
an opportunity to do our studies in this esteemed institution. I thank
our Principal Dr. K. Mathew for providing the facilities for our
studies and constant encouragement in all achievements.

At the outset I wish to place on record my sincere thanks

to quite a few people without whose help, this venture would not
have been a success.

I would like to express profound gratitude to our Head of

the Department, Dr. M. Yogesh, for his encouragement and for
providing all facilities for carrying out this project. I express my
highest regard and sincere thanks to our project coordinator,
Mr. Sanjeev Krishnan, who provided the necessary guidance and
serious advice to carry out this project. I also extend our sincere
thanks to all the staff members of Aeronautical Department who
guided us throughout the entire course.

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 CONTENTS

Sl.No. TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

1 INTRODUCTION

2 LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 SELF-HEALING POLYMERS AND COMPOSITES

2.2 SELF-HEALING COMPOSITES FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS

2.3 REVIEW OF SELF-HEALING MATERIAL

3 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

3.1 AIM

3.2 OBJECTIVE

4 SELF-HEALING CONCEPTS

4.1 INTRINSIC SELF-HEALING CONCEPTS

4.2 EXTRINSIC SELF-HEALING CONCEPTS

4.3 SELF-HEALING APPROACH

4.4 APPLICATIONS OF SELF-HEALING COMPOSITES

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 4.5 OTHER APPLICATIONS

5 CONCLUSION

6 BIBILOGRAPHY/ REFERENCES

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SELF-HEALING COMPOSITES
FOR AIRCRAFT APPLICATIONS

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 ABSTRACT
Composite materials are now popular in many fields. Due to their weight reduction,
higher strength to weight ratio, higher corrosion resistance and mechanical properties,
metal alloys are now being replaced by composite materials in several applications such as
aerospace, automotive, marine and building components. Even though these materials
revolutionized in aviation industries, but their uses does present some engineering and
maintenance challenges. Inspired from the healing function of organisms combining self-
healing materials in composite structures could be a problem solver in the new era of
design.

Self-healing materials are artificially or synthetically created substances which has

the ability to automatically repair damages to themselves without any external diagnosis or
human intervention. This method promises to design structure that can heal or repair
fracture, damages or propagations in structure. The new development in self-healing
materials provide hope in future aircraft production, several of these materials can be used
in aircraft structures, which includes fuselage, engines and coatings. Different self-healing
polymers, methodologies and their application in aircraft structures are discussed here.

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1. Micro-capsule and hollow fibre approach

2. Intrinsic self-healing approach
3. Micro-capsule based self healing approach
4. Self-healing approach using hollow fiber
5. Mechanism of Diels-Alders reaction
6. Grafting of malemide groups

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Different approaches of Self-healing technology

Table 2 : Self-healing efficiency of some composite materials

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 LIST OF ABREVIATIONS

TERMS EXPANSION

PMC Polymer Matrix Composites

CMC Ceramic Matrix Composites

MMC Metal Matrix Composites

FRC Fiber-Reinforced Composites

CFRP Carbon Epoxy Fiber-Reinforced Polymer

rDA retro Diels-Alder

FRP Fiber-Reinforced Polymer

HGF Hollow Glass Fibers

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 1. INTRODUCTION
Degradation, damage and failure are natural consequences of material
application. Micro-Cracking, fiber matrix de-bonding and impact damage are major
consequences encountered in the composite material applications. The maintenance of
composite materials exerts a challenge for critical structural parts, such as wings and fins
for an aircraft. According to the damage degree it is possible to repair the critical structural
part by the method of scarfing and making patches, etc. thereby repairing structure about
60-80% strong as that of the original undamaged structure.

