Lesson 7 - Vibration Measurement & Application

NOISE & VIBRATION
Topic 7 :
Vibration Measurement & Application
Ir Dr Zainal Fitri B Zainal Abidin

Jan 2016
Chapter Outline
Introduction
Transducers
Vibration Pickups
Frequency-Measuring Instruments
Vibration Exciters
Signal Analysis
Dynamic Testing of Machines and Structure
Experimental Modal Analysis
Machine-Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis
© 2011 Mechanical Vibrations 2
Fifth Edition in SI Units
Introduction
• Why we need to measure vibrations:

– To detect shifts in ωn which indicates possible failure
– To select operational speeds to avoid resonance
– Measured values may be different from theoretical values
– To design active vibration isolation systems
– To identify mass, stiffness and damping of a system
– To verify the approximated model
3 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Introduction

Introduction
• Type of vibration measuring instrument

used will depend on:
– Expected range of frequencies and amplitudes

– Size of machine/structure involved
– Conditions of operation of the machine/structure
– Type of data processing used

Chapter Outline
Introduction
Transducers
Vibration Pickups
Vibration Exciters
Signal Analysis
Transducers
• A device that transforms values of physical
variables into electrical signals
• Following slides show some common

transducers for measuring vibration

Transducers
• Variable Resistance Transducers
• Mechanical motion changes electrical resistance, which

cause a change in voltage or current
• Strain gage is a fine wire bonded to surface where strain

is to be measured.

Transducers
• Surface and wire both undergo same strain.
R / R r L
• Resulting change in wire resistance: K  1  2v   1  2v
L / L r L
where K = Gage factor of the wire
R = Initial resistance
ΔR = Change in resistance
L = Initial length of wire
ΔL = Change in length of wire
v = Poisson’s ratio of the wire
r = Resistivity of the wire
Δr = Change in resistivity of the wire ≈ 0 for Advance

Transducers
L  R
• Strain:  
L RK
• The following figure shows a vibration pickup:

Transducers
• ΔR can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge as shown:
 R1 R3  R2 R4 
E V
 R1  R2 R3  R4  

Transducers
• Initially, resistances are adjusted so that E=0

•
R 1R3 = R2R4
• When Ri change by ΔRi,
 R1 R2 R3 R4  R1 R2 R3 R4

E  Vr0      where r0  
•  R1 R2 R3 R4  R1  R2 2 R3  R4 2

Transducers
• If the leads are connected between pts a and b,

R1=Rg, ΔR1,= ΔRg, ΔR2= ΔR3= ΔR4=0
Rg E
  K or E  KVr0
Rg Vr0
where Rg is the initial resistance of the gauge.

•
• Hence E can be calibrated to read ε directly.

Transducers
• Piezoelectric Transducers
• Certain materials generate electrical charge when subjected to

deformation or stress.
•
Charge generated due to force:
Qx  kFx  kAp x
where k =piezoelectric constant
A =area on which Fx acts
px =pressure due to Fx.
•
Transducers
• Piezoelectric Transducers
• E=vtpx
• v = voltage sensitivity
• t = thickness of crystal
•
A piezoelectric accelerometer is shown.
•
Output voltage proportional to acceleration

Transducers
Strain gauge
Piezoelectric
transducer
Transducers
Example 10.1
•Output Voltage of a Piezoelectric Transducer
•A quartz crystal having a thickness of 2.5mm is

subjected to a pressure of 50psi. Find the output
voltage if the voltage sensitivity is 0.055 V-m/N.

Transducers
Example 10.1
•Output Voltage of a Piezoelectric Transducer
Solution
•E = vtpx =(0.055)(0.00254)(344738) = 47.4015V

Transducers
• Electrodynamic Transducers
•
• Voltage E is generated when the coil moves in a magnetic field
as shown.
E F
• E = Dlv Dl  
v I
•
•
where D = magnetic flux density
• l = length of conductor
• v = velocity of conductor
relative to magnetic field
•
Transducers
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer Transducer
• Output voltage depends on the axial displacement of the core.

•
Insensitive to temp and high output.

