Journal of Environmental Psychology 31 (2011) 301e308

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Journal of Environmental Psychology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

The role of media exposure, social exposure and biospheric value orientation
in the environmental attitude-intention-behavior model in adolescents
Kaman Lee*
School of Journalism and Communication Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper explores the hypothesis that contextual environments (media exposure and social exposure)
Available online 23 August 2011 and biospheric value orientation are important antecedents to the attitude-intention-behavior model
(Ajzen, 2001, 2002) in the context of environmental psychology. Data for this investigation were obtained
Keywords: from a random sample of 2106 (1073 males and 1025 females) high school students in Hong Kong. A path
Media exposure analysis demonstrates that adolescents’ social exposure and media exposure are associated with
Social exposure
biospheric value orientation. The biosperhic value orientation is found to mediate between the
Biospheric Value orientation
contextual variables (media exposure and social exposure) and environmental attitude. This environ-
Environmental intentions
Environmental Behavior
mental attitude, in turn, mediates the relationship between this value orientation and behavioral
intention to act environmentally. Results show that both adolescents’ behavioral intention and degree of
social exposure are associated with their environmental behavior. Overall, this article provides empirical
support for the proposed path model. The article concludes by presenting theoretical and practical
implications for future research in environmental psychology.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction government’s improvement in environmental policy (VanderWolk,

In environmental development, Hong Kong has lagged far
behind her Western and some of her Asian counterparts (Lai, 2000).
It is responsible for .2% of the world’s greenhouse gas emission. Its
seafood and energy footprints exceed the world’s fair share by 200%
and 600% respectively. It produces 6,500,000-tonne waste every
year. Over 18,000-tonne waste is dumped into the landfills every
day. Even toxic wastes are allowed to be dumped into the sea. With
this waste-production rate, it is estimated that the landfill sites will
be filled up in 2015 (Civic Exchange, 2007). Hong Kong’s continuous
over-depletion of environmental resources has earned itself the
titles of “the most ecologically unsound place in the world” (Hong
Kong’s environmental protection, 1996) and “the city of stifling
smog” (Civic Exchange, 2007). Harris (2006) maintains that the
behaviors and underlying attitudes of the people in the China
regions are the root of environmental problems.
1.1. The case of Hong Kong
2010). The society as a whole also seems more willing than before
to respond to appeals based on green issues. Chan (1996, 1998) has
found that Hong Kong adolescents express great concern about the
environment and demonstrate a high degree of environmental
knowledge on general and local environmental issues.
Despite the increased environmental awareness in the society
and the emphasis of harmonious human-nature relationship in the
Chinese culture (Chan, 2001), Hong Kong citizens still lag behind
their Western counterparts in environmental participation (Lai,
2000). As Chan (2001) has stated, the Chinese’ are “too content
with the rapid economic development to feel any urgent threat
from the ecological deterioration (pg. 390). Often, their concern for
the environment is dwarfed by their economic priority (Lai, 2000).
In environmental protection, Lai (2000) commented that many
citizens are still adopting a NIMBY (not-in-my-backyard) mindset.
The discrepancy between environmental awareness and practice
points to an urgent need to encourage behavioral change toward
environmentalism among Hong Kong citizens.

The recent enactment of regressive shopping-bag tax under the
Product Eco-Responsibility Ordiance has shown the the Hong Kong
* Tel.: þ852 64913963.
E-mail addresses: kamanlee1221@hotmail.com, kamanleekm@cuhk.edu.hk.
1.2. Adolescents and environmentalism
Research suggests that youngsters tend to have a higher level of
environmental concern than do adults (e.g. Gamba & Oskamp,
1994; Jones & Dunlap, 1992). In sum, adolescents constitute

0272-4944/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2011.08.004
302 K. Lee / Journal of Environmental Psychology 31 (2011) 301e308
a potentially large force for environmentalism for the following
reasons: (1) they are becoming more environmentally-conscious;
(2) their anticipated life-span is longer; and (3) they can serve as
an influencing force in their families and peer networks (Caruana
and Rosella, 2003; Moses, 2000).
Unfortunately, the potential power of Hong Kong adolescents as
environmental force is largely ignored in existing environmental
research. Serving as an exploratory study, this study attempts to
extend the traditional attitude-intention-behavior model (Ajzen,
2002) to examine factors that are important in motivating Hong
Kong adolescents to engage in environmental behavior.
1.3. Theoretical framework
Contrasting, ambiguous or unconfirmed results have been found
between some environmental variables and environmental action.
