Aryan Culture

1500BC-600BC
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Early Vedic Age 1500BC-1000 B.C
Later Vedic Age 1000-600 B.C

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 Early Vedic Age

Rig Veda: 1500 B.C -1000 B.C

1017 hymns or 1021/28 (sukta)
10 books or Mandals
10th Mandal also called “Purushasukta”
10th Mandal composed around 1000 B.C

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• Initially the Aryans lived in the land known as “Sapta Sindhu” (Land
of the Seven Rivers).
• Sindhu (Indus),
• Vipash (Beas),
• Vitasta (Jhelum),
• Parushni (Ravi),
• Asikni (Chenab),
• Shutudri (Satluj) and
• Saraswati.

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 Political organization

Family or Kula – Kulapati

Grama – Gramani
Vis - Visyapati
(Tribe) Jana - Rajan

Purohita
Senani

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• Sahba : Body of elders
• To discuss local issues

• Samithi :
• To discuss national issues

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Position of King

• King had limited powers.

• King received voluntary contribution from
the people
• He had to obey the orders of sabha

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Social conditions

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Social Divisions
Learning Group
Protectors
Farmers
Working class

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• They lived in villages and social life was
simple, sacred and smooth.
• They lived in wooden houses
• Family was the basic unit in the society.
• Master of house was called grhapati
• Father had complete control over his
children.

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Position of women:
• Women enjoyed equality with men
• Education also received like men.
• They could choose their husbands.
• Monogamy was the usual rule in Rig Vedic
society.
Avala, Viswavara and Gargi offered hymns
and performed sacrifices.
• No religious rites and rituals could be
complete without her presence.

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• Widow marriage was also allowed during this
period
• No Sati system and child marriages
• Food: Wheat and barley were main food grains
• Milk products: butter, ghee and curd
• Dress: Vasa (Lower garment)
• Adhivasa ( Upper garment)
• Amusements: Chariot racing and horse racing.

• Music: both vocal and instrumental was well-

known.
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Religious conditions

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The religion of early Aryans was plain and
simple.
Simple rituals like offerings of milk, grain,
ghee or flesh thrown into the fire.
Aryans worshipped Prudhvi (Earth),
Agni : fire
( an intermediary between god and people)
Indra (God of Thunder),
Heavenly gods like: Varuna ( god of sky),
Surya

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Economy

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Early stage main source of income cattle
breading and cattle rearing.
State collected tax from public.
Commerce was largely controlled by the people
called Pani
Chief items of commerce were cloth and goods
made of with leather.
Transportation:
Chariots, horses and bullock carts.
Carpenters and Blacksmiths were important
artisans.
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Later Vedic Age
1000 BC-600 BC

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Sources of Later Vedic Society
Samaveda
Yajurveda
Adharvaveda
Brahamans
Araynakas
Upanishads
Epics
Samaveda:
• Collection of melodies to be sung at the time
of the rituals by a special class Brahmans
called Udgatris.
Yajurveda:
• The book of sacrificial prayers and rules to
be observed at the time of sacrifice.
Atharvaveda:
• It contains charms and spells regarding how
avoid evil forces

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The Brahmanas:
Expiations or discussion on rituals and mantras
•RigVeda: Aitereya and Kausitaki
•SamaVeda: Tandyamaha and Jaiminiya
•Yajur Veda: Taittiriya and Satapatha
•AdharvaVeda: Gopatha

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The Aranyakas: Forest books
Against sacrifices
Deals with religion and philosophy and not
with rituals
They form a bridge between Karma Marga
( way of work) and Gyana Marga ( way of
Knowledge)
The Upanishads (108)
They are the philosophical texts deals with
topics like Universal Soul, individual self
( soul), the origin of world and mysteries of
nature, 27
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 Political organization

Family or Kula – Kulapati

Grama – Gramani
Vis - Visyapati
Maha Gana - Rajan
Purohita
Senani
Mahishi
Gramani (Kings Nomine)
Suta (Charioteer)
Sagahita (treasurer)
Bhagaduga (tax collector)

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Position of King
Theory of divine origin of kingship came into
force and kingship became hereditary.
• Monarchy became the system of Government
and king claimed absolute royal power over
their subjects.
• King had to obey the order of Sabha.
• Kings stated wearing the title like Ekarat
(sole king) or Raja visvarajanya ( the
universal king).
• King received tributes such as Bali, Bhaga
and Sulka from the common man.
• The king had to perform mainly military and
judicial functions.
Big empires had taken place of the small
kingdoms by the end of later Vedic Society.
Sabha and Samithi
The king sought the assemblies advises even
though he had supremacy on the
administration.
The Sabha also acted as a court of justice
Along with purohita and senani other officials
assisted the king in the administration.
• Sangrahita: treasure: Suta: Royal herald
( charioteer)

