Roman Civilization

● Geography and the Roman Civilization

○ Rome is a city in Italy, which is located in south-central Europe. Italy was

derived from the Latin term Italus, referring to a legendary ruler named as such.
Italy is surrounded by the Adriatic Sea, Ionian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, and the
Ligurian Sea. It also has several islands in which Corsica and Sardinia, situated
in the Mediterranean Sea, are the largest.
○ The Alps and Apennines mountain range are located in Northern Italy, which
served as natural barriers from invading enemies. The land in the east and west of
the Apennines is very fertile, which is suitable for farming. That is why the Italians
cultivate crops such as wheat, corn, potatoes, and sugar beets. Animals like cows
and goats graze at the pasture land. The country is also rich in minerals like iron
and copper.
● Ancient Rome
○ Between 1000 and 500 B.C.E.. ancient communities were established in
the Italian Peninsula by three groups of people: the Latina the Greeks,
and the Etruscans.
○ In 1000 B.C.E., a group of Indo-Europeans, the Latins, migrated to Italy.
They lived in the region of Latium on both sides of the Tiber River. The
Latins were considered as the first Romans, since then were the first to
build communities in one of the Seven Hills of Rome the Palatine Hill.
○ Around 750-600 B.C.E., the Greeks migrated and established colonies in
the southern part of Italy and in Sicily. Etruscans, on the other hand,
were natives of north Italy. Around 650 B.C.E., the Etruscans invaded
Latium.
● Etruscan Rule
○ For more than a century, Latium communities were under the control of
Etruscan kings. The Tarquin Family was the most powerful Etruscan clan.
Under their leadership, Rome became the richest and biggest city in the
entire Italian peninsula.
○ Contribution:The Forum is a plaza or center of political, social, and
commercial life of the Romans. It was here where they assembled and
performed collective activities such as competitions and elections.
○ In 509 B.C.E., the Romans triumphantly achieved independence after
they ousted the last Etruscan king, Tarquin the Proud. The miserable
experience under their abusive leaders pushed the Romans to form a
government headed by leaders who were elected by its citizens—the
republic.

THE REPUBLIC OF ROME

○ Two classes: patricians and plebeians.
■ The patricians consisted of nobles and owners of huge lands.
■ The plebeians consisted of families who were the last to
reside in Rome and common laborers, farmers, and traders.
■ The plebeians protested in 494 B.C.E
● An assembly was formed in 494 B.C.E.
● It was made up of ten members, called tribunes, which
had the power to make laws for the plebeians. As time
passed, they also gained the power to make laws for
 the Republic.
● In 451 B.C.E., the plebeians gained victory through the
creation of the Twelve Tables, laws that were listed in 12
tablets. The tablets were posted in the Forum. With the
Twelve Tables, the arbitrary interpretation of laws was
ended and the rights of the plebeians in connection, for
example, with marriage, slavery, and punishment were
promoted.
○ Government Structures
■ From a monarchy led by a king, Rome became a republic
headed by consuls.
■ The consuls governed every aspect of the Roman society.
● They had limited powers.
● They only served for a year.
● They could not serve a second term within ten years. A
consul had the power to reject, or veto, the decisions of
his co-consul.
■ The Senate consisted of 300 patricians. They served for life.
Their duty was to create laws.
■ In times of crisis and war, the Senate appointed a dictator.
The dictator had absolute powers and ruled the army. He,
however, can only serve for six months.
○ Roman Army
● All Roman citizens who owned land were obligated to
serve in the army.
■ Large army groups were called legions.
● A legion usually consisted of 6000 legionaries or
Roman soldiers.
● The legion was divided into smaller units called
centuries. A century comprised 60 to 120 legionaries.
○ Expansion of Roman Power
■ In 265 B.C.E.,, the Romans successfully
conquered the entire Italian Peninsula, except for Po Valley.
■ After dominating the peninsula, the
Romans aimed to become the most powerful in the
Mediterranean. They wanted control over the maritime trade
 in the region. To accomplish this, they foresaw Sicily as an
important part in their imperialistic aims but met a strong
rival in the powerful Carthaginian Empire.
○ Punic Wars
■ Punic is the Roman word for “Carthaginian”.
■ The conflict between Rome and Carthage for the control of
Sicily and the west Mediterranean resulted in the-
■ First Punic War in 264 B.C.E. The Punic is the Roman word
that lasted for 23 years. In 241 B.C.E., Rome defeated
Carthage and took Sicily "Carthaginian."

