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Smart agricultural robot using smart phone

Abstract: -

The paper aims on the design, development and the fabrication of the robot which can dig the
soil, leveler to close the mud and sprayer to spray water, these whole systems of the robot works
with the battery and the solar power. More than 40% of the population in the world chooses
agriculture as the primary occupation, in recent years the development of the autonomous
vehicles in the agriculture has experienced increased interest. The vehicle is controlled by Relay
switch through IR sensor input. The language input allows a user to interact with the robot which
is familiar to most of the people. The advantages of these robots are hands-free and fast data
input operations. In the field of agricultural autonomous vehicle, a concept is been developed to
investigate if multiple small autonomous machine could be more efficient than traditional large
tractors and human forces.

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CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

 An embedded system is combination of computer hardware and software.

 Embedded system is designed for a specific function or for specific functions within a
larger system.
 Industrial machines, agricultural and process industry devices, automobiles, medical
equipment, cameras, household appliances, airplanes, vending machines and toys as well
as mobile devices are all possible locations for an embedded system.

Example R &D why lap top is not an embedded system:

 An embedded system can be considered as a system with which we cannot develop

anything. Example with the help of washing machine we can wash the clothes only.
Using microwave oven we will heat the products only.
 But general purpose systems we developed some thing. For example using laptop we
develop the various applications. Example using MS office we can create word files.

Note: olden days mobile phone used for dedicated application. Hence it is a embedded system.
Now a days smart phones performs various tasks so smart phones are treated as ‘general purpose
systems.

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CLASIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

Based on performance, functionality, requirement the embedded systems are divided into
three categories:

1.Standalone systems embedded: These systems takes the input in the form of electrical signals
from transducers or commands from human beings such as pressing of a button etc.., process
them and produces desired output. This entire process of taking input, processing it and giving
output is done in standalone mode. Such embedded systems comes under standalone embedded
systems

Example: microwave oven, air conditioner etc..,

2. Soft real time embedded systems: These embedded systems follow a relative dead line time
period i.e.., if the task is not done in a particular time that will not cause damage to the
equipment.

Fig: TV with Remote

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Example: Consider a TV remote control system, if the remote control takes a few milliseconds
delay it will not cause damage either to the TV or to the remote control. The systems that will not
cause damage when they are not operated at considerable time period those systems comes under
soft real-time embedded systems.

3. Real-time embedded systems: Embedded systems that are used to perform a specific task or
operation in a specific time period those systems are called as real-time embedded systems.

4. Network communication embedded systems: A wide range network interfacing

communication is provided by using embedded systems. consider a web camera that is connected
to the computer with internet can be used to spread communication like sending pictures,
images, videos etc.., to another computer with internet connection throughout anywhere in the
world.

Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock. Whenever a person comes near
the door, it captures the image of a person and sends to the desktop of your computer which is
connected to internet. This gives an alerting message with image on to the desktop of your
computer, and then you can open the door lock just by clicking the mouse.

Fig: Network Communication Embedded System

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EXMPLE OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

A Micro controller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory, various I/O
interfaces such as serial port, parallel port timer or counter, interrupt controller, data acquisition
interfaces-Analog to Digital converter, Digital to Analog converter, integrated on to a single
silicon chip.

Microcontrollers are dedicated for specific applications. A microcontroller may take an

input from devices like sensors and displays the output or controls the output devices like fans,
motors or doing both of them shown below.

Fig: application of microcontroller

⮚ The Temperature sensor that can be used to measure temperature with an electrical output
proportional to the temperature (in ℃). Example: LM35 - An Integrated Circuit
Temperature Sensor can be used to measure temperature with an electrical output
proportional to the temperature (in ℃)
⮚ The Micro controller takes input from the external sources and routes them to the
appropriate devices as programmed in it.
⮚ The LCD displays the temperature value. Moreover, depending upon temperature the
microcontroller controls the fan likes On/Off.

