ARCH 312 Architecture and Design Theories: Sources of Architectural Form: An Overview of Western Design Theories

ARCH 312
ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN THEORIES
Lecture 5
Sources of Architectural Form:
An Overview of Western Design Theories
Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

The Central Problem of Design Theory ...
Design theory encompasses a wide variety of subjects, from describing the
essence of beauty to asserting the social and political consequences of the
building layouts.
In this lecture, the focus will be onto those

theories about the sources of design idea
The design theories dealing with the question:

What is the source of an architect’s design ideas / sources of form
How is this idea generated,
what are the influences act on it,
what is it derived from ?
in the design process... organization of functional requirements?

manipulation of geometrical systems ? or expression of inner
intuitions???
The normative principles to guide design...

The Central Problem of Design Theory ...
The cruosity on source of form is also essential in other disciplines and theories from
art and architectural history to anthropology. But only Design theory in
Architecture deeply focuses onto creation of form and design ideas.
Theory of Design Theory of Knowledge Theory of Art

(Epistemology)
Theory of design often took ideas from the theory of knowledge (epistemology),
Theory of knowledge and theory of creation/design... They interacated, pervasive
and fundamental... And they were shaped in the cultural contexts where they generated.
In the field of Architecture, theorists were usually also educators worked in

educational institutions and write down their theory of design to teach students
how to design. Even the ones, out of education environments and oriented
towards the architectural practicioners, saw the educational implications of
their ideas.
From Vitrivius to Gropius...

Theories of Form / Theories of design / Theories of creation
Theory 1
An Architectural Form is shaped by its intended function
Theory 2
Architecturla Form is generated within the creative imagination
Theory 3
Arcitectural Form is shaped by the prevailing spirit of the age
Theory 4
Architectural Form is determined by the prevailing social and economic condition
Theory 5
Architectural Form derives from timeless principles of form that transcend
particular designers, cultures, and climates

Theory 1
Client’s need, climate, community values, all existing conditions,

parameters... to be considered by diligent architect.
Architect like Scientist ... Discovery

Pre-existing facts are to be considered... Collect data – analysis - synthesis ...
No preconception... No personal value or disposition... regularities and
inducement of a general law
Designer = Scientist
Christopher Alexander

Theory 1
The theory of function alone does not explain other influences on building’s form
Same functions, environmetal conditions, but

different periods...
So the form is not same...
No effect of architect’s personal interpretation...
Gothic, Classical, Modernist, Post-modernist churches

in New York
Theory 2
Architectural Form is generated within the creative imagination
An idea for an architectural

form originates within the
inner resources or intuitions
of the designer. ... Sensitive
feeling for form and manage
to invent more original forms
than others...

Theory 2
Individual
‘genius’
Innate talent

Theory 2
The architect draws upon a

special feeling for form or
put old ideas together in a
new and unprecedented
way, so that an original
form never before seen
magically blossoms in the
brain and emerges from
the pencil.

Theory 2
Inner sources ...

... this source is somehow
dependent upon the individual
personality of the designer, and
that some of the designers have a
greater gift for employing this
source than others.
inner resources in the service of

functional requirements ...
but distorted and crushed by too
many outside constraints like a
tight budget or a difficult site.
Theory 2
This theory explains ...

why the collected works
of any given architect
show recurring themes
despite the individual
building’s different
functional requirements;
the similarities derive
from the forms
originating within the
same personal resources.
MIT Strata Center by F. Ghery Dancing House by F. Ghery, Prague

Theory 2
. Frank GHERY
Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao
Louis Vittion Foundation
Walt Disney Concert Hall Marqués de Riscal Vineyard Hotel

Theory 2
. Zaha HADID

Theory 2
Recurring use of
generic forms like the
basilica plan, or the
courtyard or the
atrium in many
periods and styles
shows how some
ideas are shared by
many generations.

Theory 2
This theory on its own is also unsatisfactory ...

If every building were indeed an
individual expression of its
designer’s personal inner
creative urges and resources,
then one would expect to find
the collected works of a society
considerable variety in all of its
building forms, in the same
period as well as in all over
several generations.

