Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

Velocity pressure, , is calculated by Equation

(4.2) and is equal to on windward walls
and on leeward and side walls. External
pressure coefficients are given in Precast concrete wall panel
ASCE/SEI Figure 30.5-1 for walls based on
the effective wind area, which is defined
in ASCE/SEI 26.2 as the larger of the
following: (1) total area tributary to the
Connector assembly
element and (2) span length of the
element times one-third the span
length. For cladding fasteners, such Reinforced concrete slab
as the connector assembly illustrat- C&C wind pressure
ed in Figure 4.13, the effective wind
area is equal to the area tributary
Slab reinforcement not shown for clarity
to the fastener. Internal pressure
coefficients are given in ASCE/
SEI Table 26.13-1 and velocity pressure
Wind connector force
can be taken as for calculation of
positive and negative internal pressures on
all walls for enclosed and partially enclosed
buildings.

Wind pressures on C&C using the provisions in Figure 4.13 Wind Connection Forces on a Diaphragm
Part 1 of ASCE/SEI Chapter 30 are calculated in a
similar fashion [see ASCE/SEI Equation (30.3-1)].

The wind connector force shown in Figure 4.13 is determined based on the C&C wind pressure; this force is transferred from
the precast concrete wall panel to the diaphragm via the connector assembly. The diaphragm must be designed for this force in
combination with all other applicable forces.

4.4.3 Seismic Forces

Nonstructural Walls

Exterior nonstructural wall elements and connections to the supporting structural elements, including diaphragms, must be
designed for a horizontal seismic design force, , equal to that determined by ASCE/SEI Equations (13.3-1) through (13.3-3)
where is applied at the CM of the panel (ASCE/SEI 13.4.1 and 13.5.3):

(4.19)

where component importance factor, which is determined in accordance with ASCE/SEI 13.1.3

component operating weight, which in the case of nonstructural wall elements, is equal to the weight of the wall

component amplification factor, which is obtained from ASCE/SEI Table 13.5-1 for architectural components

component response modification factor, which is obtained from ASCE/SEI Table 13.5-1 for architectural compo-

nents

height in structure of point of attachment of component with respect to the base of the building

average roof height of the structure with respect to the base of the building

ASCE/SEI Equation (13.3-1) represents a trapezoidal distribution of floor accelerations within a structure. Horizontal seismic force
distribution in accordance with ASCE/SEI Equations (13.3-1) through (13.3-3) is illustrated in ASCE/SEI Figure C13.3-2. For ele-
ments that are attached at more than one height, like the precast concrete wall panel in Figure 4.13 that is connected to the rein-
forced concrete slabs on adjoining floor levels, it is recommended that design be based on the average values of determined
individually at each point of attachment using the entire component weight . Alternatively, may be determined at each
point of attachment using that is tributary to the connector assembly (that is, the point of attachment).

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Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

The reinforcing bars in the slab perpendicular to the edge under consideration must be designed to resist the force in ten-
sion and must be fully developed for tension into the slab.

The overstrength factor, , in ASCE/SEI Table 13.5-1 is applicable to anchorage of components to concrete where required
by ASCE/SEI 13.4.2 or ACI 318. Seismic load effects including overstrength given in ASCE/SEI 12.4.3 are to be used, and the
redundancy factor, , is permitted to be taken as 1.0 (ASCE/SEI 13.3.1.1). The force determined by Equation (4.19) is to be
applied independently in at least two orthogonal horizontal directions in combination with service loads on the component. Also,
the component must be designed for a concurrent vertical force equal to (ASCE/SEI 13.3.1.2).

In lieu of determined by Equation (4.19), ASCE/SEI 13.3.1.4 permits design seismic forces for nonstructural components to
be determined by one of the dynamic analysis methods given in that section.

Requirements for nonstructural component attachments and anchorage are given in ASCE/SEI 13.4. Anchors in concrete are to
be designed in accordance with Chapter 17 of ACI 318 or by one of the two exceptions given in ASCE/SEI 13.4.2.

In addition to the seismic forces defined in ASCE/SEI 13.3.1 discussed above, nonstructural wall elements and their connec-
tions must satisfy the requirements of ASCE/SEI 13.5.3 pertaining to design for relative seismic displacements defined in ASCE/
SEI 13.3.2 and any movements caused by temperature changes. The five requirements in ASCE/SEI 13.5.3 must be satisfied for
such elements.