For instance, Kaiser, Wolfing, and Fuhrer (1999) argue that envi-
ronmental attitude is a powerful predictor of environmental
behavior. In contrast, De Young (1990), Newhouse (1990), and
Wang et al (1997) failed to establish a strong link between envi-
ronmental attitude and actual behavior. Ajzen’s (1988, 1991, 2001)
theory of planned behavior substantiates the missing link, con-
tending that individuals’ intention to carry out a specific behavior
must be present before they carry out the action. It suggests that
this intention is guided by attitude toward the behavior, subjective
norms and perception of behavioral control (Ajzen, 2002).
Past studies have supported the applicability of the theory to the
context of environmental research and have confirmed in Western
samples that environmental intention is related to environmental
behavior (e.g., Lansana, 1992; Moore, Murphy, & Watson, 1994).
Chan (1998) has found that environmental attitude, subjective
norm and perceived control significantly predict waste recycling
intention in a Hong Kong adult sample.
This article focuses primarily on the process leading to envi-
ronmental behavior through the path of attitude formation because
attitude is considered the key variable in the theory of planned
behavior (Bang, Ellinger, Hadjimarcou, & Traichal, 2000). The
present study focuses on examining the possible factors that might
extend Ajzen’s (2001, 2002) attitude-intention-behavior model in
the context of environmental psychology among Hong Kong
adolescents. It proposes that biospheric value orientation, media
exposure, and social exposure should be added as antecedents to
the attitude-intention-behavior model.
1.3.1. Biospheric value orientation
Values are distinct from attitudes or beliefs because they func-
tion as organized guiding principles in life and determinants of
attitudes and behaviors (Olson & Zanna, 1993). Several studies (e.g.,
Dietz, Stern, & Guagnano, 1998; Schultz & Zelezny, 1999; Schultz,
Zelezny, & Dalrymple, 2000) have shown that individuals’ value
orientation contributes to the explanation of environmental atti-
tudes. In particular, Stern and Dietz (1994)’s value-basis theory
provides a good theoretical framework to explain how environ-
mental values emerge to affect environmental attitude.
Their theory contends that environmental attitude is the result
of an individual’s set of value orientation, and that there are three
value orientations that govern individuals’ attitudes: (a) biospheric
value orientation (i.e., concern for the inherent value of the natural
environment and biosphere); (b) social altruistic value orientation
(i.e., concern for the welfare of other human beings); and (c) egoism
or self-interest (i.e., concern for the well-being of the self or the
inner circles). Subsequent studies (e.g., Dietz et al., 1998; Schultz &
Zelezny, 1999) have confirmed that the biospheric value is the most
important predictor of individual’s environmental attitude. In other
words, an individual who holds to the values that emphasize
human-nature harmony (i.e., a biospheric value orientation)
possesses a positive attitude toward the work of environmental
protection (Kempton, Boster, & Hartley, 1995. Therefore, on the
basis of the existing literature, it is posited in this paper that Hong
Kong adolescents’ biospheric value orientation should be associ-
ated with positive environmental attitude.
1.3.2. The importance of contexts
Although environmental research has made some progress in
identifying individual variables that are predictive of environ-
mental attitude along the attitude-intention-behavior formation
process, the literature is still less informative about whether and
how contextual environments play a role here. Tikka, Kuitunen, &
Tynys (2000) maintain that people’s contextual environments
constrain what they think, do or feel. Recognizing the importance
of the influence of contextual environments on individuals, some
scholars (e.g., Hormuth, 1999; Olli, Grendstad, & Woolebaek, 2001;
Tikka et al., 2000) start to advocate the need to bring back
contextual factors in analyzing environmental behaviors.
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model of environment
contends that the social environment and the mass media consti-
tute the major source of influence and the main socializing agents
to adolescents. This paper attempts to extend the theory of planned
behavior by exploring how individuals’ biospheric value orienta-
tion is developed. Since the social environments and mass media
are two of the key socializing agents to adolescents
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Chan, 1999; Olli et al., 2001), it is reasonable
to argue that these two contextual environments may play a role in
shaping adolescents’ value orientations. The logic of reasoning is
discussed in the following sections.
1.3.3. Media exposure
Existing studies have shown that frequent exposure to
environment-specific media content (through traditional media
such as TV and advertising) is positively related to environmental
concern (Holbert, Kwak, & Shah, 2003; James, Morgan, & Madsen,
1997) and environmental knowledge (Ostman & Parker, 1986)
among adult samples. The positive associations may come in
several ways: (1) the media set the environmental agenda as
important issues for the audience to think about (Ader, 1995); (2)
the media suggest to the audience which specific attributes of the
environmental topics are important to pay attention to (Holbert
et al., 2003); and/or (3) the media act as a source of social norm,
suggesting what values and behaviors are accepted by others, and
what are not (Ajzen, 1985). Recently, Good (2006) has found that
the positive relationship between exposure to environment-related
media contents and environmental concern applies to the new
media context as well.