However there are new materials and technologies for composite materials,
self-healing composite for aircraft structures is one of the technologies that can be used.
The self-healing technology in composite materials can achieve advanced maintenance
capabilities combining self-healing materials with alternative materials can even start a new
era of design. Maintenance of structure can be simplified because of these composite
materials can trigger auto repair , with or without any external interventions.Self-healing
composite materials are capable of auto repairing upon initiation of damage. The early
development concept of healing ability relied on mimicking living organisms, like trees and
animals, which motivated research in developing self-healing materials. The self-healing
materials and composites have been studied for the past few decades, specifically fuelled by
the development of self-healing epoxy resin.Self-healing technology using composite
materials seems to be promising, as it is designed to heal or repair fracture and damage
initiation and propagation in structures. Self-healing composite materials prevent failure
and extend the lifetime of critical structures. Maintenance of structures can be considerably
simplified because of these materials, which can trigger an almost auto-repair with some of
them not requiring any external intervention to start the healing process.

Self-healing composite materials include polymer matrix composites, ceramic

matrix composites (CMCs), metal matrix composites (MMCs) and cementitious
composites. Self-healing coatings for corrosion protection or barrier protection have found

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early commercial applications. Self-healing composites may have strong potential and
already have found crucial roles in the aerospace sector. In the aircraft industry, self-
healing materials have the ability to repair damage that may have occurred during a flight
and increase the lifetime of the components. One key advantage of self-healing composite
materials is to repair dynamic damage and maintain impact resistance. In this chapter, the
primary focus is the self-healing composites that can be used in aircraft application.

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 2. LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 SELF-HEALING POLYMERS AND COMPOSITES
B.J. Blaiszik, S.L.B. Kramer, S.C. Olugebefola, J.S. Moore, N.R. Sottos,

Research on self-healing polymers and composites has established high

performance levels for multiple material systems encompassing a wide variety of damage
modes self-healing concepts. Continued progress in the field will yield new healing
chemistries that possess greater stability, higher reactivity, and faster kinetics. This nascent
field of research has made great strides over the past several years, but many technical
challenges remain, and there exists a great need for focused research efforts to address
several areas of concern. How self-healing materials will perform under long-term
environmental exposure remains an open question. Accelerated environmental testing of
self-healing systems is critically needed. Although the vast majority of research on self-
healing in response to fracture has focused on quasi-static performance, the ultimate utility
of self-healing systems is in combating fatigue and/or periodic damage events. Relatively
little research has been devoted to the dynamic aspects of self-healing under fatigue like
conditions. In addition, self-healing designs will most likely entail targeted and localized
distribution of self-healing components in large-scale applications to maximize efficiency
while minimizing cost and detrimental effects to the matrix material. Engineering models
for design and optimization are currently lacking. Predicting the life-cycle performance of a
self-healing polymer composite is currently beyond the capability of available analytical
tools. Restoration of optical properties may also be a favorable path for self-healing
research.
Cracking in materials disrupts transparency due to light scattering, and the application of an
index-matched polymer is often used to mitigate that effect. The ability to deliver an index
matched fluid through a vascular or a capsule-based system may enable autonomous
recovery of transparency. Intrinsic self-healing of optically relevant materials may also
eliminate scattering by healing any generated cracks.

2.2 SELF-HEALING COMPOSITES FOR AEROSPACE

APPLICATIONS 11
R. Das, C. Melchior , K.M. Karumbaiah

Self-healing composite materials are capable of auto-repairing upon

initiation of damage. The early development concept of healing ability relied on mimicking
living organisms, like trees and animals, which motivated research in developing self-
healing materials. Self-healing materials and composites have been studied for the past few

13
decades, specifically fuelled by the development of self-healing epoxy resin Self-healing
composite materials include polymer matrix composites, ceramic matrix composites
(CMCs), metal matrix composites (MMCs) and cementitious composites. Although
research on self-healing materials is relatively new, a few commercial self-healing
materials, like the Reverlink™ elastomer, are manufactured by Arkema, and there are many
potential applications of self-healing composites (e.g., resistant fabrics, resealing tires and
long-life batteries). Self-healing coatings for corrosion protection or barrier protection have
found early commercial applications. One primary area where self-healing composites may
have strong potential and already have found crucial roles is the aerospace sector. In the
aerospace industry, self-healing materials have the ability to repair damage that may have
occurred during a flight and increase the lifetime of the components. One key advantage of
self-healing composite materials is to repair dynamic damage and maintain impact
resistance. Self-healing composites can be used in various capacities (e.g., in aerospace
structural parts to prevent damage and increase lifetime and also in anticorrosion and
barrier coatings).