Regardless of the method used, seismic forces on nonstructural wall elements must be transferred through properly designed
connector assemblies to the supporting diaphragm, and the diaphragm must be designed for these forces in combination with
all other applicable forces.

Structural Walls
Provisions for anchorage of structural walls into diaphragms are given in ASCE/SEI 12.11.2. The minimum anchorage force, , is
determined by ASCE/SEI Equation (12.11-1):

(4.20)

where amplification factor for diaphragm flexibility , which is permitted to be taken not larger than 1.0
when the connection is not at a flexible diaphragm

span, in feet, of a flexible diaphragm that provides the lateral support for the wall, which is measured between
vertical elements that provide lateral support to the diaphragm in the direction of analysis ( for rigid diaphragms)

weight of the wall tributary to the anchor

For anchorage that is not located at the roof diaphragm, the value of determined by Equation (4.20) is permitted to be multi-
plied by the factor where is the height of the anchor above the base of the structure and is the height of
the roof above the base. Note that the reduced
anchorage force must not be taken less than
. �iaphragm �typ��

The reinforcing bars in the slab perpendicular

to the structural wall under consideration must
be designed to resist the force in tension
and must be fully developed for tension into
the slab and into the wall.

Additional requirements for anchorage of

reinforced concrete structural walls into dia-
phragms are given in ASCE/SEI 12.11.2.2.

4.5 Column Bracing Forces

Diaphragms must be designed to resist forces
from any sloped structural members in a
building. An inclined column, such as the one
illustrated in ACI Figure R12.1.1, transfers the
Isolated frame Isolated shear wall Frame and shear wall
horizontal components of the supported gravity connected by diaphragms
and lateral forces, where applicable, into the
reinforced concrete slab (diaphragm) in cases Figure 4.14 Diaphragm Forces Due to Displacement Compatibility

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 Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

where there are no other local structural elements to counteract these forces. The diaphragm must be designed to resist the
thrust from the column in combination with all other applicable forces and must be able to transfer the thrust to elements of the
LFRS below. The vertical components of the supported gravity and lateral forces from the inclined column and the other out-of-
plane forces must also be considered in the design of the diaphragm.

Diaphragms must also be designed for forces resulting from bracing vertical structural elements in a building. For example, in
the case of a building frame system, it is assumed that all the lateral forces are resisted by the shear walls. When analyzed sepa-
rately, shear walls and frames have different displacement profiles over the height of a building when subjected to lateral forces
(see Figure 4.14). In an actual building, the diaphragms connect the columns and shear walls together, which means that these
elements must displace the same amount at each level. Thus, the resulting transfer forces caused by displacement compatibility
between the columns that are not part of the LFRS and the shear walls must be resisted by the diaphragms.

4.6 Out-Of-Plane Forces

One of the main roles of a diaphragm is to support and transfer gravity loads to the supporting structural members in a building.
The weight of the structure, superimposed dead loads, and live loads are typical out-of-plane gravity loads applied to the surface
of a diaphragm. Dead and live loads are determined in accordance with ASCE/SEI Chapters 3 and 4, respectively.

Additional loads that can occur on roof diaphragms are from snow and rain (ASCE/SEI Chapters 7 and 8), to name a few. Wind
uplift loads are also applicable, as are vertical accelerations due to seismic effects.

The structural analysis methods in ACI Chapter 6 can be used to analyze diaphragms for the effects of out-of-plane forces;
included is a simplified method for nonprestressed, continuous one-way slabs. In addition to the methods in ACI Chapter 6, the
Direct Design Method in ACI 8.10 is permitted to be used to analyze nonprestressed, two-way slab systems that satisfy the
limits of ACI 8.10.2.

4.7 Collector Design Forces

4.7.1 Overview
Where vertical elements of the LFRS do not extend the full depth of a diaphragm, collectors are needed to transfer forces
between the diaphragm and the vertical elements of the LFRS (see ASCE/SEI Figure 12.10-1). Depending on several factors, a
collector can be part of the slab or can be a beam.