Limited research has been done to examine media effects on
youngsters. Hausbeck et al (1992) have found that electronic and
print media are most frequently cited as their sources of environ-
mental knowledge among New York adolescents. Chan (1999) has
conducted a study among Hong Kong secondary schoolers and
concluded that the more often the adolescents watch TV news, the
more general and local environmental knowledge they acquire.
Existing literature has also evidenced that the media affect
youngsters’ values in other areas such as political, consumption,
body figure and sexual values (e.g., Buijzen & Valkenburg, 2003;
Harrison, 2000; Villani, 2001). Likewise, the mass media should
also play a role in shaping adolescents’ biospheric values.
1.3.4. Social exposure
Hormuth (1999) states that through social exchange and social
comparison, young people orient their behavior relative to that of
others. As such, socialization agents are important sources whereby
 K. Lee / Journal of Environmental Psychology 31 (2011) 301e308
values, norms, attitudes and behaviors are observed and learned by
youngsters. Among the many socialization agents, parents, teachers
and peers constitute the key social contexts for adolescents (Pratt,
Hunsberger, Pancer, & Alisat, 2003; Ryan, 2000). Existing litera-
ture has suggested that parents and teachers influence children’s
values and behaviors by (1) acting as role models; (2) serving as
a statement of the values of a particular behavior; (3) cultivating an
environment that encourages certain behavior at home/in class-
room; (4) reinforcing certain behaviors; and (5) setting expecta-
tions for the children to live up to (Bandura, 1986; Shaffer, 1994).
Recent studies conducted by Pratt et al. (2003) and Chen,
Greenberger, Farruggia, Bush, and Dong (2003) have confirmed
the significant role parents and teachers play in adolescents’
personal value development.
The adolescents’ peer group also constitutes another imperative
part of an adolescent’s social context (Brown, 1990). Ryan (2000)
has documented that adolescents often display similar character-
istics and attributes within their peer groups. The social dynamic in
which individuals affiliate with others by displaying similar attri-
butes is called homophily (Ryan, 2000). Homophily of peer group
values and behaviors has been found in risk-taking behaviors (such
as smoking and drinking) (Ennett & Bauman, 1994; Urberg,
Degirmencioglu, & Pilgrim, 1997) as well as prosocial behaviors
(such as engagement in schoolwork, and academic motivation)
(Kindermann, 1993; Ryan, 2000).
Researchers have suggested that peers influence each other by
several ways: (1) As reinforcing and punishing agents (Lamb,
Easterbrooks, & Holden, 1980); (2) as modeling agents (Sagotsky
& Lepper, 1982); and (3) as objects for social comparisons/
exchange (Shaffer, 1994). All in all, peer influence is particularly
prominent at the adolescence stage because adolescents have
a strong desire for peer acceptance (Brown, 1990), Drawing on the
above literature, it can be predicted that social exposure will be
positively associated with biospheric value orientation in Hong
Kong adolescents.
1.4. Study aim
This study attempts to extend the attitude-intention-behavior
model by adding the contextual (media exposure and social
exposure) and individual (biospheric value) factors as antecedents
of environmental attitude in Hong Kong adolescents. A path model
is developed based on literature review (see Fig. 1).
It is proposed that media exposure and social exposure to
environmental messages should each constitute a significant
contextual environment that cultivates positive biospheric value
orientation among Hong Kong adolescents (g13 and g23 respec-
tively). Their biospheric value then associates positively their atti-
tude toward environmental protection (b34). The environmental
attitude, in turn, facitates their intention to engage in
Media exposure to
environmental messages 1
γ 13
Biospheric value
orientation 3
γ 23
Social exposure to
environmental messages 2
γ 26
Fig. 1. A proposed path model depicting the process of planned environmental behavior.
303
environmental behavior (b35). This intention to engage in envi-
ronmental behavior is predicted to have a positive relationship
with adolescents’ environmental behavior (b36).
It is also proposed that social exposure to environmental
messages might associate directly with environmental behavior
(g26) because: (1) social agents play a particularly important role in
youngsters’ development; (2) adolescents often acquire certain
types of behavior through observational learning from behaviors
enacted by their social agents; (3) social agents can cultivate,
circulate and reinforce a norm for environmental behavior for
members within the social networks to follow; and (4) adolescents
often follow the norm behaviors in order to acquire social accep-
tance within their social circles (Bandura, 1986; Pratt et al., 2003;
Ryan, 2000; Shaffer, 1994).
The following hypotheses are proposed:
H1. The more often the adolescents are exposed to media on
environmental issues, the more positive biospheric value they will
hold.