Gramani became military and general

administration head at village level and also
acted as head of village level court.
 Caste system
• Brahmana (learning group)
• Khatriya (warriors)
• Vishya (Farmers )
• Sudra (working class)

• Brahmans performed religious rites, rituals and

sacrifices and used to receive gifts.
• Brahmans prayed for the king’s success and
they acted as the judicial advisers of king.
• Vishya position was decline during this period
Family similar to the early Vedic society.
Marriage: inter-caste marriages took place in
later Vedic age.
No permission for pratiloma marriage and
Anuloma marriages were allowed

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 Position of women
The birth of a daughter was regarded as a
source of misery
Women were not allowed in the tribal
assemblies and restricted to home only.
dress: like early Vedic society
Both men and women various all types of
ornaments like us.
Diet: wheat, barley, rice and milk products
Economy

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Agriculture became the main financial source
Thousands of acres of land cultivated by the
people

Barley, wheat and rice important food grains

Cultivation of other commercial crops also
started from this period.

Both rabi and Kharif crops were known.

Griha (family) was basic unit of agricultural
production
Crafts and Industry

• occupations like fisherman, hunters,

washer man, jewelers came into existence.

• The most significant change is the use of iron

during this period.

• Iron weapons and tools recorded from the

this later Vedic sites.
• Tin, lead, sliver and copper evidences also
recovered.
• Trading activities were under a class of
hereditary merchants vanija
• Revenue source for state
• Bali: Kings share of produce
• Bhaga: periodical tax
• Sulka: customs tax
• The coins which were in circulation were “
• Satamana (gold coin )
• Krishnala ( Silver coin)
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Religion
• Religion of the early Vedic was plain and simple
• New gods like Rudra, Vishnu had arisen
• Idol worship started
By the end of Later Vedic society
•  Brahma
(the creator) 
• Vishnu
( the preserver )
• Shiva
the destroyer
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 Judicial system
Civil cases were solved through arbitration
method.
The murder of a brahman was considered a
terrible crime.
Punishments for crimes were very severe.
Cutting of limbs was general punishment.
Special cases were decided by the king with
the help of Sabha
Bhrmans occupied special status in the
administration of justice was concerned.
Mauryan Empire
321 BC-185 BC

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Magadha 5 B.C
Nandan Dynasty
Chandra Gupta Maurya
Asoka
 Mauryan Empire 321BC-185BC
Kautilya’s Arthasastra
Visakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa
Religious sources
Brahimanical texts, Buddhist literature
Sri Lankan Chronicles: Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa
Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist sources
Megasthenes: Indica
Archaeological sources: Inscriptions of Asoka
• Chandra Gupta Maurya 321-295 B.C
• Bindusara: 297-272 B.C
• Asoka: 268-232 B.C
• Last ruler :Brihadradha
Administration

Central
Provincial
District
Tahsil
Village
Central level

King
Mantri-prishad
Amatyas
(civil servants)
Adhakshayas
(Heads of dept)
 Provincial level
kumara/ nobles
mahamattas

District Level
pradeshika ( administration)
rajuka (tax collection )
yukta (clerical)
 Tahsil
Gopa
Stanika (tax collector)
Village
Gramika
grama vrudhara
Town
Pataliputra
Six committees
(5 members each)
 King
Mantriprishad
Amatyas
Adhakshayas
Provincial level
kumara/ nobles/Aryaputras
Mahamattas
District Level
Pradeshika
Rajuka (surveying land )
Yukta
Tahsil
Gopa
Stanika (tax collector)
Village
Gramika
Grama Vrudhara
Town Pataliputra (Six committees)

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 Empire level Administration

• King was the supreme regarding general

administration, military and Justice.
• A council of ministers or an advisory body
to advise the king in the administration.
• Early stage : Purohita
Mahamantri
Senapati
Yuvaraja
were key persons in central administration
• Amatyas: administrative personnel or civil servants.
• ( All appointments and policies )
• Superintendent or Adhyakshas ( heads of various
departments)
• 27 adhyakshas in central administration
• Akshapataladhyaksha :Accountant-General
• Sitadhyaksha : Agriculture
• Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of Ports
• Punyadhyaksha: commerce
• Sulkadhyaksha: Collection of customs and tolls
• Akaradhayaksha: mining and scientific knowledge
of mines
Judicial Administration

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King was the fountain head of law and justice
Source of law:
Dharma ( Sacred Law)
Vyavahara ( usage)
Charitam ( customs and precedents)
Rajasasana (Royal proclamations )
Dharmasteya (Civil Court)
three Mahamattas or three Amatyas

Kantaksodhanas (Criminal Court)

three senior Pradeshika or Amatyas
• There were special courts in the cities and
villages presided over by the Mahamattas,
pradesika, rajuks and Gopa
• The merchant who used false weights,
• the artisan who failed to keep his contract,
• the physician who caused the death of his
patient,
• the official who took bribes
• Theft, murder, burglary, rape ..