Theory 2
Yet !!! ...
To discern distinct similarities,

or patterns, in the output of
architects...
Classification of buildings as
Renaissance, Gothic, Revival or
Post-Modern showing how
architects working at the same
time tend to use shared ideas
about forms ...

Theory 2
The theory of creative imagination does not tell us...
While the existance of shared ideas does

not necessarily invalidate the theory of
creative expressions, the theory in its
own does not explain how these shared
notions influnece individual minds.
Do these patterns result from similar

wiring in every human mind, or from
ideas unconsciously acquired in one’s
own culture? If so, how is it that
different designers use these shared
resources differently?
Theory 3
Architectural Form is Shaped by the Prevailing SPIRIT OF AGE
This theory posits the existance in every age

of a certain spirit, or set of shared attitudes,
which pervades all of its artistic creation.
Designer’s work unconsciously respond to

the world-view, sense of taste, and artistic Infusion of time
values he inevitably shares with his fellow
designers. into design...
The sources of his design ideas is to

be found ‘in the air’ around him!
Individual characteristics, personal skills... But...

Overriding characteristics which really identify it as originated in the
Renaissance, or the Gothic Revival or Post-Modernism.

Theory 3
But .. SPIRIT OF AGE leaves several puzzling problems...

1- What is that invisible and shared SPIRIT which shapes individual actions?
Sum total of all individuals’ action? ...

Common pyschological urge? ... Or
even a divine force???
2- it explains the continuity of a design approach or style but how about the sudden
chance in style from one age to next ?
3- how does this idea explain that some ages would appear to posses several spirits
simultaneously?
like at the turn of the 20th century, one spirit extrolling the virtues of
the future Modern Age showed itself emerging in the works of Modernist
pioneers like Peter Behren and Walter Gropius, while another spirit extrolling
the virtues of great ages past showed itself in the works of Edwardian architects like
Sir Edwin Lutyens, Herber Baker.

Theory 3
Clash of SPIRITS
Bauhaus by W. Gropius, Dessau Germany. (1926).
In the History of Modern Design, Nikolaus Pevsner

dismissed Lutyen’s design cause it was not following
Pevsner’s concept of the emerging 20th Century
Spirit. Viceroy’s House by Sir E. Lutyens,
New Delhi India. (1912-1931)
Theory 3
?
The only possible explanation
is that there are several Spirits
from which a designer must
choose, and then this freedom
of choise contradicts the basic
premise of the entire theory.

Theory 4
Architectural Form is Determined by the Prevailing
Social and Economic Conditions
This is the theory like the SPIRIT of the AGE, asserts that all
individual artistic efforts fall under the coercieve influence of
larger shared forces.
SPIRIT of the AGE bases on non-physical forces like a shared

physchological urge...
SOCIAL and ECONOMIC Conditions attributes the influence to more

physical conditions, like the method of economic production and
distribution prevalent in the architect’s society.
By virtue of living in any given society, an architect unconsciously

acquire that society’s ideological assumptions...
Building design becomes a mirror of the architect’s

social reality.
Theory 4
Architecturla Form is Determined by the Prevailing
Hierarchical social order in the formal, symmetrical forms Assymmetrical and grand early Praire Houses as a
for the Palaca of Versailles in 17the Century Absolutist reflection of the primacy of the individual in the 20th
France. Century democratic America.

Theory 4
Unfortunately, it is almost
impossible to find a one to
one correlation between
socio-economic system and
the building form!
Parthenon, Athens Greece 447-436 BC.
Same classical forms used in

17th century France were also
popular in other times and
cultures ... Imperial Rome,
Renaissance Italy, Britain,
America, etc. The Madeleine, Paris France, 1804-49

Theory 4
The chances in the architectural ideas often precede social

and economic changes, not the other way around!
Like Functionalists and the SPIRIT Theories, this theory also

has difficulty in explaining the stamp of the designer’s
personality. ... At most, the designer is considered to be
merely the mechanism by which the social conditions
express themselves in building form.
This theory cannot explain how these skills

mingle or jointly act with the larger forces of
the social system
Theory 5
Architectural Form Derives from Timeless Principles of Form that
Transcend Particular Designers, Cultures, Climates
Uniqueness of individual
buildings ...
This theory suggests that Everyone will appreciate

certain universal forms its timeless beauty and
underlie all good understand immediately
architecture! No matter how to use it!
what the particular
circumstances of the
design problem, designer
or culture.