H2. The more often the adolescents have social exposure to
environmental messages, the more positive biospheric value they
will hold.
H3. The higher degree of biospheric value orientation, the higher
degree of environmental attitude the adolescents will hold.
H4. The higher degree of environmental attitude, the higher
degree of behavioral intention to act environmentally the adoles-
cents will indicate.
H5. The higher degree of environmental intention, the higher
degree of likelihood that the adolescents will act environmentally.
H6. The more often the adolescents have social exposure to
environmental messages, the more likely the adolescents will act
environmentally.
2. Method
2.1. Subjects
A total of 2106 (1073 males and 1025 females) 10th and 11th
grade high school students in Hong Kong participated in the study.
The mean age was 15.31 years old with a standard deviation of 2.60
years.
2.2. Procedures
A list containing all high schools in Hong Kong was obtained
from the Hong Kong Education Bureau. Two hundred and two
schools were randomly selected from the list. A letter was sent to
the principal of each school with objectives and procedures of the
β 45
Environmental intention 5
Environmental attitude 4
β 56
Environmental behavior 6
β 34
304 K. Lee / Journal of Environmental Psychology 31 (2011) 301e308
study stated. Follow-up calls were then made to invite their
participation. A total of forty-eight schools agreed to participate.
There are eighteen districts in Hong Kong. At least 2 to 3 schools
came from each district. Though inferences from the sample must
be limited to secondary students, the fact that all 18 districts were
presented allows for some conjecture on students across the city.
After the consent forms were collected from the principals, date
and time were then scheduled for the survey. Students were group-
administered the environmental questionnaires in one of their
classes. The questionnaire took approximate 15 min to complete.
All items were translated into Chinese (the students’ first language)
and then back translated by an independent judge to ensure
accuracy for the final printing in Chinese.
2.3. Measures
It was predicted that media exposure, social exposure,
biospheric value orientation, environmental attitude and environ-
mental intention were five direct/indirect antecedents of Hong
Kong adolescents’ environmental behavior. There was a total of 26
items developed for measuring the five antecedents of environ-
mental behavior. These 26 items were subject to factor analysis. The
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin score was .92, reflecting that the sample of the
present study was adequate. The accepted criterion for significant
factor loadings was .50 in the study. Results of the factor analysis
(using varimax rotation) revealed five factors as predicted. All
together, the five factors collectively accounted for 56.26% of the
variance.
Media exposure. In line with previous research (e.g., Chan, 1999),
media exposure was measured by asking participants how
frequently they came across things related to environmental
protection on/in (1) TV program/news, (2) radio program/news, (3)
the Internet, (4) newspaper, and (5) advertisement on 5-point Likert-
type scales ranging from 1 ¼ never, 2 ¼ rarely, 3 ¼ occasionally,
4 ¼ often, and 5 ¼ all the time. This factor accounted for 5.81% of the
total variance in the factor analysis. All the above five items had
loadings higher than .50. Cronbach alpha of this subscale was .78. The
five items were then averaged to form an overall score of media
exposure.
To ensure subjects’ recollections of media exposure were based
on specific recalls, subjects were asked to list out all the names/
topics/descriptions of the TV programs, radio programs, the
Internet websites, newspapers and advertisements they could
remember. Each recall was given one score. The total number of
recalls in each media channel was then correlated with self-
perceived media exposure. The correlation between the self-
perceived degree of media exposure and number of recalls in
each of the media channels is as follows:
(1) Self-reported TV exposure and number of TV program
recalls: Pearson’s r ¼ .91, p < .00; (2) self-reported radio exposure
and number of radio program recalls: Pearson’s r ¼ .92, p < .00; (3)
self-reported Internet exposure and number of Internet topic
recalls: Pearson’s r ¼ .92, p < .00; (4) self-reported newspaper
exposure and number of newspaper topic recalls: Pearson’s r ¼ .90,
p < .00; and (5) self-reported advertisement exposure and number
of advertisement recalls: Pearson’s r ¼ .93, p < .00. Although the
above correlations do not suffice to validate the accuracy of the self-
reported media exposure measures, they could serve as reference
indices that ensure the participants’ self-perceived media exposure
was based on specific recalls.
2.3.1. Social exposure
Six items were developed to examine the participants’ degree of
social exposure to environmental issues. They responded on 5-
point Likert-type scales ranging from 1 ¼ not at all to 5 ¼ very
much on how much they learned about environmental issues from
(1) parents; (2) teachers; and (3) friends. They were also asked to
indicate on 5-point Likert-type scales ranging from 1 ¼ never,
2 ¼ rarely, 3 ¼ occasionally, 4 ¼ often, and 5 ¼ all the time on how
often they discussed about environmental issues with each of
them. This factor accounted for 6.13% of the total variance in the
factor analysis. All the items yielded loadings higher than
.60.Cronbach alpha of this subscale was .79. The six items were then
averaged to form an overall score of social exposure.