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APPLICATION AREAS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

Consumer applications: At home, we use a number of embedded systems, which include

microwave oven, remote control, VCD players, camera etc.

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Fig: Automatic coffee makes equipment

Office automation: We use systems like fax machine, modem, printer etc…

Fig: Printing machine

Industrial automation: Today many industries are using embedded systems for process
control. In industries we design the embedded systems to perform a specific operation like
monitoring temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc.., and basing on these
monitored levels we do control other devices, we can send information to a centralized
monitoring station. In critical industries where human presence is avoided there we can use
Robots, which are programmed to do a specific operation.

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Fig: Robot

Medial equipment’s: Almost every medical equipment in hospitals are embedded systems
examples.. , like EEG, ECG, scanners, endoscopes, X-Ray etc..,

Fig: Pulse monitoring system

Fig: Heart beat monitoring cum controlling equipment

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Wireless technology: Mobile phones are one of the very powerful embedded systems that
provide voice communication while we are on any travel, PDAS, walkie-talkie etc…

Fig: Wireless communication

COMPARE EMBEDDED SYSTEM AND GENERAL COMPUTING SYSTEM

Criteria General Purpose Computer Embedded system

Contents It is combination of It is combination of special

generic hardware and a purpose hardware and

general purpose OS for embedded OS for executing

Executing a variety of specific set of applications

applications.

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Operating System It contains general It may or may not contain

purpose operating system operating system

Alterations Applications are alterable Applications are non-alterable

By the user. by the user

Key factor Performance” is key factor. Application specific

requirements are key factors

Power Consumption More Less

Response Time Not Critical Critical for some applications

Overview of Embedded System Architecture

Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central Processing
Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software is loaded. The

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software residing on the memory chip is also called the ‘firmware’. The embedded system
architecture can be represented as a layered architecture as shown in Fig.

Fig: Layered architecture of Embedded System

The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs above
the operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer including a desktop
computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not compulsory to have an operating
system in every embedded system. For small appliances such as remote control units, air
conditioners, toys etc., there is no need for an operating system and you can write only the
software specific to that application. For applications involving complex processing, it is
advisable to have an operating system. In such a case, you need to integrate the application
software with the operating system and then transfer the entire software on to the memory chip.
Once the software is transferred to the memory chip, the software will continue to run for a long
time you don’t need to reload new software.

Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an embedded
system. As shown in Fig. the building blocks are;

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory)
 Input Devices
 Output devices
 Communication interfaces

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 Application-specific circuitry

Fig: basic building blocks of Embedded System

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following:
microcontroller, microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-controller is a low-
cost processor. Its main attraction is that on the chip itself, there will be many other components
such as memory, serial communication interface, analog-to digital converter etc. So, for small
applications, a micro-controller is the best choice as the number of external components required
will be very less. On the other hand, microprocessors are more powerful, but you need to use
many external components with them. D5P is used mainly for applications in which signal
processing is involved such as audio and video processing.

Memory:

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The memory is categorized as Random Access 11emory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM). The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the chip, whereas
ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off. So, the firmware is stored in the
ROM. When power is switched on, the processor reads the ROM; the program is program is
executed.

Input devices:

Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited
capability. There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the embedded
system is no easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-you press one key to
give a specific command. A keypad may be used to input only the digits. Many embedded
systems used in process control do not have any input device for user interaction; they take
inputs from sensors or transducers 1’fnd produce electrical signals that are in turn fed to other
systems.

Output devices:

The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability. Some
embedded systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the health status of
the system modules, or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
may also be used to display some important parameters.

Communication interfaces:

The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at they may
have to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are provided with one
or a few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485, Universal Serial Bus (USB),
and IEEE 1394, Ethernet etc.

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Application-specific circuitry:

Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required fat an
embedded system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the processor to
carry out the necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power supply either through
the 230 volts main supply or through a battery. The hardware has to design in such a way that the
power consumption is minimized.