Carthage (present-day Tunisia) was a colony of Phoenicia around 800 B.C.E. When it
gained freedom, the Carthaginians developed their city and built a strong empire in
the Mediterranean region. During the third century B.C.E., northern Africa, southern
Spain, the islands of Sardinia, Corsica, and western Sicily were under its control.

○ Second Punic War in 219 B.C.E.-202

■ In his desire to avenge the defeat of Carthage from Rome, a
Carthaginian general by the name of Hannibal led an army of
59 000 soldiers and 60 elephants in attacking Rome. To
 deceive the enemy, Hannibal traversed the longer route from
Spain, France, and across the Alps to conquer northern Italy.
■ The Carthaginians achieved the greatest triumph in Cannae in
216 B.C.E.
■ Hannibal found his match in Scipio, a Roman general and
consul. Scipio's strategy forced Hannibal to return to Carthage
and defend it from the attacks of the Roman army.
■ The Romans defeated Hannibal in Zama, near Carthage.
The Romans took Spain and made it a Roman province.
○ Third Punic War in 143 B.C.E.
■ It was caused by the incitement of an influential senator
named Cato to “destroy Carthage”.
■ The Romans burned the city and sold its 5000 inhabitants to
slavery. They also turned Carthage into a Roman province.
○ 70 B.C.E.
■ The Republic reached the peak of its power. After
dominating the western Mediterranean, they extended their
influence to the east. They conquered Macedonia, Greece,
and Pergamun in Anatolia. During this time, the Romans
called the Mediterranean Sea as mare nostrum, or “our sea.”
○ Decline of the Republic
■ The gap between the rich and the poor grew wider.
■ Adding to this was the existence of latifundia, or huge
estates, of rich landowners. The latifundia expanded
through the confiscation of conquered lands and of farms
left by soldiers who went to war. Many prisoners of war
became slaves in the latifundia.
■ This situation in the Roman society became the cause of the
tension between the rich and the poor.
○ The Reformists
■ Two tribunes wanted to solve this problem of poverty. They
were the Gracchus brothers—Tiberius and Gaius.
■ Tiberius proposed the reduction of the size of latifundias and
the distribution of excess lands to the poor. Gaius supported
the return of the lands to the peasants and the lowering of
 the price of grain.
■ The two reformists, however, did not succeed. Both also met
violent deaths: Tiberius in 133 B.C.E. and Gaius in 121 B.C.E.
○ The Fall of the Republic
■ Rome was engulfed in civil wars. Generals took power after
gaining the loyalty of soldiers in exchange for promises of
land and money. Two of these generals were Gaius Marius
and Lucius Cornelius Sulla.
○ The First Triumvirate
■ Civil wars continued to plague the Republic as a result of
power struggles It ended briefly when Julius Caesar became
consul in 59 B.C.E. He joined the forces with generals named
Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeine Magnus to lead
Rome.

■ After serving as consul, Caesar appointed himself as

governor of Gaul (present-day France). He triumphantly led
campaigns to conquer the entire Gaul. Because of his
excellent leadership and successes in war, he was admired
by his army and the Roman citizens.
■ Pompey worried over Caesar's growing influence. He urged
the Senate to order Caesar to disband his legion and return
to Rome by himself. Caesar, however, did not yield. Instead,
he led his army across the Rubicon River in Italy toward
Rome. His actions marked the beginning of a new civil war.
Pompey fled from Rome. Caesar defeated Pompey's armies
in Greece, Asia, Spain, and Egypt.
 ■ Upon his return to Rome in 46 B.C.E., he was appointed
dictator · by the Senate. In 44 B.C.E., he was declared
"dictator in perpetuity."
○ Caesar’s Leadership
■ As a leader with absolute powers, Caesar issued reforms
such as the following:
● granting of citizenship to those who resided in the
provinces of Rome;
● helping the poor by creating jobs;
● establishing of colonies to give lands to the landless;
and
● augmenting wages of soldiers.