Theory 5
Architecturla Form is Derives from Timeless Principles of Form that
A) Theory of Types, there

are certain architectural
forms like the basilica,
atrium, or the courtyard
that derive logically from Environmental Education Center by M. Graves, New Jersey, 1980
the geometrical
possibilities of building
form, and that provide the
underlying basis for many
different stylistic versions
of that type.
Romanesque churches
Like the Basilica type ... Essential organizing principle for ancient Roman Law courts,
Romanesque church, Gothic Cathedrals, and a Wildlife Center by Michael Graves.

Theory 5
Architecturla Form Derives from Timeless Principles of Form that
B) Theory dealing with not the
whole form but the General
Principles of Form
... more abstract and universally
applicable than types.
FIVE ORDERS of Architecture:
Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian,
Composite
... specific rules for the
proportions of columns, and the spaces
in between them, the proportions of
entablatures relative to the columns, and
the detailsof embellishment and
ornament for the complete ensemble

Theory 5
Architecturla Form is Derives from Timeless Principles of Form that
C) Universal principles of abstract visual form

Rhythm, proportions, scale, contrast, colour,
and so on... in different fields including
painting, sculture, architecture, film...
Both theory of type and theory of abstract visual form do not explain how
these universal notions are transformed into particular applications.

A Paradox in Western Theories of Design
None of these theories gives a complete and concieving account of the
source of design ideas.
- If a theory can explain the role of the creative individual in the generation of
form, then it cannot also explain how individuals seem to fall under the coercieve
influence of prevailing style or a predominant ideology. Or ...
- if functions, site and climate create unique characteristics to forms, then it
cannot also explain why architects often generate versions of similar form types
for different functions and climates.
Inadequencies of any single theory ... But to use two or more of these ideas
simultaneously to explain the sources of design ideas.
Good design requires creative, original thinking, that the
designer’s work should not deny the Modern Spirit of the
times, that the designer should attend carefully to the specific
requirements of the climate, the culture and the design
program, and that the designer should obey certian universal
principles of form like balance and proportion.
Juxtaposition of ideas... Not a coherent theory ...
Two opposing groups of ideas about the attitudes to the sources of form
SOURCES OF FORM LIES AT THE OUTSIDE THE DESIGNER

independent of his personal idiosyncrasies, and waiting to be discovered or
passively received.
THE THEORY OF FUNCTIONAL DETERMINISM_implies the existance of

an ideal form inherent in any given set of constraints, which any peson with
patience and diligience will eventually discover.
Both the THEORY OF THE SPIRIT OF THE AGE and the THEORY OF
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DETERMINISM Suggest that forms in any given age
and culture will inevitably acquire a certain appreance and form, no matter how
individual designers might struggle to do otherwise.
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURAL TYPES suggests that forms exist

independently of individual designers and are deployed by anyone who finds
them useful.
Creation of form occur

independently of particular
individuals’ skills or
insights...
If Walter Gropius had not been around
to express functional requirements,
Spirit of the Age and prevailing socio-
economic conditions in his Machine Age
buildings in 1920s ...
Similar buildings would most

certainly designed by someone else.
So, entire history of post-medieval
Western architecture could be
written only once referring to an
architect’s name!!!
If creation of form occur
independently of particular
individuals’ skills or insights,
How Walter Gropius, functional requirements,
Spirit of the Age and prevailing socio-economic
conditions in his Machine Age buildings in
1920s could be explained???

