PHYSICS LAB REPORT # 03.

IMCG-F/6-2 STREET # 25 | BS-MATHS | SEMESTER # 01.

12th Jan , 2021

SUBMITTED TO : MA'AM TAHIRA .

SUBMITTED BY : SALIHA YOUNAS MINHAS .

COURSE : PHYSICS .

COURSE CODE : PH:101.

LAB CODE : PH:LAB – 3

EXPERIMENT # 03 .

EXPERIMENT NAME : DETERMINE MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OF MATERIAL OF A

HELICAL SPRING .

THEORY :

 MODULUS OF RIGIDITY ;
To explain modulus of rigidity , it is first necessary to understand concept of elasticity and the terms related
with it .
 ELASTICITY :
The solid objects are considered to be rigid . A rigid body is that in which inter-particle distance is not
changed during its motion or when forces are applied on it . In fact no solid object is perfectly rigid because
it is considered as a spherical cloud of negative charge with positive charge at their center nucleus . So all
solid objects are deformed to some extent under the effect of deforming force . However if deforming force
is not too large I.e : within elastic limit then the objects regain their original shape on removal of deforming
force . This property of solid is known as elasticity .
 STRESS :
When a deforming is applied on a solid object an equal anf opposite restoring force is developed in the
object provided the applied force does not exceed the elastic limit . This restoring force per unit area of the
surface on which it acts , is known as stress .
 STRAIN :
The degree of deformation produced in the dimensions or shape of object is known as strain .
 Deforming forces can be applied on the object in different ways providing kinds of stresses and strains . They
are described below ;

 If deforming force is applied in one normal to the surface on which it acts , then the resulting restoring force
per unit area of the surface on which it acts , is called normal stress . it may either elongate or compress
the object . if it elongates the object then the stress is called tensile strain when it causes a decrease in
length of object then it is called compressive stress. Change in length per unit original length , so produced ,
is called longitudinal or tensile strain . For example : if we suspend a load from a long wire whose upper
end is fixed then stress is per unit cross-sectional area and strain is tensile . If “L” is the original length of
wire and “∆L” is increased in its length then ,
Tensile Strain = ∆L / L

 If deforming forces are applied from all sides normally on surface of object then the stress is again normal
stress but the strain is volumetric and is defined as change in volume per unit volume . For Example : if an
object is applied on it then it will act on object from all sides normally . if “V” is originally volume and “∆V”
is change in volume then ,
Volumetric Strain = ∆V / V

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  If deforming forces also torques or couple are applied tangentially to the surface on which they act , then
they will not produce any appreciable change in volume of the object . Instead of it they may change shape
of the object . The stress produced in this case is called tangential stress and the strain is called shearing
strain . It is defined as ratio of displacement say ‘x' of the surface on which deforming force is applied
opposite surface being fixed to the length of object say ‘L’ of the transverse side the side of object
perpendicular to the direction of tangential force .
In the figure lower side ‘dc’ of a rectangular block is fixed while upper side ‘ab’ is displaced under the effect
of applied tangential force to new position ‘a , b' .
Tangential stress = F/A
Where A is area of the surface o. Which tangential force F is applied .
Shearing Strain = x / L = tan Φ
If Φ is very small then ,
Tan Φ = Φ ( in radians )
So shearing strain = Φ … … …

 ELASTIC LIMIT :
The maximum stress , or removal of which object regains its original shape and size or volume , is known as
elastic limit or yeild strength . if stress exceeds elastic limit , the object is permanently deformed .
 HOOKE'S LAW :

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 This law states that with in elastic limit strain is directly proportional to stress I.e : ratio of stress to strain is
constant . This constant is known as modulus of elasticity . There are three types of modulii of elasticity
depending kind of strain .
o YOUNG'S MODULUS :
If deforming force is applied in only one direction then it will produce tensile or compressive strain . Ratio of
normal stress to tensile or compressive strain is called Young's Modulus and is denoted by ‘Y' , Normal
stress Tensile or compressive Strain .
Y = Normal Stress / Tensile (or Compressed ) Strain .

It is usually determined for objects whose one side is much longer than other side e.g : a long wire .