In general, collectors must be designed for the combined effects due to gravity loads (flexure and shear) and lateral loads (axial
tension and compression forces caused by in-plane shear transfer in the diaphragm due to wind forces, seismic forces, or both).
The in-plane diaphragm forces are determined using the methods presented in Section 4.2 of this publication. Once the forces
are determined, the diaphragm is modeled and analyzed using the methods in ACI 12.4.2, and the axial forces in a collector can be
determined based on the selected method of analysis. Chapter 6 of this publication covers the analysis procedures in ACI 12.4.2.
These procedures can be used to determine collector axial forces in diaphragms subjected to wind and seismic forces in buildings
assigned to SDC A or B. Collector design forces for buildings assigned to SDC C through F are given in the following section.

4.7.2 Collector Design Forces for Buildings Assigned to SDC C through F

According to ASCE/SEI 12.10.2.1, collectors and their connections to the vertical elements of the SFRS in buildings assigned to
SDC C, D, E, or F must be designed to resist the effects from the maximum of the following forces:

1. F
 orces calculated using the seismic load effects including overstrength of ASCE/SEI 12.4.3 with seismic forces determined
by the ELF Procedure of ASCE/SEI 12.8 or the modal response spectrum analysis procedure of ASCE/SEI 12.9.1.
In ACI Equations (5.3.1e) and (5.3.1g) or ASCE/SEI load combinations 6 and 7, use where is determined
using .
2. F
 orces calculated using the seismic load effects including overstrength of ASCE/SEI 12.4.3 with seismic forces determined
by ASCE/SEI Equation (12.10-1) for diaphragms.
In ACI Equations (5.3.1e) and (5.3.1g) or ASCE/SEI load combinations 6 and 7, use where is determined
using .
3. F
 orces calculated using the load combinations of ASCE/SEI 2.3.6 with seismic forces determined by ASCE/SEI Equation
(12.10-2), which is the lower-limit diaphragm force.
In ACI Equations (5.3.1e) and (5.3.1g) or ASCE/SEI load combinations 6 and 7, use where is determined
using .

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Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

The purpose of the overstrength requirements is to help ensure that inelastic behavior occurs in the ductile elements of the
SFRS and not in the collectors or their connections. It is essential that the collectors and their connections perform as intended
during a seismic event.

In the first of these three force requirements, collectors are subjected to the seismic load effects caused by where is the
seismic force at level , which is a fraction of the base shear, ; is applied simultaneously to each level of the overall analy-
sis model of the building and is determined by ASCE/SEI Equations (12.8-11) and (12.8-12) (see Section 4.2.3 of this publication).
Combined gravity and seismic load effects are determined using the seismic load combinations that include overstrength
in ASCE/SEI 2.3.6. In this case, the redundancy factor, , can be taken as 1.0 (condition 5 in ASCE/SEI 12.3.4.1).

Similarly, in the second force requirement, collectors are subjected to the seismic load effects caused by where is the
seismic force applied to the diaphragm at level in the building and is determined by ASCE/SEI Equation (12.10-1). Combined
gravity and seismic load effects are determined using the seismic load combinations that include overstrength in ASCE/SEI
2.3.6. Like in the first force requirement, can be taken as 1.0.
In the third force requirement, is applied to the diaphragm, and the combined gravity and seismic load
effects in the collector are determined using the seismic load combinations with seismic load effects in ASCE/SEI 2.3.6. The
redundancy factor, , determined for the SFRS is applicable in the design of the collectors in this case.

The collector is to be designed using whichever of these three requirements produces the critical combined effects.
Where applicable, transfer forces must also be considered when determining forces in a collector (ASCE/SEI 12.10.2.1). As
discussed in Section 4.3 of this publication, seismic transfer forces must be increased by the overstrength factor, , in struc-
tures with a Type 4 horizontal structural irregularity in ASCE/SEI Table 12.3-1 (that is, an out-of-plane, offset irregularity, which is
illustrated in Figure 4.9). Amplification of transfer forces by in collectors is not addressed for buildings with in-plane offsets
(Type 4 vertical structural irregularities in ASCE/SEI Table 12.3-2). Reference 7 recommends increasing the transfer forces by
in such cases. Note that the redundancy factor, , applies to transfer forces in all other cases where is the same as that
determined for the SFRS in accordance with ASCE/SEI 12.3.4.

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