Chapter Outline
Introduction
Transducers
Vibration Pickups
Vibration Exciters
Signal Analysis
Vibration Pickups
• Most common pickups are seismic instruments as shown
• Bottom ends of spring and dashpot have same motion as the cage
• Vibration will excite the suspended mass
• Displacement of mass relative to cage: z = x – y

Vibration Pickups
• Y(t) = Ysinωt
• Equation of motion of mass m:

mx  cx  y   k x  y   0 or
mz  cz  kz  my
 mz  cz  kz  m 2Y sin t
• Steady-state solution:
z t   Z sin t   

Vibration Pickups
Y 2 r 2Y
Z 
k  m   c  2 2 2 2
1  r   2r 
2 2 2
 c  1  2 r 
  tan  1
2 
 tan  2 
 k  m  1 r 
 c
r ,  
n 2mn

Vibration Pickups
• Vibrometer
• Measures displacement of a vibrating body

•
Z/Y ≈ 1 when ω/ωn ≥ 3 (range II)
r2
z t   Y sin t    if 1
1  r   2r 
2 2 2
•
In practice Z may not be equal to Y as r may not be large, to prevent
the equipment from getting bulky

Vibration Pickups
Measuring earthquake - seismometer

Vibration Pickups
Example 10.2
Amplitude by Vibrometer
•A vibrometer having a natural frequency of 4 rad/s and ζ =

0.2 is attached to a structure that performs a harmonic
motion. If the difference between the maximum and the
minimum recorded values is 8 mm, find the amplitude of
motion of the vibrating structure when its frequency is 40
rad/s.

Vibration Pickups
Example 10.2
Amplitude by Vibrometer
Solution
•Amplitude of recorded motion:

Y 10 
2
Z  1.0093Y  4 mm
1  10   20.210
2 2 2
•Amplitude of vibration of structure:

•Y = Z/1.0093 = 3.9631 mm

Vibration Pickups
• Vibrometer
Measures acceleration of a vibrating body.
 Y 2 sin t   
 z t n2 
1  r   2r 
2 2 2
1
If  1,
1  r   2r 
2 2 2
  z t n  Y sin t   

  2 2

Vibration Pickups
• Vibrometer
1
If 0.65< ζ < 0.7, 0.96   1.04 for 0  r  0.6
1  r   2r 
2 2 2
Accelerometers are preferred due their small size.

Vibration Pickups
Example 10.3
Design of an Accelerometer
•An accelerometer has a suspended mass of 0.01 kg with a

damped natural frequency of vibration of 150 Hz. When
mounted on an engine undergoing an acceleration of 1 g at
an operating speed of 6000 rpm, the acceleration is
recorded as 9.5 m/s2 by the instrument. Find the damping
constant and the spring stiffness of the accelerometer.

Vibration Pickups
Example 10.3
Solution 1 Measured value 9 .5
   0.9684
1  r   2r 
2 2 2 True value 9.81
or 1  r   2r   1 / 0.9684 
2 2
 1.0663
2 2
(E.1)
6000 2 
Operating speed    628 .32 rad/s
60
d  1   2 n  150 2   942 .48 rad/s
  r 628 .32
Thus     0.6667
d 1   n
2
1  2 942 .48
 r  0.6667 1   2 or r 2  0.4444 1   2   (E.2)

Vibration Pickups
Example 10.3
Solution
•Substitute (E.2) into (E.1): 1.5801ζ4 – 2.2714ζ2 + 0.7576 = 0
d 942 .48
•Solution gives ζ2 = 0.7253, 0.9547 n    1368 .8889 rad/s
1  2
1  0.7253 2
k  mn2  0.011368 .8889   18738 .5628 N/m

2
•Choosing ζ= 0.7253 arbitrarily,
Damping constant
c  2mn  20.011368 .8889 0.7253 
 19.8571 N - s/m

Vibration Pickups
Example 10.3
Solution
•Measures velocity of vibrating body: y t   Y cos t
r 2Y
•Velocity: z t   cost   
1  r   2r 
2 2 2
r2
If  1, then
1  r   2r 
2 2 2
z t   Y cost   
Vibration pickup - Accelerometer
Application towards automotive measurement