2.3.2. Biospheric value orientation
With reference to the Stern, Dietz, Guagnano, and Kalof (1999)’s
measurement instrument, four statements, anchored by
“1 ¼ strongly disagree” to 5 ¼ strongly agree,” were employed to
tap respondents’ degree of biospheric value orientation. The exact
wordings of the statements were: (1) “We human beings should
not damage the beauty of the nature; ” (2) “We human beings
should live harmoniously with the nature; ” (3) “The nature is very
beautiful,” and (4) “It would be a shame if we human beings
damage the environment for our benefits.” This factor accounted
for 12.78% of the variance in the factor analysis. Factor loadings
revealed that all the four items in the measure for biospheric value
orientation had loadings greater than .60.Cronbach alpha of this
subscale was .84. The four items were averaged to form an overall
score of biospheric value orientation.
2.3.3. Environmental attitude
Seven items were developed to examine participants’ attitudes
toward environmental issues. They were asked to indicate on 5-
point Likert-type scales ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to
5 ¼ strongly agree on the following statements: (1) “It is essential to
promote green living in HK; ” (2) “Environmental protection works
are simply a waste of money and resources; ” (3) “I strongly support
that more environmental protection works are needed in HK; ” (4)
“Environmental protection issues are none of my business; ” (5) “I
think environmental protection is meaningless; ” (6) It is unwise for
HK to spend a vast of money on promoting environmental
protection; ” and (7) “It is very important to raise environmental
concern among HK people.” Items 2, 4, 5, and 6 were reverse-coded.
This factor accounted for 27.14% of variance in the factor analysis.
Factor loadings revealed that all the 7 items yielded loadings
greater than .50. Cronbach alpha of this subscale was .86. The seven
items were averaged to form an overall score of environmental
attitude. This measure was newly developed to fit better the
context of Hong Kong.
2.3.4. Environmental intention
With reference to the Bang et al. (2000)’s measurement instru-
ment, four items were developed that tapped subjects’ intention to
perform environmental act. Subjects were asked to rate the state-
ments: (1) “I am willing to commit myself to act more behaviorally,”
(2) “I am willing to pay more efforts to save the environment; ” (3)
“I am willing to change my current lifestyle to become a more
environmental person; ” and (4) “I intend to behave more envi-
ronmentally in the near future” on 5-point UnlikelyeLikely scales.
This factor accounted for 4.40% of the total variance in the factor
analysis. The four items indicating participants’ environmental
intention yielded loadings higher than .50. Cronbach alpha of this
scale was .89. The items were averaged to form the score of envi-
ronmental intention.
2.3.5. Environmental behavior
Nine items were developed to examine participants’ personal,
private-sphere environmental behavior (Stern, 2000) on respon-
sible consumerism, resource conservation and waste handling (Olli
 K. Lee / Journal of Environmental Psychology 31 (2011) 301e308
et al., 2001). They were asked to indicate how often they would
voluntarily do each of the following things: (1) “Put used papers
into recycled bins; ” (2) “Categorize garbage into different cate-
gories; ” (3) “Consume food produced by organic farming methods;
” (4) “When I want to buy a product, I would look at the ingredient
label first to see if it contains things that are environmentally-
damaging; ”(5) “I choose to buy products that are
environmentally-friendly even if they are more expensive; ”(6)
“Use both sides of the paper; ” (7) “Avoid using disposable (such as
paper-made or foam-made) cups and plates; ” (8) “Reuse bottles
and tins; ” and (9) “Avoid using plastic bags.” Cronbach alpha of this
scale was .88. The nine items were averaged to form the score of
environmental behavior.
3. Results
3.1. Preliminary analysis
The descriptive information provided some overall ideas about
the environmental culture of adolescents in Hong Kong. The average
scores for the examined variables were listed as follow: media
exposure, M ¼ 2.81 (SD ¼ .80); social exposure, M ¼ 2.92 (SD ¼ .93);
biospheric value orientation, M ¼ 3.15 (SD ¼ 1.05); environmental
attitude, M ¼ 3.11 (SD ¼ 1.00) environmental intention, M ¼ 3.15
(SD ¼ .73) and environmental behavior, M ¼ 3.10 (SD ¼ .68). Among
all the participants, 155 (7.36%) of them were members of environ-
mental organizations in schools or communities (for instance,
Environmental Protection Ambassador Scheme, World Wide Fund,
Green Peace, Friends of the Earth etc.). The remaining 1951 (92.64%)
of them did not belong to any environmental organizations. Also,
265 (12.6%) of them indicated they had participated in at least one
environmental activities in the past year. The remaining 1841
(87.4%) participants indicated that they had not participated in any
environmental activities at all.
