Public Policy Philippines

1. Scholars have developed various public policymaking models over the years in an attempt toexplicate
the process and to teach students andpractitioners how to make public policy. Some scholarsstudy the
policy process generally and try to develop aknowledge base that can be applied across
policydomains.The following are some of the models of policy making. Theseare not the only
theories/models.

2. Policy is a product, authoritatively determined,implemented and evaluated by the government

institutions:Congress, presidency, other elective officials and thebureaucracies both local and national.
In this model, a policy does not become a public policyuntil it is legitimized by government entity
concerned.Government policies provide legal powers that demandobligations from and command
loyalty of the citizens. This typeof policy has its concomitant punitive components. The structure of the
various government institutionscontribute to the context of public policy. The Constitutionserves as the
highest kind of policy to which all other policiesmust subscribe. Laws passed by Congress, executive
orders andjudicial decisions come second in terms of relevance andpriority.

3. The relationship among these politicaland administrative institutions of governmentdetermine to a

large extent the content ofpublic policy. This also clearly describes andvisualizes how the doctrine of
separation ofpowers operates as well as the politics-administration dichotomy.

4. President recommends legislation; may convene Congress; may veto legislation Congress creates
departments &LEGISLATIVE appropriates money; confirms EXECUTIVE BRANCH appointments; can
override veto and BRANCH impeach President JUDICIAL BRANCH Source: Dye (1995)

5. A theoretical model of how public policy decisions are (or perhaps ought to be)taken. All possible
options or approaches to solving the problem under study areidentified and the costs and benefits of
each option are assessed and compared with eachother. The option that promises to yield the greatest
net benefit is selected. Rational policy is one that achieves “maximum social gain”; that is, governments
should choose policies resulting in gains to the society that exceeds cost by the greatest amount, and
governments should refrain from policies if costs are not exceeded by gain.Basic Assumptions of
Rational Model•System is stable;•The government is a rational and unitary actor and that its actions
areperceived as rational choices;•The policy problem is unambiguous;•Well defined objectives are
established; alternatives and consequencesare known; preferences are clear; there are no limitations of
time or cost;and,•Policy as maximum social advantage that maximizes the economicbenefit.

6. Rational-Comprehensive Model 1. Establishment of complete set of operational goals with weights 4.

6. INPUT 3. Prepara Compari- All resources Preparation of 5. son of net needed for complete set -tion of
Calcula- expecta- pure complete OUTPUT of alternative rationality tion of net tions and policies set of
Pure process expecta- identifica- predic- rationality tion for tion of tions of policy each alterna- benefits
alternative tive/s with and costs highest net for each expectation All data alternative needed for 2.
Establishment pure rationality of complete process inventory of other values and of resources with
weights
7. Simply put, all considerations are looked into before the decision is made. But is this the reality in
decision making? There are a lot of assumptions, requirements without which therational decision
model is a failure. Therefore, they all have to be considered.The model assumes that we have or should
or can obtain adequateinformation, both in terms of quality, quantity and accuracy. It further
assumesthat you have or should or can obtain substantive knowledge of the cause andeffect
relationships relevant to the evaluation of the alternatives. In otherwords, it assumes that you have a
thorough knowledge of all the alternativesand the consequences of the alternatives chosen.The
following are the limitations for the Rational Decision Making Model: requires a great deal of time
requires great deal of information assumes rational, measurable criteria are available and agreed upon
assumes accurate, stable and complete knowledge of all thealternatives, preferences, goals and
consequences assumes a rational, reasonable, non – political world

8. The main problem with rational-comprehensive approaches is that it is often verycostly in terms of
time and other resources thatmust be devoted to gathering the relevantinformation. Often the costs
and benefits of thevarious options are very uncertain and difficult toquantify for rigorous comparison.
The costs ofundertaking rational-comprehensive decision-making may themselves exceed the benefits
to begained in improved quality of decisions..

9. Incremental ModelThe Incremental Model Slowly building the blocks

10. The incremental model emphasizes the structured sequenceof activities that are leading to the
solution to a problem. This model suggests that major decisions are broken down insmall steps taking
place in three major phases: the identification,development, & selection phases. Incremental trial-and-
error process is needed to solve a bigproblem in small steps. When roadblocks are hit, decisionmaking
can recycle back to the last known good state. The policyprocess is one of disjointed incrementalism or
muddling through. Make incremental decisions to achieve an objective and avoidtotal commitment to a
decision you cannot change if the stakesare high and the situation allows. In each small step you do
notfundamentally “rock the boat”.

11. Characteristics of Incrementalism (muddling through) •Public policy deals with moving targets; •The
process is not completely rational, analysis is limited, information isambiguous and subject to
interpretation; •Different stakeholders may hold varied opinions about means and ends; •The process
of mutual adjustment of many actors with their own interests andperceptions about what is the public
interest or good; •Helps to forge compromise and reduce unnecessary conflicts; Helps to build
legitimacy; and, Forecasting helps decision making in uncertain contexts; yet, the political shortterm
may remain the main concern (e.g. elections).