Vibration Pickups
Example 10.4
Design of a Velometer
•Design a velometer if the maximum error is

to be limited to 1% of the true velocity. The
natural frequency of the velometer is to be
80Hz and the suspended mass is to be 0.05
kg.
Vibration Pickups
Example 10.4
Solution
r 2Y
We have z t   cost   
1  r   2r 
2 2 2
r2 Recorded velocity
R  (E.1)
1  r   2r 
2 2 2 True velocity
Maximum  1
rr  (E.2)
1  2 2

Vibration Pickups
Example 10.4
Solution
Substitute (E.2) into (E.1),

 1 
 
2 
 1  2  R
2
  1  2 1 
1     4 
2 

2 
  1  2   1  2 
1
 R
4 2  4 4
Vibration Pickups
Example 10.4
Solution
•R = 1.01 or 0.99 for 1% error
•ζ4 – ζ2 + 0.245075 = 0 and ζ4 – ζ2+ 0.255075=0

•ζ2 = 0.570178, 0.429821 or
•ζ = 0.755101, 0.655607

Vibration Pickups
Example 10.4
Solution
•Choosing ζ = 0.755101 arbitrarily,

n  802   502 .656 rad/s
k  mn2  0.05 502 .656   12633 .1527 N/m
2
c  2n m  20.755101 502 .656 0.05 

 37.9556 N - s/m

Vibration Pickups
• Phase Distortion
• All vibrating-measuring instruments have phase lag.

•
If the vibration consists of 2 or more harmonic components, the
recorded graph will not give an accurate picture – phase distortion
•
Consider vibration signal of the form as shown:

Vibration Pickups
• Let phase shift = 90° for first harmonic

• Let phase shift = 180° for third harmonic
• Corresponding time lags: t1= 90°/ω, t2 = 180°/ω
• Output signal is as shown:

Vibration Pickups
• In general, let the complex wave be

• y(t) = a1sinωt + a2sin2ωt + …
•
• Output of vibrometer becomes:
• z(t) = a1sin(ωt – Φ1) + a2sin(2ωt – Φ2) + …
where
 
2  j 
 n 
tan  j  2
, j  1,2,...
 
1   j 
 n 
Vibration Pickups
• Φj ≈ π since ω/ωn is large.

• z(t) ≈ – [a1sinωt + a2sin2ωt + …] ≈ -y(t)
• Thus the output record can be easily corrected.
•
Similarly we can show that output of velometer is z t    y t 
Accelerometer: Let the acceleration curve be

yt   a1 2 sin t  a2 2 2 sin 2t  
Output of accelerometer:
zt   a1 2 sin t  1   a2 2 2 sin 2t  2   

Vibration Pickups
• Since Φ varies almost linearly from 0° to 90° for ζ = 0.7, Φ ≈

αr = α(ω/ωn) = βω where α and β are constants.
•  
Time lag t     is independent of frequency.
 
  2 zt   a1 2 sin t      a2 2  sin 2t  2    

2
•
 a1 2 sin    a2 2  sin 2    where   t  
2
Thus output of accelerometer represents the true acceleration being

measured.

Chapter Outline
Introduction
Transducers
Vibration Pickups
Vibration Exciters
Signal Analysis
• Single-reed instrument or Fullarton Tachometer
 Clamped end pressed against vibrating body

 Adjust l until free end shows largest amplitude of vibration
 Read off frequency

• Multi-reed Instrument or Frahm Tachometer
 Clamped end pressed against vibrating body

 Frequency read directly off strip whose free end shows largest
amplitude of vibration

• Stroboscope
 Produces light pulses

 A vibrating object viewed with it will appear stationary when
frequency of pulse is equal to vibration frequency

Chapter Outline
Introduction
Transducers
Vibration Pickups
Vibration Exciters
Signal Analysis
Vibration Exciters
• Used to determine dynamic characteristics of
machines and structures and fatigue testing of
materials
• Can be mechanical, electromagnetic,

electrodynamic or hydraulic type

Vibration Exciters
• Mechanical Exciters
Force can be applied as an inertia force
Force can be applied as an elastic spring force

for frequency <30 Hz and loads <700N

Vibration Exciters
• Mechanical Exciters
• The unbalance created by two masses rotating at the same

speed in opposite directions can be used as a mechanical exciter.