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• Mauryans Penal Code was very severe and
crimes were extremely rare.
• The laws relating to personal matters,
castes and classes were beyond the
jurisdiction of the state.
• Asoka ordered his mahamattas to avoid
causeless imprisonment and harassment of
people.
• Pradeshikas were the principal police
officers at districts
• A separate police station established in
every 800, 400, 200 and 10 villages.
• Jails were under the management of the
department of Justice.

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Revenue Department:
It was under control of an account general
called Akshapataldhyaksa
Samaharta: (Collector General )
collection of revenue from various parts of
kingdom and look after the income and
expenditure.
Sannidata: ( head of Treasury)
Storage of royal treasure and the state
income both cash and kind.
Military Department
It was under the control of senapati
War office consisting of 30 members who were
divided into six boards of five members each.
First Board: Naval warfare
Second board: Supplying food, service matters,
drummers and mechanic
Third Board: Infantry ( Padadhyaksha)
Fourth Board: supervising Cavalry(asvadhayaksha)
Fifth Board: Chariots ( rathadhyaksha)
Sixth Board: War elephants ( hastyadhyaksha)
 Provincial administration
The empire was divided into five provinces

Uttarapatha Taxila
Dakshinapura Suvarnagiri
Avantipura Ujjain
Prachyapatha Tosali
Madhyapatha Pataliputra
 Tosali
Suvarnagiri

Asoka
Taxila

Ujjain

Tosali

Suvarnagiri

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• The most important provinces such as Taxila
and Ujjain were directly under the command of
the Princes ( Kumaras).
• Viceroy was the head of the provincial
administration.
• Viceroy had the power to appoint some of his
official such as the Mahamattas, who went on
tour very five years.
• Provinces were subdivided into district for
purposes of administration.
District
• Pradesika: General administration
• Rajuka: Surveying and assessing land
• Yukta : secretarial work
Tahsil administration
• A group of five to ten villages formed as tahsil
• Gopa: setting of village boundaries, census of
population
• Stanika: tax collector
Village administration
Smallest unit of administration and it enjoyed
autonomy to a great extent.
Gramika was the head of village and he was
assisted by Gram-vrudhas

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Municipal administration
Nagarika: head of town
Gopa :He kept register of persons and property and
inspect hotels,
gambling houses,
checking markets and places of amusement.
The city was administered by a Council of 30 members
council divided into 6 boards
• Board of industries
• Board for Foreigners
• Board of Census
• Board for Trade and Commerce
• Board for manufactured goods
• Board for taxes
 Central level
King
Head of judicial system
Provincial level
kumara/ nobles final decision
Mahamattas Judge
District Level
pradeshika (Criminal court )
rajuka (Civil court)
Tahsil
Gopa (Criminal court)
Stanika (Civil Court)
Village
Gramika
grama Vrudhara
Town
Pataliputra (Six committees)

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• Early Vedic age (1500-1000): No law
• Later Vedic Age 1000-600) Dharma ( Responsibility)
• Pre- Mauryan Age: 600 BC -320BC: Dharmasustra
• Mauryan Age 321 BC to 187 BC : Kautilya
Arthasastra
• Post Mauryans: Manudharma Sastra
• Gupta’s Age: Yagnavalkya Dharmasastra
• Naradiya Dharmasastra

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Social & Economic conditions
of Mauryas
• Brahmins:
• There was a decline in the authority and position of
the Brahmans.
• due to the spread of Buddhism
Kshatriyas
• Buddhist writings always place them before the
Brahmans.
Vaishyas:
• Economic development of the country led to the
improvement in the social status of Vaishyas.
Sudras:

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 Social Conditions
• Caste system became very strong in this
period.
• This rose of unorthodox creeds, the arrival
of foreigners led to rigidity of cast rules.
• Agriculture, trade and cattle breeding
became the common occupation of Vaisyas
and Sudras.
• Below the Sudras were chandalas who were
the untouchables.
• In addition to the four castes,
• Kautilya refers more than 15 mixed castes by
the general name Antyavasayin (literally living at
the end).