Juxtaposition of ideas... Not a coherent theory ...
Two opposing groups of ideas about the attitudes to the sources of form
SOURCES OF FORM LIES INSIDE THE DESIGNER’S MIND

Not passively discovered in a shared outside world. Architecutral form is
actively invented within an individual designer...
It is the individual’s personal views, experiences, inner emotions,

insights and tastes that uniquely generate forms and, since
no two personalities are the same, no two personalities could ever generate
the same forms even if they were working within exactly the same
constraints.
In contrast with the determinist views, outside constraints are

claimed to impair or even prevent creation. .. Too many functional
requirements will overwhelm a creative idea or too much following the
prevailing Spirit of Age or the previaling socio-economic conditions are
considered lacking creativity.
Two opposing attitudes towards form...
SOURCES OF FORM SOURCES OF FORM
LIES AT THE OUTSIDE THE DESIGNER LIES INSIDE THE DESIGNER’S MIND
The importance of external The importance of the designer at the

information and forces at the expense expense of transpersonal conditions
of the designer
Designer actively expressing an
Designer passively discovering an internal form_inventing!
external form
Western theories of design Encourages the designer to draw upon

Encourages designer to avoid
discuss architectural form his personal preconceptions and
personal
either preconceptions
as a product of and to intuitions as much as possible, and to
get in tune
outside with outside
determinants or as turn his back on outside constraints.
aconditions
product of inner creative
intuitions, but they cannot
give a meaningful account
of the source of form which
would simultaneously
incorporate both.
The paradox both in THEORY and PRACTICE ...
Workable but Soulles buildings...
Personally satifying but
Refuse to let any personal
feeling / ideas... weak relationships to required function
Rigorously expose
the notion of
creative genius &
University Hospital, Denver. Functionalism in the extreme. bridle at
constraints
Reject as outdated and disposable
...out of fashion
Obsessed with
determining the
latest pulse of
society
The Endless House Project, 1960 by F. Kiesler.

Plan Voision for Paris, 1925 by Le Corbusier. The Spirit of the
Creative expression in the extreme.
Age in the extreme.
Where the complexities of architecture demand richness, these one

sided theories about the source of design ideas encourages shallowness.
The paradox in THEORY, PRACTICE & CRITICISM
Since each theory has a polar opposite ...
In between them, continous stylistic and verbal battles...
Actions – Reactions ...
The quarrel between the ancients and the moderns’ in the 17th Century.... the fight between the Classicist and the
Gothic Revivalists in the 19th Century.... the battle between the Expressionists and the New Objectivity Rationalists after
the First WW.... The continuing dispute between the functionalists and the formalists since the 1960s.
This paradox in design theory also creates much confusion in the field of
architectural criticism. If a building’s meritorious is to be judged, on which
expression/theory is considered?
Spirit of Age or anticipate a new spirit?

Modernists critics employed both arguments to justify the same stylistic movement.
Is a building sufficiently worthy if it humbly satifies its functional requirements without individual
panache, or contrarily can we praise a building which displays distinctive personal invention even if it
does not function well? Functionalists in 1960s argued for the former, while architectural
journals are often filled with latter!
Are there any universally objective standards of design to evaluate all buildings,
or is architectural taste relative to the critic’s personal inclanations?
The paradox in THEORY, PRACTICE & CRITICISM
Each of these views / theories

seems one-sided and incomplete,
but the polar opposite nature of
our existing design theories
makes it difficult to formulate a
balanced set of criteria.

The Subject-Object Problem
Man and the world/universe he inhabits
an individual as a physical object in nature whose actions and behaviors

are completely determined ............ Physical object: Man is an integral part of
his surroundings ...... law of universe
----------------
An individual as freely thinking, freely acting and creative subject
whose actions and behaviours are determined by his or her own personal
inner drives and desires, free from external coercion.... Subjective being
standing outside his surroundings, observing and acting upon nature from
which he has detached himself.
Interactions between the individual and the outside world

Is an individual’s behaviour determined by conditions in his environment, or by his
own internal wiring?
Is knowledge passively received from outside, or is it invented within?
In design theory...
If the designer is thought to be a ARTISTIC process of

autonomous subject who initiates his own inventing new information
actions on the world, it follows that he and then giving it to the
outside world
must somehow create his own ideas from
internal resources and then give them to CREATING
the outside world. .....
Theories of creation
Yet
SCIENTIFIC process of
if he is thought to be an integral part of taking in existing outside
the outside world and subject to the information
external coercion, it follows that he must
passively receive information which KNOWING
originates outside himslef. Theories of knowledge