Vibration Exciters
• Electrodynamic Shaker
• The electrodynamic shaker can be considered as the reverse of an

electrodynamic transducer.
• 2 resonant frequencies are shown below.
F  DIl

Vibration Exciters

Vibration Exciters

Chapter Outline
Introduction
Transducers
Vibration Pickups
Vibration Exciters
Signal Analysis
Signal Analysis
• Acceleration-time history of a frame subjected to excessive
vibration:
• Transformed to frequency domain:

Signal Analysis
• Spectrum Analyzers
• Separates energy of signal into various frequency bands

•
• Real-time analyzers useful for machine health monitoring
• 2 types of real-time analysis procedures: digital filtering method and

Fast Fourier Transform method
• Basic component of spectrum analyzer: Bandpass filter

Signal Analysis
• Bandpass Filter
• Permits passage of frequencies over a band and rejects all other

frequency components
• Response of a filter:

Signal Analysis
• Bandpass Filter
• fu and fl are upper and lower cutoff frequencies
respectively
• fc is centre (tuned) frequency
• Ripples within band is minimum for a good

bandpass filter
• 2 types of bandpass filters: constant percent

bandwidth filters and constant bandwidth filters
• Constant percent: (fu – fl)/fc is a constant

• E.g. octave, one-half-octave filters
• Constant bandwidth: fu – fl is independent of
cf
Signal Analysis
• Constant Percent Bandwidth and Constant Bandwidth Analyzers
Spectrum analyzer with a set of octave and 1/3-octave band filters can be use
for signal analysis
Lower cutoff freq of a filter = upper cutoff freq of previous filter. Filter
characteristics as shown

Signal Analysis
• Constant Percent Bandwidth and Constant
Bandwidth Analyzers
• Constant bandwidth analyzer used to obtain more

detailed analysis than constant percent bandwidth
analyzer
• Wave or heterodyne analyzer is a constant

bandwidth analyzer with a continuously varying centre
frequency

Chapter Outline
Introduction
Transducers
Vibration Pickups
Vibration Exciters
Signal Analysis
Dynamic Testing of Machines and
Structures
• Involves finding the deformation of

machines/structures at a critical frequency
• Approaches:
 Operational Deflection Shape measurements
 Modal Testing

Structures
• Using Operational Deflection Shape Measurements
• Forced dynamic deflection shape measured under steady-state
frequency of system.
• Valid only for forces/frequency associated with operating conditions.
• If a particular location has excessive deflection, we can stiffen that
location.

Structures
• Modal Testing
• Any dynamic response of a

machine/structure can be obtained as a
combination of its modes.
• Knowledge of the mode shapes, modal

frequencies and modal damping ratio will
describe completely the machine dynamics.

Chapter Outline
Introduction
Transducers
Vibration Pickups
Vibration Exciters
Signal Analysis
• When a system is excited, its response exhibits a sharp
peak at resonance
• Phase of response changes by 180°as forcing

frequency crosses the natural frequency
• Equipment needed:
 Exciter to apply known input force
 Transducer to convert physical motion into electrical signal
 Signal conditioning amplifier
 Analyzer with suitable software

• Necessary Equipment
Exciter
• Can be an electromagnetic shaker or impact hammer
• Shaker is attached to the structure through a stringer, to control the
direction of the force
• Impact hammer is a hammer with built-in force transducer in its
head
• Portable, inexpensive and much faster to use than a shaker
• But often cannot impart sufficient energy and difficult to control
direction of applied force

Transducer
• Piezoelectric transducers most popular
• Strain gauges can also be used
Signal conditioner
• Outgoing impedance of tranducers not suitable for direct input into
analyzers.
• Charge or voltage amplifiers are used to match and amplify the
signals before analysis

• Analyzer
• FFT analyzer commonly used
• Analyzed signals used to find natural

frequencies, damping ratios and mode shapes

• General arrangement for experimental modal analysis:

• Digital Signal Processing
• x(t) represents analog signal, xi = x(ti) represents corresponding digital

record.