CHAPTER – 2
ARDUINO UNO

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Figure: Pin diagram of Arduino UNO

Figure: On board components of Arduino UNO

Pin description:

Pin Pin Name Details

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Category

Power Vin, 3.3V, 5V, GND Vin: Input voltage to Arduino when using an

external power source (6-12V).

5V: Regulated power supply used to power

microcontroller and other components on the
board.

3.3V: 3.3V supply generated by on-board voltage

regulator. Maximum current draw is 50mA.

GND: Ground pins.

Reset Reset Resets the microcontroller.

Analog Pins A0 – A5 Used to measure analog voltage in the range of 0-

5V

Input/ Output Digital Pins D0 - D13 Can be used as input or output pins. 0V (low) and
Pins 5V (high)

Serial Rx, TX Used to receive and transmit TTL serial data.

External 2, 3 To trigger an interrupt.

Interrupts

PWM 3, 5, 6, 9, 11 Provides 8-bit PWM output.

SPI 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 Used for SPI communication.

(MISO) and 13 (SCK)

Inbuilt LED 13 To turn on the inbuilt LED.

IIC A4 (SDA), A5 (SCA) Used for TWI communication.

AREF AREF To provide reference voltage for input voltage.

Arduino Uno Technical Specifications

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Microcontroller ATmega328P – 8 bit AVR family

microcontroller

Operating Voltage 5V

Recommended Input Voltage for Vin 7-12V

pin

Analog Input Pins 6 (A0 – A5)

Digital I/O Pins 14 (Out of which 6 provide PWM output)

DC Current on I/O Pins 40 mA

DC Current on 3.3V Pin 50 mA

Flash Memory 32 KB (2 KB is used for Bootloader)

SRAM 2 KB

EEPROM 1 KB

Frequency (Clock Speed) 16 MHz

Communication IIC, SPI, USART

Memory in Arduino Uno

 Flash memory of Arduino Uno is 32Kb.

 It has preinstalled boot loader on it, which takes a flash memory of 2kb.
 SRAM memory of this Microcontroller board is 8kb.
 It has an EEPROM memory of 1kb.

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The Arduino board is designed in such a way that it is very easy for beginners to get started with
microcontrollers. This board especially is breadboard friendly is very easy to handle the
connections. Let’s start with powering the Board.

Powering you Arduino Uno:

There are totally three ways by which you can power your Uno.

 USB Jack: Connect the mini USB jack to a phone charger or computer through a cable
and it will draw power required for the board to function 
 VIN Pin: The VIN pin can be supplied with a unregulated 6-12V to power the board.
The on-board voltage regulator regulates it to +5V
 +5V Pin: If you have a regulated +5V supply then you can directly provide this o the
+5V pin of the Arduino.

Input/output:

There are totally 14 digital Pins and 8 Analog pins on your Uno board. The digital pins
can be used to interface sensors by using them as input pins or drive loads by using them as
output pins. A simple function like pinMode () and digitalWrite () can be used to control their
operation. The operating voltage is 0V and 5V for digital pins. The analog pins can measure
analog voltage from 0V to 5V using any of the 8 Analog pins using a simple function liken
analogRead ()

These pins apart from serving their purpose can also be used for special purposes which are
discussed below:

 Serial Pins 0 (Rx) and 1 (TX): Rx and TX pins are used to receive and transmit TTL
serial data. They are connected with the corresponding ATmega328P USB to TTL serial
chip.
 External Interrupt Pins 2 and 3: These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on
a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.

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 PWM Pins 3, 5, 6, 9 and 11: These pins provide an 8-bit PWM output by using
analogWrite () function.
 SPI Pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO) and 13 (SCK): These pins are used for SPI
communication.
 In-built LED Pin 13: This pin is connected with an built-in LED, when pin 13 is HIGH
– LED is on and when pin 13 is LOW, it’s off.
 I2C A4 (SDA) and A5 (SCA): Used for IIC communication using Wire library.
 AREF: Used to provide reference voltage for analog inputs with analogReference ()
function.
 Reset Pin: Making this pin LOW, resets the microcontroller.