The ‘curious’ relationship between
the theory of knowledge and theory of creation
The two process cannot be related together within the logic of the system
because they assume opposing world views_but they are not!
Designers not only relate with the theory of creation but also with the
theory of knowledge. The subject-object problem has allowed theories to
from each side to blend indeterminately into the other.
Theorists throughout the history have articulated variations on six
archetypal interpretations of the individual’s relationships to the outside
world.
Theories of Creation Theories of Knowledge (Epistemelogy)

Classicism Empiricism
Romanticism Continental Rationalism
Positivism German Idealism
Epistemelogy deals with how information is received

All deals with how information is
/how the mind knows the external world
created
Three Archetypal Theories of Creation 3 - Positive Tradition: Positivism
- Rationalism or Determinism in
1- Classical Tradition: Classicism 2- Romantic Tradition: Romanticism architecture ..... Realism in art
- source of architectural form is - Importance of external
- source of architectural form is
outside the mind of the phenomena unmediated by the
not outside the mind of the
designer, as an objective individual mind, even to the
designer, not external, not
property of the external point of denying the mind any
universally valid design
world... important role in apprehending
language
- Universally true and those phonemena.
- Form is to be found in the
objectively valid therefore - The material in the outside world
inner intuitions of the
remains unchanged no matter jumps unaided into the mind.
individual designer.
- For artist_painting exactly what
how individual designer, - Importance of individual he sees without idealizing or
cultures or environmental ability, inspiration and prejudging the phenomena
conditions might change... genius, and often turns its before him.
- the designer is contemplating back on the external world - For architect_discovering form
the externally objective truths. to celebrate the expression which is innately contained in
- Classical Language, like ideal of inner idea... the external constraints of the
proportions, are prefigured in design program without
- No need for knowledge
imposing his own
the designer’s mind and are about an external design preconceptionsupon the form.
used by him as templates to language because the source - Designer simply discover a form
ensure that the form he of design ideas is to be found already prefigured out in the world.
creates will obey the objective inside the designer. - Christopher Alexander’s early line
laws of the shared language... - Education for cultivation of that design is a scientific process of
personal resources. discovery.
Theories of Knowledge Theories of Creation
Epistemelogical tradition 1: EMPIRICISM Positive Tradition: POSITIVISM
- Rationalism or Determinism in architecture
- Asserts that knowledge of universals and
..... Realism in art
abstratc concepts originates in and refer - Emphasize the importance of external
to the external world. phenomena unmediated by the individual
- Generalised principles are induced from mind, even to the point of denying the
a collection of particular elements. mind any important role in apprehending
- The mind at birth is more or less a blank those phonemena.
tablet upon which the external world - The material in the outside world jumps
writes its knowledge. unaided into the mind.
- For artist_painting exactly what he sees
- Empiricism parallels the POSITIVIST without idealizing or prejudging the
notions of DESIGN THEORIES phenomena before him.
- Empiricism has the individual passively - For architect_discovering form which
receiving information which originates is innately contained in the external
in the outside world. ... POSITIVISM constraints of the design program
claims that a designer merely discovers without imposing his own
a form whihc is already prefigured by preconceptionsupon the form.
the external determinants. - Designer simply discover a form already
- Empiricist SCIENTIFIC and Positivist DESIGNER prefigured out in the world.
analyze data found in the external world and - Christopher Alexander’s early line that
then synthesize out of it either a general law design is a scientific process of discovery.
for the scientist or a building form for the
designer
Epistemelogical tradition 2: CONTINENTAL
1- Classical Tradition: Classicism
RATIONALISM
- Like Empiricism, certain knowledge must be of - source of architectural form is outside
an objective world external to the individual the mind of the designer, as an
mind but it proposes a different method for objective property of the external
world...
apprehending that knowledge
- Universally true and objectively valid
- Rationalists disdain the value of sensory therefore remains unchanged no
experiences because it is subject to illusionary matter how individual designer,
error, and argue instead for the use of pure cultures or environmental conditions
reason. might change...
- In contrast to Empiricists, emphasizing the - the designer is contemplating the
external sensory world as the sole source of externally objective truths.
knowledge, the Rationalists locate a second - Classical Language, like ideal
proportions, are prefigured in the
source of certain knowledge in the mind and
designer’s mind and are used by him
acknowledge only minor influence from the as templates to ensure that the form
sensory world. he creates will obey the objective
- Rationalism parallels Classicism. Both claim the laws of the shared language...
existance of a body of knowledge about the
external world which is objectively and
universally true, yet which is apprehended and
actively manipulated by a thinking mind.
Epistemelogical tradition 3: GERMAN Romantic Tradition: Romanticism
IDEALISM
- source of architectural form is not
- Gives more power to the mind! Mind outside the mind of the designer, not
creates the world from inner external, not universally valid design
language
resources...
- Form is to be found in the inner
- Knowledge is not only in the mind, it is intuitions of the individual designer.
- Importance of individual ability,
also originated in the mind.
inspiration and genius, and often turns
- Like Romanticist, denying the existance its back on the external world to
celebrate the expression of inner idea...
of an independent external reality and
- No need for knowledge about an
claiming that the mind relies upon its external design language because the
inner resources either for design ideas source of design ideas is to be found
or for knowledge of a self-created inside the designer.
outer world. - Education for cultivation of personal
resources.