• Digital Signal Processing
a0 N / 2  2it j 2it j 
• We have x j  xt j      ai cos  bi sin ; j  1,2,, N
2 i 1  T T 
1 N 1 N 2it j 1 N 2it j
where a0   x j , ai   x j cos , bi   x j sin
N j 1 N j 1 T N j 1 T
• N is fixed for a given analyzer and equations can be expressed

as   
d  A X where X  x1 x2  xN  ,
1 T

d  a0 a1a2  a N / 2b1b1 bN / 2 
T

• Analysis of Random Signals
Input and output data usually contain random noise.
•
If x(t) is random signal, its average is
x t   lim  xt dt

1 T
T  T 0
 xt 
N
1
For digital signal, x  lim j
N  N j 1

• Define a new variable x(t) as xt   y t   y t 
• Mean square value
x t   lim x 2 t dt
1 T

2
T  T
0
 x t 
N
1
For digital signal, x 2  lim j
N  N j 1
Root mean square value xRMS  x2

• Autocorrelation function
Rt   x  lim  x x  t d

2 1 T
T  T 0
1 N n
For digital signal, Rn, t    x j x jn
N  n j 0
•
If x(t) is purely random, R(t)  0 as T  ∞

• If x(t) is periodic, R(t) will also be periodic.

• Power spectral density (PSD):


S    R e i d
1
2 

x 
2
Digital form : S   

Nt
• Cross-correlation function:
Rxf t   lim  x  f   t d

1 T
T  T 0
• Cross-PSD:

S xf    Rxf  e i d
1
2 


• If f(τ+t) is replaced by x(τ+t), we get Rxx(t) which leads to

Sxx(ω).
• Frequency response function H(iω) is related to PSD as

S xx    H   S ff  
2
S fx    H i S ff  
S xx    H i S xf  

• Coherence function:
 S fx    S xf    S xf  
2
      
 S    S    S  S  
 ff  xx  xx ff
• β = 0 if x and f are pure noises.

• β = 1 if x and f are not contaminated at all.
• Typical coherence function:

• Determination of Modal Data from Observed Peaks
• Let the graph of H(iω) be as shown below.
• 4 peaks suggesting a 4-DOF system.

• Determination of Modal Data from Observed Peaks
• Partition into several frequency ranges.

• Each range is consider a 1-DOF system
• Damping ratio corresponding to peak j:

 j2    j1
j  where  j1 and  j2  satisfy
2 j
H i j 
   H i  
H i j 1 2 
j
• 2
• When damping is small, ωj ≈ ωn

Example 10.5
•Determination of Damping Ratio from Bode Diagram
•The graphs showing the variations of the magnitude of the response

and its phase angle with the frequency of a single DOF system
provides the frequency response of the system.
•Instead of dealing with the magnitude curves directly, if the logarithms

of the magnitude ratios (in decibels) are used, the resulting plots are
called Bode diagrams. Find the natural frequency and damping ratio of
a system whose Bode diagram is as shown.

Example 10.5

Example 10.5
Solution
•ωn = 10Hz, ω1 = 9.6 Hz, ω2 = 10.5 Hz, Peak response = -35 dB
•Damping ratio:
2  1 10.5  9.6
   0.045
2n 210.0

• Determination of Modal Data from Nyquist Plot
• Real parts of frequency-response function of 1-DOF system

plotted along horizontal axis
• Imaginary parts of frequency-response function of 1-DOF

system plotted along vertical axis
• Frequency-response function:

 i  
1
 u  iv where r 
1  r  i 2r
2
n
1 r 2  2r
u , v
1  r   4
2 2 2 2
r 1  r   4
2 2 2 2
r
•

• Properties of Nyquist Circle:

• u and v are large when r=1
• 1-r2 = (1+r)(1-r) ≈ 2(1-r) and 2ζr ≈ 2ζ
1 r 
u

2 1 r  
2 2 2
 , v

2 1 r  
2 2 2

2 2
 1   1 
u 2   v     
 4   4 

• Once H(iω) is measured, use least square approach to fit a circle.