• The members of such mixed castes as the

Chandalas and they were out of Society.

• They were required to live outside the main

settlement, near the cremation ground.

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Position of Women
• Women occupied a high position and freedom in
the Mauryan society.
• Kautilya permitted divorce, but it was unthinkable
in later Vedic literature.
• Inter caste marriages were quite common in
the society.
• Kautilya places husband and wife on an equal
footing.
• Women were educated and they were also
participated in social and religious functions.
• According to Kautilya:
• the murder of women was regarded as equal
to the murder of a Brahman.
• Widow remarriage and divorce were
discouraged in Hindu society.
• As compared to Hinduism, Jainism and
Buddhism offered a better status to women.
Women employed as palace-guards, body
guards to the king, spies, etc.
Asoka appointed a special group of
Mahamattas for the welfare of women.
(ithijhakha) 82
• Joint family system
• Food
• Rice, pulses, fruits, vegetables, milk and its
products were the item of common diet of the
people.
• Education:
• The people had the opportunity of availing
higher education.
• Education institutions established by the state
and religious heads
• Universities established in Taxila, Varanasi and
Ujjain.
• 83
Dress
• Both men and women wore a good quality of cotton
clothes.
• While the common people used cotton garments the
rich wore garments of silk and linen, decorated
with embroidery, precious stones and even
jewels.
• Woollen clothes were also used in winter.
Diet
• Rice, pulses, fruits, vegetables, milk and its
products were the item of common diet of the
people.
Amusements: Animals, chariot races, chess, gambling,
drama, music and dance.
Economic Condition

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Agriculture and trade were main sources of
income
State owned lands called Sita lands
A variety of taxes were imposed on cultivators
like bali, bhaga, sulka, kara, etc.
1/6 to 1/4 taxes were imposed based on
fertility and nature of irrigation facility.
The tax was collected by king’s officials form
individual cultivators without any mediators.
Asoka reduced the amount of baga tax to the
birth place of Buddha.
Trade
External trade: Greek world, Burma and
Ceylon
Exports: spices, pearls, diamonds, cotton
textiles, ivory works, shells, etc.
Imports: horses, gold, glass, linen, etc
Trade became very important financial source
by the end of Mauryan period and imposed
sales taxes also (1/5)
International trade was organized through
merchant-guilds.
Balance of trade very much favour to India.
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• Handicrafts trade organized in guilds called
srenis each under its president call pramukha.
• The Royal Highway i.e., Pataliputra to Taxila)
was considered the most important route.
• Special officers were appointed in high ways to
protect trading ( Agranomi)
Currency
Because of development of commerce, the use of
money became a common feature.
Punch-marked silver coins which carry the symbol
of peacock, and the hill and crescent, called
pana formed the imperial currency of Maryans.
1. Sun 
2. Sadaracakra (dynasty wheel) or Dharmacakra (Wheel of
Dharma
3. Ashoka's royal symbol
4. Three-arched hill 
5. unknown symbol
Asoka’s Dhamma

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Causes behind introduction of Dhamma
The ideological conflict between the Vedic
brahamans and the followers of the newly-
born protestant creeds a large foreign
population in the North-West.
It would have been a difficult task for any ruler
to maintain unity in a empire composed of
such diverse elements.
Only alternatives available were either to
enforce control or to unify the population
through a common set of beliefs.
Main features of contents of the Dhamma
I Major Rock Edit: Prohibition of animal
sacrifices and festive gathering

II Major Rock Edit: describes the medical

missions sent everywhere (land of Keralaputras,
Ceylon and Burma) for men and animals, plantation
of medical herbs and tree and digging of wells
along the roads.

III Major Rock Edit: he ordered all officials of

district level to travel every five years in the
jurisdiction to propagate dhamma
IV Major Rock Edit: The sound of the drum has
became the sound Dhamma showing the people
the divine form
V Major Rock Edit Appointed dhamma-
mahammatas for the propagation of Dhamma
XI Major Rock Edit:
All ceremonies are useless except Dhamma and he
urged people for religious tolerance.
• He adopted the policy of dhamma to eliminate
social tensions and conflicts and to promote a
harmonious relationship between the diverse
elements of the vast empire.

• Dhamma was neither a new religion nor a new

political philosophy. Rather, it was a way of life, a
code of conduct.
Causes for decline of empire:
1. Weak rulers after Asoka
2. Partition of empire Dasaratha (East) and Kunala (West)
3. Pro-Buddhist and policies of Asoka and pro-Jain policies
of his successors alienated the Brahmins.
4. Highly centralized administration