Y = F ÷ A / ∆L ÷ L = FL / A ∆L

Where ‘F’ is applied or restoring force on cross-sectional Ares ‘A’ of wire acting normally .

o BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY :

If deforming forces are applied on the whole surface of an object normally then they will produce volumetric
strain . Ratio of normal stress to volumetric strain is known as bulk modulus of elasticity and is denoted by
‘E’ .
E = Normal Stress / Volumetric Strain .
It is usually determined for solids where sides are comparable to one on other and for fluids also .
E = F ÷ A / ∆L / L = FV / A∆V
Here A is total surface area of object on which deforming or restoring force F acts normally .
o MODULUS OF RIGIDITY :
If deforming forces also torques or couple are applied tangentially on the surface on which they act , the
strain produced by them will be shearing strain . Ratio of tangential stress to shearing strain is known as
modulus of rigidity and is denoted by ‘ η ‘

FORMULA USED :

η = 16 πR^2N(M+m/3) / r^4 T^2

( R = R' – r )

Where R is outer radius .

R' is effective radius of helical spring .

r is radius of wire .

N is number of turns of helical spring .

M is total mass suspended from spring .

m is the mass of the spring .

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 T is the Time-period of oscillations of spring .

APPARATUS :

 A helical spring .
 Hanger
 Slotted weights .
 Iron stand .
 Stop Watch .
 Vernier callipers .
 Screw gauge .
 Physical Balance ( or electronic Balance )

PROCEDURE : HOW TO PERFORM :

 Step # 01 : Take a helical spring made by winding a hardwire usually of steel over a cylinder . The ends of
spring are bent in the form of hooks . After stretching them along axis of spring . The radius of spring should
be much larger than that of a wire .
 Step # 02 : Measure diameter of wire at three different positions . At each position take two readings of
diameters at right angles to each other with the help of screw guage . Find mean of the six readings of
diameters so measured and then find mean radius r of wire . Before using the screen gauge its pitch and
least count should be determined and its zero error should be checked . In case it has zero error , find zero
correction and apply it to mean value of diameter .
 Steep # 03 : Measure outer diameter of the helical spring at three different positions and take two readings
of perpendicular diameters at each position with the help of Vernier Callipers . Find mean value of outer
diameter and then of outer radius R' . Before using Vernier Callipers its Vernier Constant should be
measured and its zero error should be checked . In case of it has zero error , find zero correction and apply
it to mean value of diameter of spring .
Find effectives radius “R” of the spring by using the relation
R = R' – r
 Step # 04 : Find mass m of spring wire by a physical or electronic balance and count its number of turns N
 Step # 05 : Clamp upper hook of the spring to iron stand and suspend hanger from lower end of wire by
keeping the spring in vertical position . Add slotted weights of suitable mass M to hanger so that the spring
is stretched slightly within elastic limit .
 Step # 06 : Pull the hanger downward slightly and then release it . It will oscillate vertically . Measure time
of 20 oscillations with stop watch twice and then find mean time of 20 oscillations . Then by dividing it with
20 find time period T .
 Step # 07 : By putting values of all quantities in the formulae ;

η = 16 πR^2N(M+m/3) / r^4 T^2

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 Calculate value of modulus of rigidity η of material of the spring .

 Step # 08 : Repeat steps #6 & #7 for different slotted Weights in the hanger . Then find mean value of η .

PRECAUTIONS :

 T

 T
 U
 T
 T


DIAGRAM :

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OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS :

Diameter of spring = D = 0.80 cm .

Outer Radius of spring = R' = D / 2 = 0.40 cm .

Diameter of spring = d = 0.92 mm = 0.092 cm.

Radius of wire = r = 0.046 cm .

Effective radius of helical spring = R = R' – r

= 0.40 – 0.046

= 0.354

Number of turns of spring = N = 63 .

Mass of spring = m = 3.5 kg .

Serial #. Mass Time for Time for Mean Time

Suspende 20 20 Time Period
d vibrations vibrations
[including
a hanger ]
M t1 t2 t= T= t/20 T^2 M+m/3 M+m/3
t1+t2/2 T^2
grams sec sec sec sec Sec^2 gram Gram/
sec^2
#1.
#2.
#3.
#4.

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Physics lab report # 03.