•
• Intersection of circle with –ve Im axis corresponds to H(iωn)
• Bandwidth is the difference of the frequencies at the 2 horizontal

diametral points
• Damping ratio:  2    1


2n

• Measurement of Mode Shapes
  
• Undamped multi-DOF system: mx  k x  f

•
•
• Free harmonic vibration:
 i
2
 
k    m yi  0
• Orthogonal relations for mode shapes:

Y T mY   diag M 
Y T k Y   diag K 
Ki
i2 
Mi

• When forcing functions are harmonic,
 
  ~i t 1  ~i t  ~i t
x t   Xe  k    m Fe    Fe
2
    Y  K    M  Y T
2 1
Xp
 pq      pq 
Fq
with F j  0; j 1, 2 ,, N ; j  q
 
N  yi p  yi q

i 1 Ki   2 M i

• Further normalized [Y] as

  
 
[ ]  1 2  N  Y M 
1 / 2
  
 
N 
i p i q
 pq     2
i 1 i  
2

   
• Damped multi-DOF system: mx  cx  k x  f

•
• Assume proportional damping: c  ak   bm
• Undamped mode shapes of the system will diagonalize the damping

matrix:
Y T cY   diag k 


• f
Frequency-response function when is harmonic:
 
 yi p  yi q
N
 pq      pq   ~
i 1 K i   M i  i Ci
2
•
• When mass-normalized mode shapes are used:
  
 
N i p i q
 pq     2 2 ~
i 1 i    2 i  ii

• Substituting ω=ωi into the equation, we get:
  
 
i 
 pq i   H pq i   ~ 2
p i q
    2 i  ii
i
2 2
  
 
i p i q
or  pq i   H pq i  
2 ii2
  
 
or i p i q  2 ii2 H pq i 

Chapter Outline
Introduction
Transducers
Vibration Pickups
Vibration Exciters
Signal Analysis
Machine-Condition Monitoring and
Diagnosis
• Machine operations will cause misalignments,
cracks, unbalances etc in machine parts
• Vibration level will increase until machine failure

occurs

Diagnosis
• Vibration Severity Criteria
Vibration severity charts can be used as a guide to determine machine

condition.
RMS value of vibratory velocity is compared against the criteria set by

the standards.
However the overall velocity signal used for comparison may not give
sufficient warning of the imminent damage.

Diagnosis
• Machine Maintenance Techniques
• Life of machine follows the bathtub curve:

Diagnosis
Breakdown maintenance:
• Allow the machine to fail and then replace it with a
new machine.
• This strategy is used when machine is inexpensive

and no other damage is caused by the breakdown.

Diagnosis
• Preventive maintenance:
• Maintenance performed at fixed intervals.
• Intervals determined statistically from past

experience.
• This method is uneconomical.

Diagnosis
Condition-based/Predictive maintenance:
• Replace fixed-interval overhaul with fixed-interval
measurements.
• Can extrapolate measured vibration levels to predict

when they will reach unacceptable values.
• Maintenance costs are greatly reduced.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis
• Machine Condition Monitoring Technique
• Following methods are used to monitor machine conditions:
•
Aural and visual – a skilled technician will listen and see the
vibrations produced by the machine
• Operational variables monitoring – performance is monitored

wrt intended duty. Deviation denotes a malfunction.

Diagnosis
• Machine Condition Monitoring Technique
• Temperature monitoring – rapid increase in temperature is an indication of

malfunction.
• Wear debris found in lubricating oils can be used to assess extent of

damage by observing concentration, size, shape and colour of the particles.
• Available vibration monitoring techniques.

Diagnosis
• Vibration Monitoring Techniques
Time domain analysis

• E.g. following is an acceleration waveform of a gearbox. Pinion is coupled to
2685 rpm motor.
• Period of waveform same as period of pinion.

• This implies a broken gear tooth on the pinion.

Diagnosis
Statistical Methods
• Peak level, RMS level and crest factor may be used as indices to
identify damage.
•
• Changes in Lissajous figures can be used to identify faults.