2.3 REVIEW OF SELF- HEALING MATERIAL

Santosh Prabhakar Rahane

Composites have been widely used in tremendous engineering fields

because of their advantages including light weight, process transformation and chemical
stability in any atmospheric conditions. Due to long durability and reliability of polymeric
material it still problematic when they serve for structural application. Comparatively,
micro cracking is one of the fatal deteriorations generated in service, which bring about
catastrophic failure of the material and hence significantly shorten lifetimes of the
structures. Since the damage is deep inside material which is difficult to be perceived and to
repair in particular, the materials had better to have self-healing ability. While the
development of self-healing materials is progressing at a rapid rate, most successful
examples of self-healings are heavily reliant on polymers from petroleum precursors.
Hence, in this work, we undertake the first concerted effort to develop self- healing
polymers and composites. Lightweight, high strength, high stiffness fiber reinforced
polymer composites are leading contenders as component materials to improve the
efficiency and sustainability of many forms of transport.

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 3. AIM AND OBJECTIVE

3.1 AIM
A self-healing material has the ability to auto-repair under a ‘stimulus’ when
fracture or damage occurs during in-service operation either accidently or due to ageing.
The ‘self-healing’ concept is inspired by biological systems or living beings and has been
widely developed during the last decade. Numerous self-healing concepts have proved to
be remarkably efficient in aircraft applications. In this report, our work focuses on Self-
healing composites, different Self-healing approaches and the development of self-healing
composites in the aerospace sector.

3.2 OBJECTIVE
The primary focus of this report is given to the self-healing composites that
can be used in aircraft applications. Different composite materials, their manufacturing
techniques, different types of self-healing concepts and various applications are presented
in general and also specifically in the context of the aerospace sector. The self-healing
composites can be polymer, ceramic or metal matrix composites. Initially, different self-
healing concepts are explained, followed by the classification of self-healing composites.
Self-healing approaches, such as microcapsules, hollow fibres, vascular network and
intrinsic healing, are described in the subsequent sections. Different types of self-healing
composites, such as polymer matrix composites (E-glass epoxy and carbon fibre epoxy),
CMCs and MMCs, are then discussed. Various properties, like mechanical, corrosion and
barrier protection properties, influenced by the self-healing ability of composites are
briefed. Finally, applications of self-healing composites, especially in the aerospace
industry, are discussed.

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 4. SELF-HEALING CONCEPTS

A self-healing material has the ability to auto-repair under a ‘stimulus’ when

fracture or damage occurs during in-service operation either accidently or due to ageing.
The ‘self-healing’ concept is inspired by biological systems or living beings and has been
widely developed during the last decade.The most general classification of self-healing
materials is based on exinsic or intrinsic healing. Other forms of classification are based on
autonomic healing and nonautonomic healing. An autonomic self-healing material does not
require any external trigger to initiate the self-healing process, whereas nonautonomic
materials need an external trigger, such as heat or pressure, to heal. Commonly, self-healing
approaches include the use of healing agents contained in microcapsules, hollow fibres, a
mesoporous network or dissolved thermoplastics.

4.1 EXTRINSIC HEALING

The extrinsic healing process is based on the use of a healing agent contained in the
matrix as a separate phase. The healing agent is usually in the liquid state, placed in the
form of microcapsules or hollow fibres. In most approaches,the healing agent is used with a
catalyst, which can also be encapsulated or dissolved in the matrix. When damage occurs,
local containers are broken, and the healing agent and catalyst are released, resulting in the
healing of cracks, preventing crack growth and fracture failure of the structure. The main
extrinsic healing approaches are:
1. Healing agents are contained in the form of microcapsules, and catalysts are
dispersed in the matrix. In a few cases, the healing agent can also react itself, and there is
no need for a catalyst to initiate the process.
2. The healing agent is contained in the form of tubes, which is essentially the same
as the micro-capsules, and only the shape of the container is varied.