● Many officials were threatened by Caesar’s rising

power. They feared the loss of their political influence
and social status. The Senator led by Marcus Brutus
Junius and Gaius Cassius Longinus, conspired against
Caesar. On 15th of March 44 B.C.E., they executed their
plot to kill Caesar.

○ Second Triumvirate
■ After Caesar's death, Rome was again involved in a civil war.
■ The Republic completely collapsed. Chaos only ended when
three supporters of Caesar Octavian, grandnephew and
adopted son of Caesar; Mark Antony, a general; and Lepidus,
a powerful politician—joined forces.
■ Like the first triumvirate, the second triumvirate also ended
up in a struggle for power.
■ Lepidus was forced to retire.
■ A civil war broke out between Octavian and Mark Antony.
The former accused the latter of conspiring with Queen
Cleopatra of Egypt to conquer Rome.
 ■ In 31 B.C.E., the forces of Octavian won against Mark Antony
and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium. Thereafter, the lovers
killed themselves.
■ Octavian returned to Rome and declared himself as
imperator or “supreme military commander.” He also
claimed the title Augustus, meaning "the great.” Under his
rule from 27 B.C.E. to 14 C.E., he made Rome the most
powerful empire in the whole Mediterranean region.

○ The Roman Empire

■ Under Augustus Caesar, Rome achieved peace and
prosperity. This period was known as Pax Romana or
“Roman Peace” which lasted for 200 years.
○ Pax Romana and Roman Culture
■ The Pax Romana saw economic prosperity and progressive
trade in the empire as well as improvement in the standards
of living of the common people.

○ Communication and Transportation

■ Traveling both by land and sea became safe and easy due to
the improved systems of transportation and communication
in the empire. The swift spread of Christianity (to be
discussed in Module 7) during this period ala resulted from
this. Latin became the official language of the empire. Greek
was ala commonly used.
○ Rights of Women
■ Women enjoyed more freedom in Roman society during
the Pax Romana They were able to own properties and
work. But the right to vote was never granted to them.
○ Education
■ Rich Romans received private education. They studied
geometry, astronomy philosophy, and oration. Commoners
were taught writing, reading, and arithmetic.
○ Literature
■ Roman literature flourished during the Pax Romana. Among
the well-known Romans in this field were the following:
■ Cicero - a Roman senator who wrote speeches and books on
rhetoric. He also wrote political and philosophical treatises.
His works are important sources of information about the
political state during his period.
■ Ovid – the author of Metamorphoses, a collection of verses
based on Greek
■ Virgil – the author of Aeneid, an epic which is comparable to
the works of Homer
■ Livy - wrote the history of Rome which glorifies the ancient
Romans
■ Tacitus – a historian who criticized the oppression of Julian
emperors.
○ Beliefs
■ Greeks and Etruscans had been major influences in Roman
beliefs as manifested in their rituals. The Romans believed
that their gods look like humans but with magical powers.
■ The Roman gods and goddesses were similar to those of the
Greeks but had different names. Jupiter is the god of the sky
and his wife is Juno. The god of sea is Neptune; goddess of
wisdom, Minerva; goddess of 10 Venus; and god of war,
Mercury.
○ Recreation
■ Although many Romans achieved prosperity during the Pax
 Romana, the gap between the rich and the poor remained
huge. To prevent the larger nu of the poor from revolting,
the government held festivals and amusements. In 160 C.E.,
the festivals celebrated each year reached 130.
■ There were chariot races and gladiator fights, where
gladiators were pitted against each other or against a wild
animal. The gladiator was often a slave or a prisoner. The
fight usually ended with the death of a gladiator.
○ Architecture
■ Gladiator fights were held in the Colosseum, which was
built in 80 C.E. Another stadium was constructed for chariot
races, the Circus Maximus.