12. Incrementalism is the antithesis of intrusivecentral planning, which can create rigid work
systemsunable to deal with the actual problems faced at thegrassroots level. Some scholars point to a
danger associated withfocusing on incremental decision rather than "systemicoverhaul." The danger is
that any solutions reached willinvolve only relatively insignificant changes for the existingconflict
situation and that these changes will be made "onlyat the margin." Radical innovations may be lost if
parties areoverly cautious in their attempts to come to an agreement.
13. Problem streamSolution stream Window of opportunityPolitical stream The Streams Model

14. The multiple streams model of policy-making is defined by J.W.Kingdon (1984). The model which
focuses more on the flow and timing of policyaction than on its component steps, is useful in
understanding thecomplexities and realities of policy-making. In this model, particular attention is paid
to three streams:the problem stream, the policy stream, and the political stream, whichmove
independently through the policy system As noted by Porter and Hicks, this model aims to explain
whysome issues and problems become prominent in the policy agenda andare eventually translated into
concrete policies, while others neverachieve that prominence. Kingdon’s starting point is the "garbage
canmodel" of policy-making, developed in 1972 by Cohen, March, and Olsen.This model contradicts the
rational approach to decision-making, claimingthat policies are not the product of rational actions,
because policy actorsrarely evaluate many alternatives for action and because they do notcompare
them systematically.

15. Kingdon’s model underlines theexistence of three distinct, butcomplementary, processes, orstreams,
in policy-making. It is thecoupling of these streams thatallows, at a given time and in agiven context, for
a particular issueto be turned into a policy.

16. The emergence of a major problem or issue,the proposal of a solution, and a conclusivepolitical
climate are important factors in order fora problem to be placed on the government’sagenda. The
arrival of a window of opportunity isalso usually required for the government to take aproblem into
consideration. Such a window ofopportunity may be predictable (e.g. an election)or unpredictable (e.g.
a crisis).

17. The problem steam The rationale behind this stream is that a given situation has to be identified and
explicitly formulated as a problem or issue for it to bear the slightest chance of being transformed into a
policy. A situation that is not defined as a problem/issue, and for whichalternatives are never envisaged
or proposed, will never be convertedinto a policy. The feeling that a current or foreseen situation is
wrongand that something should, and can, be done to modify and/or improveit is thus a prerequisite for
turning an issue into a policy. Moreover, it is necessary to be able to demonstrate that theproblems
mentioned can actually be attributed to causes within humancontrol and thus that action can be taken
to change the situation.

18. The solution streamThis stream is concerned with the formulation of policyalternatives and
proposals.New policies will never be shaped if there are no ideas orpolicy proposals on which they can
be based anddeveloped.An important aspect of the streams model developed byKingdon is linked to the
idea that such proposals andsolutions, which must be technically feasible, are not initiallybuilt to resolve
given problems; rather they float in search ofproblems to which they can be tied.

19. The political stream Although they take place independently ofthe other two streams, political
events, such as animpending election or a change in government, canlead a given topic and policy to be
included orexcluded from the agenda. Indeed, the dynamic and special needscreated by a political event
may change theagenda.
20. It is not always necessary for all three streams to meetsimultaneously for a policy to develop. In
some cases, partial couplings,the convergence of two of the streams, are sufficient. Contrary to the
other models, the streams model does notpicture the policy-making process as one that involves steps
andstages. Rather, it views the policy process as the result of theintersection of at least two
independent streams at one time. In thismodel, there is no chronological sequence or priority among
thestreams. Streams act and react according to their own logic, until awindow of opportunity is opened
and two or more streams coincide andbecome a policy.

21. This model shows that the top of political and economic hierarchies setthe institutional agenda (top-
bottom style). It focuses on who sets the agenda.Elites include political officials, corporate
representatives, interest groups, andother influential people and institutions. Agenda setting is viewed
as follows: Elites on their own randomly select issues they specialize in, or observe hierarchies like
congressional committee structure. Society’s elites may select issues that serve their own interests and
ignore the public’s interest. The elitist model has the following key assumptions: there exists a dominant
class (elites) that monopolize political power; and, ordinary citizens (the masses) have relatively little
power over matters that are of concern to elites

22. Policy DirectionPolicy Execution Masses

23. Policies may be classified in many different ways. They help usto understand when there is likely to
be a conflict over the adoption,enactment, and implementation of policies. The following are samplesof
several different types of policies:a.Reactive and Proactive policyb.Substantive and Administrative
policyc.Vertical and horizontal policyd. Redistributive and distributive policy

24. Reactive policy emerges in response to a concern or crisis from theinternal or external environments
by: resolving problems and issues meeting stakeholder/public concerns reacting to decisions by other
governments, other levels of government, or other departments with intersecting orinterrelated
mandates allocating fiscal resources, natural resources, etc. reacting to media attention (generally
adverse) reacting to crises or emergencies.