ATMEGA328P is high performance, low power controller from Microchip. ATMEGA328P is

an 8-bit microcontroller based on AVR RISC architecture. It is the most popular of all AVR
controllers as it is used in ARDUINO boards.

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Figure: ATMEGA328P Pin diagram

ATMega328 Pin Configuration

ATMEGA328P is a 28 pin chip as shown in pin diagram above. Many pins of the chip here have
more than one function. We will describe functions of each pin in below table.

Pin Pin name Description Secondary Function

No.

1 PC6 (RESET) Pin6 of  Pin by default is used as RESET pin.

PORTC PC6 can only be used as I/O pin when
RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed.

2 PD0 (RXD) Pin0  of  RXD (Data Input Pin for USART)
PORTD
USART Serial Communication
Interface

[Can be used for programming]

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3 PD1 (TXD) Pin1 of  TXD (Data Output Pin for USART)
PORTD
USART Serial Communication
Interface

[Can be used for programming]

INT2( External Interrupt 2 Input)

4 PD2 (INT0) Pin2  of  External Interrupt source 0

PORTD

5 PD3 (INT1/OC2B) Pin3  of  External Interrupt source1

PORTD
OC2B(PWM - Timer/Counter2 Output
Compare Match B Output)

6 PD4 (XCK/T0) Pin4  of  T0( Timer0 External Counter Input)

PORTD
XCK ( USART External Clock I/O)

7 VCC   Connected to positive voltage

8 GND   Connected to ground

9 PB6 Pin6  of  XTAL1 (Chip Clock Oscillator pin 1 or

(XTAL1/TOSC1) PORTB External clock input)

TOSC1 (Timer Oscillator pin 1)

10 PB7 Pin7  of  XTAL2 (Chip Clock Oscillator pin 2)

(XTAL2/TOSC2) PORTB
TOSC2 (Timer Oscillator pin 2)

11 PD5 Pin5 of  T1(Timer1 External Counter Input)

PORTD
(T1/OC0B) OC0B(PWM - Timer/Counter0 Output
Compare Match B Output)

12 PD6 (AIN0/OC0A) Pin6  of  AIN0(Analog Comparator Positive I/P)

PORTD

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OC0A(PWM - Timer/Counter0 Output

Compare Match A Output)

13 PD7 (AIN1) Pin7  of  AIN1(Analog Comparator Negative

PORTD I/P)

14 PB0 (ICP1/CLKO) Pin0  of  ICP1(Timer/Counter1 Input Capture

PORTB Pin)

CLKO (Divided System Clock. The

divided system clock can be output on
the PB0 pin)

15 PB1 (OC1A) Pin1  of  OC1A (Timer/Counter1 Output

PORTB Compare Match A Output)

16 PB2 (SS/OC1B) Pin2  of  SS (SPI Slave Select Input).  This pin is
PORTB low when controller acts as slave.

[Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) for

programming]

OC1B (Timer/Counter1 Output

Compare Match B Output)

17 PB3 (MOSI/OC2A) Pin3  of  MOSI (Master Output Slave Input).

PORTB When controller acts as slave, the data
is received by this pin. [Serial
Peripheral Interface (SPI) for
programming]

OC2 (Timer/Counter2 Output Compare

Match Output)

18 PB4 (MISO) Pin4  of  MISO (Master Input Slave Output).

PORTB When controller acts as slave, the data

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is sent to master by this controller

through this pin.

[Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) for

programming]

19 PB5 (SCK) Pin5  of  SCK (SPI Bus Serial Clock). This is the
PORTB clock shared between this controller
and other system for accurate data
transfer.

[Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) for

programming]

20 AVCC   Power for Internal ADC Converter

21 AREF   Analog Reference Pin for ADC

22 GND   GROUND

23 PC0 (ADC0) Pin0  of   ADC0 (ADC Input Channel 0)

PORTC

24 PC1 (ADC1) Pin1  of  ADC1 (ADC Input Channel 1)

PORTC

25 PC2 (ADC2) Pin2  of   ADC2 (ADC Input Channel 2)

PORTC

26 PC3 (ADC3) Pin3  of   ADC3 (ADC Input Channel 3)

PORTC

27 PC4 (ADC4/SDA) Pin4  of  ADC4 (ADC Input Channel 4)

PORTC
SDA (Two-wire Serial Bus Data
Input/output Line)

28 PC5 (ADC5/SCL) Pin5  of  ADC5 (ADC Input Channel 5)

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PORTC SCL (Two-wire Serial Bus Clock Line)

Features

ATMEGA328P – Simplified Features

CPU 8-bit AVR

Number of Pins 28

Operating Voltage (V) +1.8 V TO +5.5V

Number of programmable 23
I/O lines

Communication Interface Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface(17,18,19 PINS)

[Can be used for programming this controller]

Programmable Serial USART(2,3 PINS) [Can be used

for programming this controller]

Two-wire Serial Interface(27,28  PINS)[Can be used

to connect peripheral devices like Servos, sensors and
memory devices]

JTAG Interface Not available

ADC Module 6channels, 10-bit resolution ADC

Timer Module Two 8-bit counters with Separate Prescaler and

compare mode, One 16-bit counter with Separate
Prescaler, compare mode and capture mode.

Analog Comparators 1(12,13 PINS)

DAC Module Nil

PWM channels 6

External Oscillator 0-4MHz @ 1.8V to 5.5V

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0-10MHz @ 2.7V to 5.5V

0-20MHz @ 4.5V to 5.5V

Internal Oscillator 8MHz  Calibrated Internal Oscillator

Program Memory Type Flash

Program Memory or Flash 32Kbytes[10000 write/erase cycles]

memory

CPU Speed 1MIPS for 1MHz

RAM 2Kbytes Internal SRAM

EEPROM 1Kbytes EEPROM

Watchdog Timer Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-

chip Oscillator

Program Lock Yes

Power Save Modes Six Modes[Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save,

Power-down, Standby and Extended Standby]

Operating Temperature -40°C to +105°C(+105 being absolute maximum, -40

being absolute minimum)

Where to Use ATMEGA328P

Although we have many controllers ATMEGA328P is most popular of all because of its features
and cost. ARDUINO boards are also developed on this controller because of its features.

● With program memory of 32 Kbytes ATMEGA328P applications are many.

● With various POWER SAVING modes it can work on MOBILE EMBEDDED SYSTEMS.
● With Watchdog timer to reset under error it can be used on systems with minimal human
interference.
● With advanced RISC architecture, the controller executes programs quickly.  
● Also with in chip temperature sensor the controller can be used at extreme temperatures.

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CHAPTER-3
POWER SUPPLY

Three different ways in which we can power up the Arduino Uno/Nano. While
making any Arduino projects, it is necessary to know these techniques, since there are instances
when flexibility with regards to the power supply is required.

1. Using USB cable

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Figure: An Arduino Uno powered up using a USB cable

The USB port of the Arduino Uno can be connected to a desktop/laptop. If the connection
is enumerated, i.e. the computer recognizes the device, the current supplied to the board is
500mA at 5V. If the connection is not enumerated, 100mA is supplied at 5V.

2. Using batteries of greater than 5V

Connect a 9V battery with the positive terminal connected to the Vin pin and the negative
terminal connected to the GND pin. The Vin port allows an input between 7 and 12 Volts, but we
recommend to use a 9V battery. Depending on your application you can input 12V too but make
sure the current values stay around 500mA.

Figure: Connection layout to supply power to the board using a 9V battery

3. Using Regulated Power Supply

A regulated power supply is an embedded circuit; it converts unregulated AC (Alternating

Current) into a constant DC. ... Its function is to supply a stable voltage (or less often current), to
a circuit or device that must be operated within certain power supply limits. The regulated power
supply block diagram shown below.