The Colosseum

Circus Maximus

The Pantheon was a temple built

by Hadrian from 118 to 128 C. E.
Aqueduct was a structure for
transporting water from the river to the
cities.

Appian way was a main road which

connected rome to southern Italy.

○ Emperors after Augustus Caesar

■ From 14 to 68 C.E., the Roman Empire was ruled by four
emperors who belonged to the clan of Augustus Caesar. They
were known as the Julian Emperors. They were Tiberius,
Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.
■ The Julian emperors were abusive and weak. The heir of
Augustus Caesar,
■ Tiberius, was feared for his cruelty.
■ Caligula was weak-minded. Claudius was also weak and
cowardly.
■ Nero was a cruel leader and could have been mentally ill.
 ■ From 69 to 96 C.E., the Flavian family seized control of the
empire. They were Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. Under the
Flavian dynasty, monetary policies were reformed and
infrastructures, such as public baths and amphitheaters,
were constructed.
■ Next to rule the empire were the Five Good Emperors. They
were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus
Aurelius. Nerva was the first to introduce hereditary
succession in choosing the next emperor. He also distributed
lands to the poor and gave importance to education.
■ Under Trajan's leadership, the empire reached its greatest
expanse. He strengthened the Roman army and fortified the
empire's borders through, for example, the construction of
Hadrian Wall in Roman Britain.
■ During the rule of Antoninus Pius, prosperity and peace were
maintained in the empire. There were no wars, rebellions, or
abuses recorded during his time.
■ Marcus Aurelius was a stoic philosopher who promoted a life
according to the divine will of God. Upon his death in 180
C.E., the Pax Romana ended and the Roman Empire started
to weaken.
○ Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
■ The emperors who succeeded Marcus Aurelius were extravagant
and weak leaders. Civil wars, which often occurred during the
succession of the next emperor, affected not only Roman
politics but its economy as well.
■ The frequent attacks of the Germanic tribes on Roman
boundaries also took a toll on the empire. To protect the
empire, the government spent huge sums of money. This
caused the spread of poverty and hunger. But for a short
period of time, the Roman Empire was revived under the rule
of Diocletian and Constantine.
○ Diocletian and Constantine
■ In 284 C.E., Diocletian was appointed emperor. To govern
the empire better, he divided it into two parts: the eastern
Roman Empire, which he governed; and the western Roman
 Empire, which was ruled by his co-emperor, Maximian.
■ Diocletian implemented reforms. He raised the number and
wages of the legionaries He issued the Edict of Prices, which
fixed the maximum price of products. He forbade the
citizens from changing their profession or from leaving
their farmlands.
■ Constantine became emperor in 312 C.E., he reunited the two
empires. He continued the reforms implemented by
Diocletian Gradually, the fame and power of the empire
shifted from Rome to the capital of the eastern Roman
Empire.
● In 330 C.E., he moved the capital of the eastern Roman
Empire to Byzantium (present-day Istanbul in Turkey)
in Asia Minor. It was eventually named Constantinople
in his honor.

○ Invasion of the Barbarians

■ Barbarians or “uncivilized”, Germanic tribes attacked the
 Roman empire and marked the decline of the empire.
■ The Visigoths, under the leadership of Alaric, attacked Rome
in 410 C.E. They eventually went to Gaul and Spain where
they built their kingdom.
■ The Ostrogoths headed to Italy in 488 C.E. and built their
kingdom under Theodoric the Great in the last years of the
fifth century.
■ The Huns attacked Rome in 452 C.E. but failed to conquer it
because of the death of their leader. The Vandals went to
Spain and Africa. Headed by Genseric, the group invaded
Rome in 455 C.E.
■ Groups of Jutes and Anglo-Saxons also invaded Roman
Britain during the fifth century C.E. The Franks built their
kingdom in Gaul. Because of these invasions, the Roman
emperors lost their power in the greater part of the empire
and even lost their influence in Rome.
■ Rome finally fell in 476 C.E. when Odoacer, a German warrior
and first king of the barbarians, invaded the city. He ousted
the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus. This event led
to the fall of the western Roman Empire.