3. The mesoporous network contains healing agents or delivers them from an

external reservoir, in case of damage.

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Figure 4.1 Microcapsule and hollow-fiber approaches for self-healing (Kessler, 2008)

4.2 INTRINSIC HEALING

Intrinsic healing is based on specific properties of certain materials, such as

molecular structures, chemical or physical bonds. In most cases, intrinsic self-healing
requires external stimuli (e.g., high temperatures). But there are few intrinsic self-healing
materials which do not require any external stimuli to initiate the process of healing.
Intrinsic self-healing can be achieved by three different modes. they are,

1. Reversible covalent chemistry implies covalent bonds that can dissociate and
reassociate under damage. Such reactions mostly include ring-chain equilibrium. One
widely studied example is the retro Dielse-Alder (rDA) reaction (Fig. 11.2)

2. Research on thermoreversible physical interactions is extensive and has mainly

focussed on ionomers.

3. Supramolecular chemistry is promising and has been one of the first commercial
applications of self-healing polymers.. Reversible supramolecular interactions are low-
energy interactions that have an influence on the overall properties of a material, if well
designed. Possible avenues of obtaining these interactions are based on hydrogen bonding

17
or metal coordination.

Figure 4.2 Intrinsic self-healing aproach(Blaiszik et,al 2010)

Fig. 4.2 shows the general mechanism of intrinsic self-healing. Reversible

interactions are represented in red and blue colour. When damage occurs, a crack is formed.
Intrinsic self-healing is then achieved by the recovery of the former interactions, with or
without an external trigger.

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 4.3 SELF-HEALING APPROACHES

This section describes the various extrinsic and intrinsic self-healing techniques
commonly used.

Table 4.1 Different approaches of Self-healing technology

4.3.1 EXTRINSIC SELF-HEALING APPROACHES

4.3.1.1 MICROCAPSULES
Capsule-based self-healing is an extrinsic approach of self-healing as the healing
agent is embedded in microcapsules. Microcapsule-based healing consists of embedding a
healing agent in micro-capsules that break when cracks appear. The healing agent is then
released, and crack repairing can be achieved. Commonly, a catalyst is used with the
healing agent; it acts as a polymerizer in polymer composites. There are four different
approaches followed to use a healing agent and catalyst:

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 Figure 4.3 Microcapsule based self-healing process (Garcia and Fischer, 2014)

(1) The encapsulated liquid agent can be combined with a dispersed catalyst,

(2) Both the healing agent and the catalyst can be embedded in different capsules.

(3) The healing agent can also directly react with a functionality of the matrix under an
external stimulus and the healing agent or the catalyst can be placed in the matrix as a
separate phase.

Different types of microcapsules have been manufactured and used, usually in

epoxy resin matrix composites. Commonly used microcapsules are made of urea
formaldehyde. Other types of microcapsules, such as triethylenetetramine (TETA)
microcapsules for wear-resistant polymer composites and poly (methyl methacrylate)
(PMMA) microcapsules with highstorage and thermal stability, have been manufactured
and implemented. The size of the microcapsules ranges from 25 to 250 mm. However,
some investigation has also been conducted on nanocapsules (220 nm) and this showed an
increase in fracture toughness per volume fraction in comparison with larger microcapsules.

20
Several encapsulation techniques have been used to prepare self-healing materials. The
research has mainly focussed on meltable dispersion, in situ and interfacial encapsulation
techniques. Meltable dispersion is the method of dispersing the healing agent in a melted
polymer to form the capsules after solidification of the polymer. In situ and interfacial
techniques have been used for ureaeformaldehyde or TETA microcapsules. In this
technique, the shell is developed by polymerization at the interface of healing agent
droplets and the oil-in-water emulsion.

