Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

for wind in a one-story reinforced concrete building where it has been determined that the roof slab is a rigid diaphragm. The
LFRS system consists of a moment frame and a shear wall in the direction of analysis (the lateral stiffness of a frame or wall
about its weak axis is considered to be negligible compared to the lateral stiffness about its strong axis, so only those elements
in the direction of analysis are assumed to be part of the LFRS in that direction). The load paths would be essentially the same in
regularly-shaped, multistory buildings where dynamic effects caused by wind would be negligible.

As discussed in Section 4.2.1 of this publication, wind forces are directly proportional to the areas of exposed surfaces that
receive wind. The wind load path through this building is as follows (Note: Only the wind pressures acting on the LFRS in the
direction of analysis are shown in Figure 6.2; the negative wind pressures acting over the surface of the roof slab and the side
walls are not shown):

1. T
 he windward and leeward walls, which are identical in this example and which are supported laterally by the roof dia-
phragm, are subjected to the tributary windward and leeward wind pressures, respectively, determined at the roof level in
accordance with ASCE/SEI Chapter 27 or 28 (see Section 4.2.1 of this publication). The wind pressures acting on the thick-
ness of the roof slab on both sides of the windward and leeward walls are assumed to be negligible in this example and
are not shown in the figure. The summation of the windward and leeward pressures is the total wind pressure, , in the
direction of analysis, and that pressure is applied on the windward wall, as shown in Figure 6.2. The total wind pressure is
transferred to the edge of the roof diaphragm as a line load, which is equal to where the mean roof height of
the building.
2. B
 ecause the diaphragm is rigid, the total wind force, , is transferred from the diaphragm to the frame and
wall based on their relative rigidities where is the width of the windward and leeward walls. In the typical case where
the point of application of the total wind force and the CR do not coincide, the diaphragm undergoes rigid body displace-
ment and rotation (see Section 6.3.3). If the diaphragm were flexible, the frame and shear wall would each resist
and there would be no torsion.
3. T
 he frame and wall transfer their respective wind forces to their foundations, which subsequently transmit them into the
ground. In the case of the shear wall, which is supported on a spread footing in this example, the soil pressure distribution
beneath the spread footing shown in Figure 6.2 includes the effects from gravity forces tributary to the wall. The reactions
at the bases of the columns in the moment frame due to wind effects only are shown in the free-body diagram; the ef-
fects due to gravity forces are not shown. In all cases, the combined effects due to gravity and wind forces (and any other
applicable forces) must be used to determine the size and required reinforcement for all the structural members in this
load path.
Because wind can occur from any direction, wind pressures must be determined in the opposite direction to that shown in Fig-
ure 6.2 and in the two perpendicular directions. Similar load paths must be established in those directions.

The path of seismic forces through this building is very similar to the one for wind forces. The main difference is that the resul-
tant of the in-plane inertial force, which is determined in accordance with ASCE/SEI 12.10.1 (see Section 4.2.3 of this publica-
tion), is applied at the center of mass (CM) at the roof level. Additional information on the horizontal distribution of lateral forces
to the vertical elements of the LFRS is given in Section 6.3.3.

6.3.3 Horizontal Distribution of Lateral Forces

Overview

As noted previously, the horizontal distribution of lateral forces to the elements of the LFRS in a building with rigid diaphragms
depends on the relative stiffness of these elements and their location with respect to the CR. The location of the CR must be
determined on a floor/roof level prior to lateral force allocation.

Center of Rigidity (CR)

By definition, the CR is the point on a floor/roof level where the equivalent story stiffness is assumed to be located. It is often
referred to as the stiffness centroid. For buildings with rigid diaphragms, application of a lateral force through that point produces
only rigid body displacement of the story. Displacement and rotation occur where the lateral force is applied at any point other
than the CR. Depending on the structural layout, the CR can be at different locations on different levels in a building.