The difference between Rationalism -Classicism and Empiricism -Positivism
is a matter of degree:
- both traditions agree that proper knowledge must originate in and be about an
objective world external to the mind, but one gives more credit than the other to
the mind for its active role in the operations.
- Positivism set up to establish a theory of creation but

then concieved a theory of knowledge
- Idealims set up to establish a theory of knowledge but

then concieved a theory of creation
- Idealism and Positivism more attempted to bring mind
and world togehter ...
Theories of Creation Theories of Knowledge (Epistemelogy)

Classicism Empiricism
Romanticism Continental Rationalism
Positivism German Idealism
Epistemelogy deals with how information is received /how the mind

All deals with how information is knows of the external world
created

Major Source :
GELERNTER, Mark, 1995. Sources of architectural

form: A critical history of western design theory,
Manchester University Press, 1995.

ARCH 312 Architecture and Design Theories: Sources of Architectural Form: An Overview of Western Design Theories

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ARCH 312

ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN THEORIES

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

In this lecture, the focus will be onto those

The design theories dealing with the question:

in the design process... organization of functional requirements?

The normative principles to guide design...

Theory of Design Theory of Knowledge Theory of Art

In the field of Architecture, theorists were usually also educators worked in

From Vitrivius to Gropius...

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

Client’s need, climate, community values, all existing conditions,

Architect like Scientist ... Discovery

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

Same functions, environmetal conditions, but

Gothic, Classical, Modernist, Post-modernist churches

An idea for an architectural

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

The architect draws upon a

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

Inner sources ...

inner resources in the service of

This theory explains ...

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao

Louis Vittion Foundation

Walt Disney Concert Hall Marqués de Riscal Vineyard Hotel

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

This theory on its own is also unsatisfactory ...

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

Yet !!! ...

To discern distinct similarities,

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

The theory of creative imagination does not tell us...

While the existance of shared ideas does

Do these patterns result from similar

This theory posits the existance in every age

Designer’s work unconsciously respond to

The sources of his design ideas is to

Individual characteristics, personal skills... But...

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

But .. SPIRIT OF AGE leaves several puzzling problems...

Sum total of all individuals’ action? ...

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

Bauhaus by W. Gropius, Dessau Germany. (1926).

In the History of Modern Design, Nikolaus Pevsner

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

SPIRIT of the AGE bases on non-physical forces like a shared

SOCIAL and ECONOMIC Conditions attributes the influence to more

By virtue of living in any given society, an architect unconsciously

Building design becomes a mirror of the architect’s

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

Same classical forms used in

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

The chances in the architectural ideas often precede social

Like Functionalists and the SPIRIT Theories, this theory also

This theory cannot explain how these skills

This theory suggests that Everyone will appreciate

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories

A) Theory of Types, there

Arch 312 - Architecture and Design Theories