25. Proactive policy is introduced and pursued through deliberate choice. Itregularly scans its operating
environment, identifying potential issuesand factors that could affect the organization and predicts and
preparesto mitigate contingency through:Planningstrategic managementrisk managementcriteria
selectionpriority making

26. Substantive policy is concerned with the legislation, programs andpractices that govern the
substantive (content) of what the community needs. Itis about particular and specific issues - what
government does. Administrative or procedural policy focuses largely upon administrativeprocedures. It
is a policy that structures how the political process works - howthe government does things

27. Vertical policy is the normal or traditionalway in which policy decisions are made. It isdeveloped
within a single organizational structureand generally starts with broad overarching policy,sometimes
called “corporate” or “framework” policy. Decisions are made at head office and guidesubsequent
decisions throughout the organization.At the regional level, regional or “strategic” policy isdeveloped,
which translates the national decisionsto the regional level, taking into consideration thespecific
requirements of the locus.

28. Department Secretary (HEAD OFFICE) Bureau Bureau BureauRegional Office Regional Office Regional
Office Regional Office Division Division Division

29. Horizontal policy-making, referred to asintegrated policy, is developed by two or moreorganizations,

each of which has authority or abilityto deal with only a part of the situation. It is createdamong
organizational components that are similarin hierarchical position. Horizontal issues are challenging
because somany players control one tool, one key. All of thekeys need to be aligned to bring a suitable
andappropriate result.

30. Horizontal Policy Public DOH PNP DILG DepEd Public Policy Policy

31. Other Classification of Policies Process Primary Policy Type Scope Applicable Duration Characteristics
MakersStatutory Societal Governs Practice In Force Until In Force Until Public Succeeded By Succeeded
ByConstitution / Norm Of Individuals & Deliberation • Constitutional • ConstitutionalCharter
Organizations & Notice Amendment AmendmentLaws Throughout • New Law • New LawAppellate
Court Jurisdiction (i.e. • Appellate Court • Appellate CourtDecisions State/Nation) Decision Decision-
Fiscal Policy Resources For • Fiscal Period Public • Legislative & Implementation Priority Policies
Deliberation & ExecutiveAnnual Budget • Subject To Notice Approval Revision OrActs & Repeal By
Plenary • UniversityResolutions Body Trustees

32. Process Primary Policy Type Scope Applicable Duration Characteristics Makers-Regulatory • Within
Governs Practice Subject To • Agency Action. Cabinet Officers Scope Of Of Individuals & Revision Or &
AgencyAdministrative • Public Notice Primary Organizations In Repeal By DirectorsRules • Legislative
Policy. A Specific Policy Plenary Body Or Approval. Area Agency Action • Force of LawInstitutional •
Define Govern Agency/ Subject To • Internal • Agency Officials Operating Institutional Staff Revision Or
OrganizationalPolicy Manual & • University Policies & Consumers Repeal By Process. Trustees
&Standards. Plenary Body Or • Professional • Limited Public AdministrationTenure & Agency Action
Standards Notice FacultyAppointmentArticulationAgreements

33. Public interest: The common good has to be balanced against theprivate or special interests. The
process should be fully inclusive forthose often overlooked or unable to participate.Effectiveness: Does
the policy achieve its stated goals?Efficiency: Are resources fully utilized in achieving goals
andimplementing policy?Economy: Objective and procedures done at the least cost.Consistency:
Aligned with the broader goals of government and theConstitution.Fairness and equity: Is the policy fair
and just to all members andsectors of society.Reflective: Is policy in consonance with values of freedom,
security,diversity, communality, choice, and privacy

34. Socially acceptable: Citizens and interest groups acceptthat the policy reflects their important values,
e.g.,fairness and equity, consistency, justice.Politically viable: The policy has the support of
electedofficials and they are comfortable with the decision.Technically correct: The policy complies with
scientific ortechnical criteria established to guide or support thedecision.Participative: Demands from
the general public, or"bottom up" initiatives, can be as influential as "topdown" directives. Educated and
informed public can bemobilized to demand and support desired initiatives.

35. I. Identify an area or problem where a public policy wasestablished. What model/s was/were used in
theprocess of its creation. Justify your answer.2.Among the models of making public policy, which is
moreconducive to serving public interest and demands? Why?3.Are all governments governments of the
elite? Useexamples to prove your contention.4.Using the following factors/criteria: public
interest,effectiveness, fairness and consistency, evaluate theproposed constitutional amendment giving
foreigners sameeconomic rights as Filipinos in owning land properties,businesses and public utilities in
the Philippines.

36. I