3.2. Path analysis
Path analysis was conducted to test the proposed model. Media
exposure and social exposure were the two exogenous variables.
The total scores of the variables were entered into the model.
Polychoric correlations and their asymptotic covariance matrix
were first estimated in the PRELIS before testing the model. The
derived matrices were then used in LISREL to estimate the model
with weighted least squares. Missing data were deleted listwise.
After deletion, 1790 participants were retained in the path analysis.
Macrolevel analysis of the overall model was first examined. To
assess the overall model fit, two types of goodness-of-fit measures
were referenced in the present study: (1) absolute fit measures;
and (2) incremental fit measures (Hair et al., 1995). In the present
study, the chi-square value of 1041.79 with 8 degree of freedom was
found statistically significant at the .00 significance level. The
goodness-of-fit index (GFI), a nonstatistical measure in which
higher value indicates a better fit, approached 1.0 (the best fit
possible) at .97. The root mean square residual (RMSR) indicated
that the average correlation residual was .09. Lastly, the root mean
square error of approximation (RMSEA) was .08.
Incremental fit measures evaluate a proposed model in
comparison to the most restrictive baseline model or a null model.
In the present study, the Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI)
was .93, the Normed Fit Index (NFI) equaled to .90, the Comparative
Fit Index (CFI) was .92, and the Non-normed Fit Index (NNFI) was
.89.
Hair and his associates (1995) warn that large sample size
(exceeding 400e500) would make the method become “too
sensitive” and almost any difference is detected making all
305
goodness-of-fit measures indicate poor fit. Chi-square value, for
instance, is a direct function of the sample size (Hair et al., 1995;
Jöreskog & Sorbom, 1993). Given the large sample size in the
present study, the significant chi-square value obtained for the
proposed path model was an insufficient reason to reject the
model. Other complementary measures (e.g., GFI, AGFI) have
shown that the proposed path model provided a good fit for the
data. Taken together, a review of the two types of the overall
measures, namelydthe absolute fit measures and the incremental
fit measures reveal a consistent pattern of support for the overall
path model proposed. Results of tests for the overall fit of the model
are presented in Table 1 (see Table 1).
An alternative model was tested to illustrate that the fit was
altered greatly by a model change. This alternative model assumed
that media exposure and social exposure as contextual variables,
were associated with environmental behavior, which in turn, was
associated with environmental value. This environmental value
then preceded environmental attitude. Finally, the environmental
attitude predicted environmental intention. This alternative
conceptualization was developed based on some theorists’ argu-
ment that past behavior should precede attitude and intention
(Bamberg, Ajzen, & Schmidt, 2003). Results showed a chi-square
value of 1742.29 with 8 degree of freedom, p ¼ .000 with both
goodness-of-fit index and adjusted goodness-of-fit index smaller
than .82. Taken together, the results indicated that the original
model had a better fit than the alternative model.
3.3. Microlevel analysesdpath model fit
The equations for biospheric value orientation, environmental
attitude, environmental intention, and environmental behavior had
squared multiple correlations of .61, .39, .59 and .61 respectively.
Hypothesis 1 predicted that the more often the adolescents are
exposed to media on environmental issues, the more positive
biospheric value they will hold. The path analysis confirmed the
hypothesis, path coefficient ¼ .20, p < .05.
Hypothesis 2, positing that the more often the adolescents have
social exposure to environmental messages, the more positive
biospheric value they will hold, was also confirmed, path
coefficient ¼ .26, p < .05. Results also showed that adolescents’
biospheric value was positively associated with their environmental
attitude, path coefficient ¼ .53, p < .05. Thus, Hypothesis 3 was
supported. Hypothesis 4 postulated that the higher degree of envi-
ronmental attitude, the higher degree of environmental intention.
This hypothesis was also confirmed, path coefficient ¼ .17, p < .05. In
addition, it was found that the adolescents’ behavior intention pre-
dicted significantly and positively their actual environmental
behavior, path coefficient ¼ .42, p < .05. Thus, Hypothesis 5 was
supported. Lastly, Hypothesis 6 posited that the more often the
adolescents had social exposure to environmental messages, the
more likely they acted environmentally. This hypothesis was also
confirmed, path coefficient ¼ .32, p < .05.
Table 1
Proposed path model goodness-of-fit statistics.