4.3.1.2 VASCULAR MATERIALS

Self-healing materials that use hollow fibres or a mesoporous network are called
vascular materials. The approach used is an extrinsic approach and is similar to the
microcapsules approach, as the healing agent is embedded in fibres or a network of
capillaries.The healing agents are released when damage occurs. Healing fibres (i.e., hollow
fibres with a healing agent) have been manufactured to incorporate in fibre-reinforced
polymer (FRP) composite materials, replacing some of the composite fibres. One of the
main advantages of fibres over microcapsules is that fibres can be interconnected to form a
network. This allows efficient delivery of the healing agent, and additionally these fibres
can be networked in a way so that a large area can be healed. However, hollow fibres have
a greater influence on the mechanical properties of composites than microcapsules.
Vascular networks can be one- (1D), two- (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) systems.
1D systems were developed on glass pipettes embedded in epoxy resins. 2D networks are
an evolution of 1D systems, and are suitable for the interface between plies in laminated
composites. 3D systems imitate the vascular systems of living beings and are being
developed to extend the lifetime of vascular self-healing composites. The most common
approach to build vascular composite materials is the use of individual hollow fibres, which
can replace some reinforcement fibres in FRP composite materials. Hollow fibres can be
interconnected, thus forming a vascular network. Using this type of fibres, a localized
healing response can be activated. Another approach similar to the hollow fibrebased
vascular networks is the implementation of a mesoporous network.

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 Figure 4.4 Self-healing approaches using hollow fibres (Garcia and Fischer, 2014)

Fig. 4.4 shows three different possible approaches of hollow fibre based self-
healing materials (from left to right). Hollow glass fibres are filled with a healing agent
containing 5% cobalt octate using the capillary action.These fibres were then embedded in
the matrix by the vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM) process. However,
the use of hollow glass fibres is restricted to 1D network. In order to obtain 2D and 3D
interconnected networks, steel wires as thin as 0.5 mm could be used.

4.3.2 INTRINSIC SELF-HEALING APPROACHES

4.3.2.1 DISSOLVED THERMOPLASTICS

Self-healing materials based on dispersed thermoplastics use an intrinsic, thermally
activated self-healing approach. The thermoplastic polymer is selected for its good
compatibility and is dissolved in the polymer matrix, resulting in a homogeneous system.
After damage, healing is triggered by a rise in temperature and pressure so that the
thermoplastic healing agent can move and fill the cracks. Researchers have tested the
properties of a self-healing glass fibre epoxy composite containing from 5%wt to 20%wt
dissolved poly(bisphenol-A-co epichlorohydrin). It has the advantage of being suitable for
conventional thermosetting composites. However, there is a need for external pressure to
heal the cracks, thus limiting its applications in various fields.

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4.3.2.2 REVERSIBLE CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Self-healing concepts can be accomplished by reversible chemical reactions due to
an external trigger. The aforementioned type of self-healing concept is called an extrinsic
self-healing technique, because an external stimulus such as heat or irradiation is needed to
trigger the healing.Several reversible chemical reactions have been explored for self-
healing applications. The most extensively studied reactions are the RDA reactions. Fig. 4.5
shows the mechanism of polymerization and repair for DA cross-linked polymers. Chen
demonstrated self-healing properties of furanemaleimide polymers. Bis-maleimide
tetrafuran can be used to create a thermally activated self-healing carbon fibre composite,
using a DA reaction and electrical resistive heating of carbon fibres. This composite
showed nearly 100% strength recovery under certain conditions. The DA reaction was used
to recover the fibre matrix interfacial shear. This was accomplished by grafting maleimide
groups in the carbon fibres thatcan bond with the furans groups in the matrix (Fig. 4.5).
Heating was achieved using resistivity of carbon fibres. Other reversible reactions include
hydrazone linkages and disulphide exchange reactions.The majority of the self-healing
composites that act by reversible chemical reactions still need an external heat source to
start the healing process. Another way to induce self-healing is by the application of a
strong light irradiation.