For the reinforced concrete building in Figure 6.3, it is assumed that only the shear walls labeled 1 to 4 are part of the LFRS. The
following equations, which are applicable to any type of LFRS and not just to shear walls, can be used to locate the CR in the
x-direction ( ) and in the y-direction ( ):

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Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

(6.1)

(6.2)

where in-plane lateral stiffness of lateral-force-resisting element i in the y-direction

in-plane lateral stiffness of lateral-force-resisting element i in the x-direction

distance in the x-direction from the origin to the centroid of lateral-force-resisting element i

distance in the y-direction from the origin to the centroid of lateral-force-resisting element i

The in-plane stiffness, , can be obtained

by any rational method, including the ap-
proximate methods presented later in this ④
section. In Figure 6.3, the origin from which
all distances are measured is at the centroid
of the lower-left column; in general, it can be
CR
positioned anywhere when determining the

𝑦𝑦�
location of the CR. ②

All the elements of the LFRS that are parallel ①

𝑦𝑦��
to the direction of analysis are included in

𝑦𝑦�
Equations (6.1) and (6.2); it is commonly ③
assumed that out-of-plane resistance of a
lateral-force-resisting element is negligible 𝑥𝑥�

compared to its in-plane resistance. Thus, 𝑥𝑥��

when determining the location of the CR in
𝑥𝑥�
the x-direction by Equation (6.1), only the
stiffnesses of walls 1 and 2 are considered. Figure 6.3 Location of Center of Rigidity (CR)
Note that a portion of wall 3 (that is, an ef-
fective flange width) may be included when
determining the stiffness of wall 1. Similarly, when deter- 𝛿𝛿� 𝑉𝑉�
mining the location of the CR in the y-direction by Equation
(6.2), only the stiffness of wall 3 (including an effective flange
width of wall 1, if desired) and wall 4 are considered.
ℎ�

If wall 3 (without an effective flange) and wall 4 have the

same thickness and length, are constructed from the same
concrete mix, and are located symmetrically in the plan of
the building in the y-direction, the CR in the y-direction can be ℓ�
determined by inspection: it is located midway between the 𝑉𝑉�
two walls. In the x-direction, the CR will most likely be closer
to wall 2 than to wall 1 because wall 2 appears to be stiffer Figure 6.4 Lateral Displacement of a Story in a Rigid Frame
than wall 1 based on its length and thickness.

Approximate In-plane Stiffness of Elements of the LFRS 𝑉𝑉�

The following approximate methods can be used to deter-
mine in-plane stiffnesses of moment frames and shear walls.
𝛿𝛿� 𝛿𝛿�
These stiffnesses can be utilized in equivalent beam models,
ℎ�

where applicable, to determine in-plane internal forces in

rigid diaphragms (see Section 6.4 of this publication).

Rigid Frames. For the two-dimensional rigid frame in Figure

𝑉𝑉�
6.4 subjected to the lateral force, , which produces the de-
(a) (b)
flection, , the following equation can be used to determine
an approximate equivalent story stiffness, : Figure 6.5 Lateral Displacement of a Wall or Pier

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 Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

(6.3)

where modulus of elasticity of concrete

column length

column stiffness

moment of inertia of column in the direction of analysis

beam stiffness

moment of inertia of beam

beam length

The summations in Equation (6.3) pertain to all the columns and beams in a story.

Solid Walls. The lateral stiffness of a solid wall or pier about its major axis is a function of both flexural and shear displacements
and the support conditions (fixed or pinned) at the top and bottom of the member. Displacement components for the walls in
Figure 6.5, which are subjected to the lateral force, , that produces the total displacements, , are given in Table 6.1. The wall
on the left is assumed to be fixed at both ends and the one on the right is fixed at one end and pinned at the other.

In the table, is the moment of inertia of Table 6.1 Flexure and Shear Components of Lateral Deflection of a Solid
the wall or pier in the direction of analysis, Wall or Pier
is the shear modulus of concrete (which
is usually taken as ), and is the Support Condition Flexural Deflection, δFi Shear Deflection, δVi
cross-sectional area of the wall or pier.
Fixed at top
The total stiffness of a wall or pier, , can Fixed at bottom
be determined by the following equation:
Fixed at top
(6.4) Pinned at bottom

where is the flexural stiffness of the wall and is the shear stiffness of the wall. The method out-
lined above is valid for solid walls without any openings. An approximate method that yields accurate results for walls with one
or more openings of any size and location can be found in Reference 9.