Statistic Model value
Chi-square (8 degrees of freedom) 1041.79
Goodness-of-fit index (GFI) .97
Root mean square residual (RMSR) .09
Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) .08
Adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) .93
Normed fit index (NFI) .90
Comparative fit index (CFI) .92
Non-Normed fit index (NNFI) .89
306 K. Lee / Journal of Environmental Psychology 31 (2011) 301e308
4. Discussion
4.1. Summary of the environmental culture among Hong Kong
adolescents
Hong Kong adolescents’ media exposure, social exposure,
environmental values, attitudes, intention and behavior are all
above the mid-point value of 2.5, suggesting a promising envi-
ronmental culture among Hong Kong adolescents. They demon-
strate positive signs of psychological acceptance (as reflected in the
average scores of environmental values and attitudes) and behav-
ioral readiness (as reflected in the average scores of environmental
intention and behavior) to participate in environmental protection.
When being asked for the main reason for taking environmental
actions, “belief in the value of environmental protection” was the
mostly-chosen answer (45%), followed by “concern for health”
(13.8%), “persuaded by friends/family members” (13.0%), and other
reasons (28.2%).
Findings suggest that Hong Kong adolescents are potential
environmental supporters who need to transform their environ-
mental awareness into action. The city needs to cultivate a more
supportive and proactive contextual environments as both media
exposure and social exposure to environmental information/
messages were slightly above the mid-point value of 2.5 only,
indicating a room for improvements in these contextual environ-
ments to create a more pro-environment culture.
4.2. The path model
Findings from the present study help extend the theory of
planned behavior by examining what might be antecedent factors
of attitude formation and by applying the theory to the context of
environmental psychology. All in all, the path model supports the
new propositions that (1) the adolescents’ contextual environ-
mentsdhere, the media and social agentsdcan have direct and
indirect associations with the adolescents’ decision to act envi-
ronmentally; and (2) biospheric value orientation plays an impor-
tant role in the formation of environmental attitude.
A major finding in this research is the theoretical linkage of
context-value-attitude-behavior in the environmental psychology
context. Here, biospheric value orientation can be understood as
“internalized values” which are gained in a complex socialization
and cultural process (Dembkowski & Hanmer-Lloyd, 1994). This
internalized biospheric value is found to associate positively and
directly with adolescents’ attitude toward environmental protec-
tion. This environmental attitude, in turn, mediates the relationship
between biospheric value orientation and environmental intention
to act environmentally. Finally, adolescent’s environmental
behavior is found to be associated with their environmental
intention and social exposure to environmental messages. Such
findings have implications for theory and practice.
4.3. Theoretical and practical implications
From a theoretical perspective, the context-value-attitude-
behavior model provides an expanded framework for under-
standing and predicting why adolescents hold certain patterns of
environmental attitudes and behavior. Because this new model
takes into account contextual environments, it might be arguably
more suitable and comprehensive for explaining the formation
process of environmental behavior in reality.
As shown in the present study, adolescents’ environmental
behavior is associated with a chain of multiple variables, including
their contextual environments. Future studies that connect the
macro contextual factors to the micro aspects of audience pattern
would definitely signify a progress, if not a breakthrough, in the
environmental psychology field.
It is found in the present study that social exposure to envi-
ronmental messages associates positively with the adolescents’
biospheric value and environmental behavior. This finding further
consolidates the important roles of social agents (here, parents,
teachers and peers) in youngsters’ development (Brown, 1990). It
suggests that interpersonal communication is an effective way to
encourage environmental behavior in Hong Kong adolescents.
Individuals’ significant network (e.g., among family members,
school members, or peer members) could suggest, cultivate,
circulate and reinforce a ‘norm’ of environmental behavior.
Adolescents may learn to act pro-environmentally by internalizing
the values communicated by their social agents.
It might also be the case that adolescents, through observational
learning, follow the norm of environmental behavior in their social
circles in order to acquire acceptance by other members. The
pressure to follow the behavior of the social circle might be
particularly strong in the collectivistic Chinese culture, whereby
individuals are expected to conform to larger social norms
(Hofstede, 1980). Thus, further studies could examine the rela-
tionship between cultural orientation and perceived social pressure
in environmental behavior. If the relationship is confirmed, it will
imply that environmental behavior carries social meanings and
functions among Hong Kong adolescents.
Taken together, the present study indicates that it is through
discussion and interaction with others (especially significant
others) in which the values of environmental protection become
internalized. Applying the findings into practice, the government
and environmental organizations should encourage parents and
teachers to act as role models to foster youngsters the positive
values and behaviors in environmental protection. Moreover,
adolescents should be given a vision to act as leaders in their peer
groups to advocate environmental values and behavior in their
social circles.