Figure 4.5 Mechanism of the Diels-Alder (DA) reaction for cross-linked polymers (Park et
al., 2010)

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4.3.2.3 REVERSIBLE PHYSICAL INTERACTIONS
Self-healing behaviors based on reversible physical interactions have been recently
demonstrated. This involved the use of ionomeric polymers, which are polymers containing
ionic species, such as metal salts, that can aggregate and form clusters. Owing to the
formations of reversible clusters and resulting changes in the mobility of the polymeric
network, they can be used in self-healing applications.

Figure 4.6 Grafting of maleimade groups on a T700-U carbon fibre surface (Zhang et al.,
2014)

The self-healing response of poly(ethylene-comethacrylic acid) copolymers

for ballistic applications has been researched. Self-healing was triggered by the impact
force. Indeed, clusters relaxations were caused by generated heat. Self-healing piezoelectric
ceramic polymer composites, containing zirconium titanate ceramic in a Zinc ionomer
ethylene methacrylic acid (EMAA) copolymer matrix. The impact behavior of an EMAA
copolymer with acid groups neutralized with sodium ions was studied to implement
ionomer composites in spacecrafts for debris protection. The material developed using
ionomeric polymer has good self-healing abilities and behaved better than aluminium plates
under very high-velocity impacts.

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Table 4.2 Self-healing efficiency of some composite materials (Blaiszik et al., 2010)

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4.4 APPLICATIONS OF SELF-HEALING COMPOSITES
4.4.1 AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
4.4.1.1 ENGINES
Conventional ceramic composites are now widely used in jet engines
because of their excellent thermal resistance. However, sensitivity to brittle failure and
impact damage reduce ceramic parts lifespan and reliability. In addition, it is nearly
impossible to use ceramic composites in mobile parts, which can be exposed to impacts,
such as turbine blades. These parts are usually manufactured with nickel superalloys. But
the melting point of nickel prevents engine manufacturers from being able to increase
working temperatures, which limits an engine’s efficiency. Hence, a number of studies
have been carried out recently to assess self-healing CMCs as solutions for fixed and
mobile jet engine parts. Replacing existing ceramic composites with self-healing
composites in engine combustion chambers has been attempted. Multilayered, boron-
containing matrix composites were investigated as alternatives. The oxidation behaviour of
the fibres and the matrix under relatively low temperatures for a SiC(f)/PyC(i)/SieBeC(m)
composite was described. In self healing ceramiccomposites, the healing behaviour was due
to the formation of boron oxide (B2O3) that can seal the matrix cracks. Investigations were
also carried out under higher temperatures of 1000C, 1200C and 1350C, which can
typically be found in an aircraft engine combustion chamber. The composite was made of a
2D-C/[SiCe(BeC)] ceramic containing boron and a boron silicon glass phase. Self-healing
was achieved when the boron compounds and boron silicon glass were oxidized, which led
to the formation of phases that could flow in the matrix cracks and seal them. It was found
that the three-point bending strength and tensile strength increased with temperature. These
results showed that the specific ceramic composite displayed a self-healing behaviour, and
that it could be suited for use in aircraft combustion chambers. The use of boron was
further investigated for interfacial pyrocarbon, in addition to the boron-doped matrix, to
enhance self-healing properties and corrosion resistance. In particular, a SiC-SiCfibre-
reinforced ceramic composite material with a multilayered matrix containing B-doped
pyrocarbon layers and B4C and SiC layers was assessed. Boron-bearing species in the
interphase layers and in the matrix itself (pyro-carbon and B4C) give the composite a self-

26
healing ability resulting from the formation of fluid B2O3 under oxidizing conditions. This
type of composite is reported to have excellent corrosion resistance under mechanical loads
and high temperatures and seems to be suitable for jet engine combustion chambers. Self-
healing technology would allow the use of ceramic turbine blades instead of nickel
superalloy turbine blades. Indeed, current ceramic composites are sensitive to impact under
external loads that can lead to blade failure. The use of ceramic blades would enable higher
working temperatures, thus improving turbines.