Horizontal Distribution of Wind Forces

It is generally assumed that total wind pressure
(windward plus leeward pressures) at a roof or ④
floor level in a building acts over the tributary �Term 2��
②
story height and is uniformly distributed over
the width of the building that is perpendicular to �Term 1�� ���
the pressure (see Figure 4.1). The resultant wind CR
①
force acts through the centroid of the building
face at that level, as shown in Figure 4.2 for the �Term 2��
�Term 2�� �Term 1��
building in Figure 4.1.
���

𝑥𝑥̅� 𝑥𝑥̅�
In the usual case where the resultant wind
force does not act through the CR (either due to �Term 2��

geometry or minimum eccentricity requirements ③

of ASCE/SEI 7), a rigid diaphragm translates and
𝑉𝑉�
rotates (see Figure 6.6 for the building in Figure
𝐵𝐵⁄𝐵 𝑒𝑒�
6.3).
The wind force, , induces horizontal forces in 𝐵𝐵
the elements of the main wind force-resisting
Figure 6.6 Resultant Wind Force Not Acting Through the CR

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Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Diaphragms

system (MWFRS) in the direction of the wind in proportion to the stiffness of those elements. Additionally, the torsional mo-
ment, , which is equal to in this case, induces horizontal forces in the elements of the MWFRS in the direction of the
wind and in the direction perpendicular to the wind based on the stiffness of the elements, the location of the elements with
respect to the CR, and the overall torsional resistance of all the elements of the MWFRS in both directions.

The following equation can be used to determine the portion of the total story shear, , in the y-direction that is resisted
by element i of the MWFRS considering both direct and torsional shear forces:

(6.5)

where perpendicular distance from the centroid of element i to the CR parallel to the x-axis

perpendicular distance from the centroid of element i to the CR parallel to the y-axis

Term 1 in Equation (6.5) is the portion of the total story shear that is to be resisted by element i based on relative stiffness. Only
the elements of the MWFRS parallel to the y-direction share this force (see Figure 6.6, which indicates Term 1 forces for walls
1 and 2 in the direction resisting the applied wind force, ). Term 2 is the shear force that is to be resisted by element i that
is generated by the torsional moment . The elements of the MWFRS in both directions share the shear forces generated
by this moment (see Figure 6.6, which indicates Term 2 forces for all four walls in the directions resisting the applied clockwise
torsional moment). It is important to note that the forces in walls 3 and 4 are calculated using Term 2 with the numerator equal
to instead of . The denominator of this term is the torsional stiffness of all the walls and is analogous to the polar
moment of inertia of a section. Term 2 would be equal to zero in this equation if acts through the CR; in such cases, the floor
would translate as a rigid body and the elements of the MWFRS would all displace an equal amount horizontally.

Similarly, the portion of the total story shear, , in the x-direction that is resisted by element i of the MWFRS can be
determined by the following equation:

(6.6)

The forces in walls 1 and 2 in this case are calculated using Term 2 in this equation with the numerator equal to instead
of .

Term 2 forces in Equations (6.5) and (6.6) may be either positive or negative depending on the location of the element with
respect to the CR. For example, for wind forces in the y-direction, the Term 2 force for wall 2 acts in the opposite direction of the
Term 1 force (see Figure 6.6). To properly capture the maximum force effects on an element, wind acting in the opposite direc-
tion must also be considered.

Horizontal Distribution of Seismic Forces

The center of mass (CM) is the location on a level of a building where the mass of the entire story is assumed to be concen-
trated. Because the mass of the floor/roof system is usually much larger than the mass of the vertical elements (columns and
walls), a good approximation for the location of the CM is at the centroid of the floor area where the same floor/roof system is
used throughout the entire level. This is the location where the seismic force for the story is assumed to act (see Figure 4.6).

In the case of rigid diaphragms, the seismic force induces a torsional moment where the CM and the CR do not coincide. In
general, this inherent torsional moment, , is equal to the seismic force times the eccentricity between the CM and the CR
that is perpendicular to the direction of analysis (see Figure 4.6).

According to ASCE/SEI 12.8.4.2, an accidental torsional moment, , must also be included for buildings with diaphragms that
are not flexible that possess one or more of the horizontal irregularities given in ASCE/SEI Table 12.3-1. This accidental torsional

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