Media exposure to environmental messages is also found to
associate positively with the adolescents’ biospheric value. This
finding suggests that in addition to social agents, the mass media is
also another effective channel to reach Hong Kong adolescents and
promote environmental values among them. The role of the mass
media in facilitating adolescents’ biospheric values may come in
several ways:
First, by raising the salience of environmental issues in the
adolescents’ mind (Severin & Tankard, 1997); second, by framing
positively the values of the natural environment and environ-
mental participation (Pan & Kosicki, 1993); third, through defining
what are considered legitimate or moral and what are not in the
society, the mass media help promote biospheric values by pro-
jecting them as perceived norm values (Priest, 2006). Future studies
could investigate the process of how the mass media influences
adolescents’ environmental behavior.
Again, the government and environmental organizations should
make better use of traditional and new media to help cultivate
positive environmental values in the society. Specifically, the
salience of the issue of environmental protection has to be more
effectively communicated. The new media, which enables more
interactive and interpersonal forms of communication and
discussion, might be especially attractive to youngsters.
To recapitulate, this study confirms the importance of creating
supportive social and media environments in promoting environ-
mental behavior among Hong Kong adolescents. Further research of
social and media contents relating to environmental issues will help
in understanding what is communicated in the personecontext
interactions. Early in 1979, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of
the environment maintains that individuals are embedded in
 K. Lee / Journal of Environmental Psychology 31 (2011) 301e308
layers of microsystem, exosystem and macrosystem. The present
study examines the roles of the two of the most important
environmentsdnamely, the social and media environmentsdin
adolescents’ formation of environmental behavior. Future studies
could investigate the role of other systemsdsuch as broad ideology,
law and customs of the culturedin environmental communication.
In addition, the study also confirms the plausibility of
a synthetic theory or model that incorporate variables from more
than one broad class of theoretical framework to postulate rela-
tionships among them and to use them to explain environmentally
significant behavior (Stern, 2000). In the present study, Stern’s
(2000) biospheric value orientation in the value-belief-norm
theory was incorporated into Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned
behavior, Biospheric value orientation (Stern, 2000) was found to
be the antecedent of Ajzen’s attitude-intention-behavior chain.
In existing Western literature, some scholars have established
empirical links between individuals’ general and personal values
(such as openness to change, conservatism etc.) and environmental
attitudes (e.g., Schultz & Zelezny, 1999; Stern et al., 1999). The
present study provides further support in the relationship between
the more domain-specific value (i.e., the biospheric value) and
environmental attitude in a Chinese-based context. Future studies
could also investigate the role of other environmentally- related
valuesdsuch as altruistic and egoistic values (Stern, 2000)din the
formation process of environmental behavior.
4.4. Cautions and suggestions
As with any study, the methods in the present study impose
limits on the generalizability of the results, each of which suggest
areas of future inquiry. First, adolescents are found to be highly
concerned about social acceptance (Berndt & Murphy, 2002). This
might explain why social agents play an important role in the
formation process of environmental value and behavior in this age
group. One should be caution in generalizing the findings of the
current study to other age groups or other cultural groups until
these findings are replicated.
Second, the present study examines the combined effects of
parents, teachers and friends as a cluster or social agents. It is
possible that different social agents display different interpersonal
communication patterns in conveying/exchanging/discussing
environmental issues. As such, future studies should investigate
how each of the three social agents influence adolescents.
Third, the combined effects of a cluster of mass media channels
are examined in the present study. Future efforts could focus on the
role each of the media channels plays in the process of environ-
mental communication.
Fourth, the present study investigates only one dimension in
environmental value (i.e., the biospheric dimension) and one type
of environmental behavior (i.e., the private-spheric environmental
behavior). Future studies should investigate other dimensions in
environmental value (e.g., altruistic value) and their relationships
with different types of environmental behavior (e.g., activist
environmentalism).
Fifth, the causal directions of the associations found in this
study need to be interpreted with great cautions. Although the
results of the path analysis confirm the hypothesized relation-
ships, alternative explanations may be plausible. For instance, it
may be valid to argue that attitudes do not always precede
action, and that practices can form attitude and can be an
integral part of a value system. Similarly, some may argue that
those who are concerned about the environment are more likely
to notice related media; and hence, there is a possibility that
biospheric value orientation or environmental attitude may
predict recollection of media exposure. Therefore, to establish
307
causal relationships among the examined variables, it is neces-
sary to derive stronger evidence from experimental studies with
random assignments of subjects.
Finally, all variables were measured self-reportedly. The reliance
on self-reported measures may run the risk of social desirability
and subjective bias effects. More importantly, the use of self-
reporting method may present certain threats to the construct
validity of this study. Readers are reminded that there might be
certain implications for internal validity and causal direction of the
present study. Future study should include some objective assess-
ments of these variables such as observations or other-reported
measures (e.g., measures of environmental variables from
teachers, peers and parents) for the purpose of triangulation/reality
check.
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