4.4.1.2 FUSELAGE

FRP composites are now widely used for aircraft fuselage, and the latest
civil aircrafts (Boeing 787 and Airbus A350) are developed with up to 50% FRP
composites by weight. However, current FRP composites are susceptible to damage under
impacts, which often leads to heavier designs to meet safety requirements. Additionally,
extensive maintenance is needed as impact damage on composites is difficult to detect and
assess. Self-healing is one of the most promising approaches to overcome impact load
vulnerability and to design low-maintenance, lightweight composite fuselages. Studies
were carried out on self-healing hollow glass fibreepoxy composites for aerospace
structural applications. The specimens were damaged by three-point bend impact tests.
Postdamage flexural tests showed a strength recovery of up to 47% after healing. The
implementation of simple self-healing composites could therefore dramatically improve the
resistance of aircraft composite structures to impact damage. However, most aerospace-
grade composites are plastics reinforced with carbon fibres. Hence, many studies have
focussed on assessing the impact and mechanical properties of carbon epoxy self-healing
composites. In particular self-healing carbon fibre reinforced epoxy laminates to overcome
the generally poor impact resistance of fibre-reinforced plastics. Two different studies
about the self-healing efficiency of these composites were conducted. Initially, the flexural
strength of a damaged 16-ply aerospace-grade composite with embedded 70 and 200 mm
hollow glass fibres(HGFs) was investigated (45/90/45/0/HGF/45/90/45/0/0/45/90/45/HGF
/0/45/90/45). The results showed a 97% strength recovery after quasistatic indentation
damage. The compressive strength after impact on the same composite reported an average

27
recovery of 92% after impact damage and healing. The results revealed that the FRP
composites with the healing capability can be extensively and efficiently used in aerospace
fuselages as HGF self-healing composites.

4.4.1.3 AEROSTRUCTURES

As FRCs are being increasingly incorporated in aircraft structural parts, it is

likely that self-healing composites will be used for such applications. Indeed, self-healing
composites have a greater resistance to fatigue, because they can heal microcracks before
any crack growth or extension leads to failure. Moreover, their virgin mechanical properties
are sometimes higher than those of conventional composites. A study was conducted to
assess the effects of the healing components on the mechanical properties of composites to
determine their use in aerospace structural applications. The studied composite was made
of a DGEBA epoxy matrix with embedded DCPD-containing ureaeformaldehyde
microcapsules. The composite’s elastic modulus was found to slightly decrease due to the
addition of the catalyst in the matrix. However, a good recovery of the virgin mechanical
properties after healing was evident. Most aerospace structural composites are epoxy
composites. research on a self-healing epoxy composite with an embedded healing agent,
containing HGFs. The specimens were damaged by indentation and then underwent three-
point bend flexural tests. Results showed good strength recovery after healing. The
investigation confirmed that self-healing HGF polymer composites could have a strong
potential as future materials for aircraft structural parts. Other tests focussed on E-glass
epoxy aerospace-grade composites. self-healing for an aerospace-grade E-glass epoxy plate
by incorporating a series of vascular networks parallel to the fibres’ direction. As explained
in the E-glasseepoxy FRCs section, the self-healing agent was a Lewis acidecatalysed
epoxy.The composite was found to fully recover its virgin mechanical properties.
Consequently, self-healing glass epoxy composites can be effective substitutes for
aerospace fibre-reinforced polymer composites, as they have the potential to overcome
current limitations. Similarly, a glass fibre composite using an embedded vascular network
to convey healing agents for incorporating self-healing FRP laminates in primary aircraft
structures. The results also revealed that the addition of vascules had an insignificant effect

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on the fracture toughness. As a consequence, vascular self-healing FRP laminates could be
a reliable solution to replace existing laminates in aerospace structural applications, besides
facilitating maintenance and reducing weight through healing. Carbon fibreereinforced
polymer composites are also used widely for structural applications, especially in military
and recent civil aircrafts (Airbus A350XWB and Boeing 787 Dreamliner). A carbon fibre
reinforced polymer matrix composite, combining a shape memory polymer with carbon
nanotubes and a (0/90/90/0) carbon fabric, was manufactured using a high-
pressuremoulding process . The self-healing behaviour was exhibited by the polymer’s
reversible cross-links that rendered the system’s shape memory ability. The composite was
found to efficiently heal matrix cracks and regain its structural integrity after the initiation
of damage under tension. Additionally, up to 72% of the virgin mechanical properties (peak
load) were recovered after healing. In summary, self-healing polymer composites could
replace some existing aerospace structural composites, thus enhancing aircraft damage
tolerance, service life and safety.