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Fig: Regulated Power Supply Block Diagram

Transformer:

Transformer is a static device used to convert the voltage from one level to another level without
change its frequency. There are two types of transformers

1. Step-up transformer
2. Step-down transformer

Step-up transformer converts low voltage level into high voltage level without change its
frequency.

Step-down transformer converts high voltage level into low voltage level without change its
frequency.

In this project we using step-down transformer which converts 230V AC to 12V AC [or] 230V
AC to 5V as shown below.

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Fig: Step Down Transformers

Diodes:

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction.  The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the
direction in which the current can flow.  Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early
diodes were actually called valves.

Figure: Diode Symbol

A diode is a device which only allows current to flow through it in one direction.  In this
direction, the diode is said to be 'forward-biased' and the only effect on the signal is that there
will be a voltage loss of around 0.7V.  In the opposite direction, the diode is said to be 'reverse-
biased' and no current will flow through it.

Rectifier

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The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR) Rectifier

converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage.  There are two different rectification
circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers.  Both use components called diodes to
convert AC into DC.

Half-wave Rectifier:

The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only uses one diode, as shown in
figure.

Figure: Half Wave Rectifier

Figure shows the AC input waveform to this circuit and the resulting output.  As you can see,
when the AC input is positive, the diode is forward-biased and lets the current through.  When
the AC input is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the diode does not let any current
through, meaning the output is 0V.  Because there is a 0.7V voltage loss across the diode, the
peak output voltage will be 0.7V less than Vs.

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Figure: Half-Wave Rectification

While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be suitable as a
power supply for a circuit.  Firstly, the output voltage continually varies between 0V and Vs-
0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all. 

The Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

The circuit in figure 3 addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the output
voltage 0V.  This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and negative parts of the
AC waveform are converted to DC.  The resulting waveform is shown in figure 4.

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Figure: Full-Wave Rectifier

Figure: Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Input and Output Waveforms

When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and D are
reverse-biased.  When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D are
forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased.

While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output still isn't
suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still varies between 0V and
Vs-1.4V.  So, if you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.

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Capacitor Filter:

The capacitor-input filter, also called "Pi" filter due to its shape that looks like the Greek letter
pi, is a type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted or undesired
frequencies from a signal.

A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter capacitor C1, connected across the rectifier
output. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier output while
it offers infinite reactance to the DC component. As a result the AC components are going to
ground. At that time DC components are feed to Regulator.

Figure: Centre Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier with a Capacitor Filter

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Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant

voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC
voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.

⮚ Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and

⮚ Negative Voltage Series (79xx)

78xx:’78’ indicate the positive series and ‘xx’ indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805
produces the maximum 5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is 5V.

79xx:’78’ indicate the negative series and ‘xx’ indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905
produces the maximum -5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is -5V.

These regulators consists the three pins there are

Pin1: It is used for input pin.

Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator

Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

Figure: Regulator

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CHAPTER-4
Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when
current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing
energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence. The colour of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons
to cross the band gap of the semiconductor. White light is obtained by using multiple
semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-
intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as those used
with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity
and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared
wavelengths, with high light output.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small incandescent bulbs, and
in seven-segment displays. Recent developments have produced white-light LEDs suitable for
room lighting. LEDs have led to new displays and sensors, while their high switching rates are
useful in advanced communications technology.

LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, lighted wallpaper and
medical devices.

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are the most widely used semiconductor diodes among all
the different types of semiconductor diodes available today. Light emitting diodes emit either
visible light or invisible infrared light when forward biased. The LEDs which emit invisible
infrared light are used for remote controls.

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A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor device that emits light when
voltage is applied. In other words, LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts
electrical energy into light energy.

Figure: LEDS

When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, free electrons in the conduction
band recombines with the holes in the valence band and releases energy in the form of light.