Diagnosis
Statistical Methods
• Waveform corresponding to good components will have bell-shaped
probability density curve
• Any deviations can be due to component failure
• First 4 moments of the curve are called the mean, standard deviation, skewness and
kurtosis.

 x  x  f x dx
1
k 4
4
• Kurtosis is defined as
 
• Increase in value of kurtosis can be due to machine component failure

Diagnosis
• Frequency Domain Analysis

• Vibration spectrum is unique to that particular
machine. Its shape changes as faults starts developing.
• Nature and location of the fault can be detected by

comparing the frequency spectrum of the damaged
machine with that of the machine in good condition.

Diagnosis
• Frequency Domain Analysis

• Each rotating element generates identifiable frequency.
• Thus changes in the spectrum at a given freq can be attributed

to the corresponding element.

Diagnosis
• Quefrency Domain Analysis

• Quefrency is the x-axis for cepstrum.
• Cepstrum c(τ) is the inverse fourier transform of the log of the

power spectrum SX(ω).
1 T2
S X    F xt  where F xt    T xt eit dt
2
T 2
• c   F 1log S X  
•
Cepstrum can detect any periodicity in the spectrum caused by
component failure.

Diagnosis

• 2nd gear was at fault although 1st gear was engaged.

Diagnosis
• Instrumentation Systems

• 3 types – basic system, portable system, computer-based system.
• Basic system consists of vibration meter, stroboscope and headset.
• Portable system consists of portable FFT vibration analyzer based on

battery power.
• Computer-based system consists of FFT vibration analyzer coupled

with computer for maintaining centralized database and provide
diagnostic capabilities.

Diagnosis
• Instrumentation Systems
• Piezoelectric accelerometers are commonly used.
• Can choose between acceleration, velocity and displacement to

monitor.
• Velocity is commonly used as the parameter for monitoring the

machine conditions because the velocity spectrum is the flattest.
• Any change in the amplitude can be observed easily in a flatter

spectrum.

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Lesson 7 - Vibration Measurement &amp; Application

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NOISE & VIBRATION

Ir Dr Zainal Fitri B Zainal Abidin

• Why we need to measure vibrations:

3 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

4 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Type of vibration measuring instrument

– Expected range of frequencies and amplitudes

5 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Following slides show some common

7 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Mechanical motion changes electrical resistance, which

• Strain gage is a fine wire bonded to surface where strain

8 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Surface and wire both undergo same strain.

9 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

10 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• ΔR can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge as shown:

11 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Initially, resistances are adjusted so that E=0

• When Ri change by ΔRi,

 R1 R2 R3 R4  R1 R2 R3 R4

12 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• If the leads are connected between pts a and b,

where Rg is the initial resistance of the gauge.

13 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Certain materials generate electrical charge when subjected to

15 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

•A quartz crystal having a thickness of 2.5mm is

17 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

•E = vtpx =(0.055)(0.00254)(344738) = 47.4015V

18 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Output voltage depends on the axial displacement of the core.

20 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Vibration will excite the suspended mass

• Displacement of mass relative to cage: z = x – y

22 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Equation of motion of mass m:

23 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

24 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Measures displacement of a vibrating body

25 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Measuring earthquake - seismometer

26 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

•A vibrometer having a natural frequency of 4 rad/s and ζ =

27 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

•Amplitude of recorded motion:

•Amplitude of vibration of structure:

28 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Measures acceleration of a vibrating body.

  z t n  Y sin t   

29 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Accelerometers are preferred due their small size.

30 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

•An accelerometer has a suspended mass of 0.01 kg with a

31 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

 r  0.6667 1   2 or r 2  0.4444 1   2   (E.2)

•Substitute (E.2) into (E.1): 1.5801ζ4 – 2.2714ζ2 + 0.7576 = 0

k  mn2  0.011368 .8889   18738 .5628 N/m

33 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Application towards automotive measurement

35 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

•Design a velometer if the maximum error is

37 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Substitute (E.2) into (E.1),

Lesson 7 - Vibration Measurement & Application

Lesson 7 - Vibration Measurement & Application