4.4.1.4 COATINGS

Coatings and paints are of crucial importance in the aerospace industry,

because they protect fuselage and structural parts from external and environmental
conditions that can induce corrosion damage. Self-healing coatings appear to be promising
as they would automatically recover their protection ability after any damage. Self-healing
coatings for protecting aerospace structures from corrosion and minor impacts can be
realized with self-healing epoxy resin composites. Coatings are less critical than structural
parts, because their failure usually does not lead to the entire structural failure.An epoxy
resin composite coating for steel alloys with embedded ureaeformaldehyde microcapsules.
Microcapsules proved to be suitable for the paint application of the epoxy resin composite
as they did not break apart during this step. In addition, the coated steel samples were
successfully protected against corrosion even after the coating was damaged and healed.
Coatings for metallic alloys are of importance because aluminium, titanium and magnesium
alloys are key materials for both civil and military aircraft and need corrosion protection.

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Hamdy et al. focussed on self-healing vanadia coatings for aerospace-grade aluminium and
magnesium alloys, The coating was synthesized by chemical conversion on an AA2024
aluminium alloy. Vanadia coating was found to be satisfactory, especially when prepared
from a 10 g/L vanadia solution. Self-healing properties are explained by the formation of a
thin vanadia oxide film that prevents oxygen from further penetrating. Vanadia-containing
coatings could be a good alternative to chromate coatings for aerospace-grade aluminium
and magnesium alloys.
4.4.2 OTHER APPLICATIONS

Beyond aerospace structures, engines and coatings applications, the development of

self-healing composites opens up a vast field of applications in automotive, high-end sports
goods and a variety of industries. However, due to their high cost and complexity in
manufacturing, self-healing composite materials are likely to be used only for high-tech,
critical applications, such as aerospace, the nuclear industry and electronic components.
Much research has been carried out on self-healing ceramics for aircraft engines,but the use
of such composites has also been investigated for solid oxide fuel cells, nuclear applications
and hot coal combustion conditions. Self-healingceramics could replace existing ceramics
because they are less sensitive to brittle failure and have a longer lifespan; however, the
cost is a limiting factor. Predictions of the behaviour of MMCs are complex, because of the
expensive tests and cost of production. Moreover, self-healing concepts in metal are
relatively new and need more investigations for practical use. However, research has led to
some potential opportunities, notably for more sustainable electronic components. Self-
healing polymer matrix composites can be manufactured easily and are less expensive,
compared to self-healing ceramics and metals. Self-healing polymer composites are finding
various applications. Notably, a number of organic coatings and paints have been
investigated involving self-healing, polymer composites. Additionally, coatings for
protecting ships and offshore oil platforms from seawater environments also have been
researched. The efficiency of self-healing polymer composites has been evaluated for
improving the life-time of organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs).

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 5. CONCLUSION

Self-healing composite materials have been investigated extensively since the

2000s. Numerous concepts have proved to be remarkably efficient in polymer, ceramic and
metal matrix composites. These developments could pave the way to several applications,
specifically in the field of aerospace. Self-healing can be achieved using healing agents
containing microcapsules, vascular networks, dissolved thermoplastics and reversible
interactions in polymer matrix composites. Self-healing abilities were also demonstrated for
CMCs and MMCs. Self-healing composites are likely to be an important component in
aerospace applications, particularly in addressing fatigue and impact resistance problems.
Corrosion and barrier properties can also be efficiently recovered after healing.
Applications in the aerospace sector include fuselage and aero-structures, engine blades,
combustion chambers, anticorrosion coatings, smart paints and impact-resistant space
structures.

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