The process of emitting light in response to the strong electric field or flow of electric
current is called electroluminescence. A normal p-n junction diode allows electric current only in
one direction. It allows electric current when forward biased and does not allow electric current
when reverse biased. Thus, normal p-n junction diode operates only in forward bias condition.

Like the normal p-n junction diodes, LEDs also operates only in forward bias condition.
To create an LED, the n-type material should be connected to the negative terminal of the battery
and p-type material should be connected to the positive terminal of the battery. In other words,
the n-type material should be negatively charged and the p-type material should be positively
charged.

The construction of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except that gallium,
phosphorus and arsenic materials are used for construction instead of silicon or germanium
materials. In normal p-n junction diodes, silicon is most widely used because it is less sensitive
to the temperature. Also, it allows electric current efficiently without any damage. In some cases,
germanium is used for constructing diodes.

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However, silicon or germanium diodes do not emit energy in the form of light. Instead,
they emit energy in the form of heat. Thus, silicon or germanium is not used for constructing
LEDs.

Layers of LED

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) consists of three layers: p-type semiconductor, n-type
semiconductor and depletion layer. The p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor are
separated by a depletion region or depletion layer.

P-type semiconductor

When trivalent impurities are added to the intrinsic or pure semiconductor, a p-type
semiconductor is formed. In p-type semiconductor, holes are the majority charge carriers and
free electrons are the minority charge carriers. Thus, holes carry most of the electric current in p-
type semiconductor.

N-type semiconductor

When pentavalent impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, an n-type

semiconductor is formed. In n-type semiconductor, free electrons are the majority charge carriers
and holes are the minority charge carriers. Thus, free electrons carry most of the electric current
in n-type semiconductor.

Depletion layer or region

Depletion region is a region present between the p-type and n-type semiconductor where
no mobile charge carriers (free electrons and holes) are present. This region acts as barrier to the
electric current. It opposes flow of electrons from n-type semiconductor and flow of holes from
p-type semiconductor. To overcome the barrier of depletion layer, we need to apply voltage
which is greater than the barrier potential of depletion layer.

If the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential of the depletion layer, the electric
current starts flowing.

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How Light Emitting Diode (LED) works?

Light Emitting Diode (LED) works only in forward bias condition. When Light Emitting Diode
(LED) is forward biased, the free electrons from n-side and the holes from p-side are pushed
towards the junction.

When free electrons reach the junction or depletion region, some of the free electrons recombine
with the holes in the positive ions. We know that positive ions have less number of electrons than
protons. Therefore, they are ready to accept electrons. Thus, free electrons recombine with holes
in the depletion region. In the similar way, holes from p-side recombine with electrons in the
depletion region.

Figure: LED Working

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Because of the recombination of free electrons and holes in the depletion region, the width of
depletion region decreases. As a result, more charge carriers will cross the p-n junction.

Some of the charge carriers from p-side and n-side will cross the p-n junction before they
recombine in the depletion region. For example, some free electrons from n-type semiconductor
cross the p-n junction and recombines with holes in p-type semiconductor. In the similar way,
holes from p-type semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines with free electrons in the
n-type semiconductor. Thus, recombination takes place in depletion region as well as in p-type
and n-type semiconductor.

The free electrons in the conduction band releases energy in the form of light before they
recombine with holes in the valence band. In silicon and germanium diodes, most of the energy
is released in the form of heat and emitted light is too small. However, in materials like gallium
arsenide and gallium phosphide the emitted photons have sufficient energy to produce intense
visible light.

How LED emits light?

When external voltage is applied to the valence electrons, they gain sufficient energy and
break the bonding with the parent atom. The valence electron which breaks bonding with the
parent atom is called free electrons.

When the valence electron left the parent atom, they leave an empty space in the valence
shell at which valence electron left. This empty space in the valence shell is called a hole. The
energy level of all the valence electrons is almost same. Grouping the range of energy levels of
all the valence electrons is called valence band. In the similar way, energy level of all the free
electrons is almost same. Grouping the range of energy levels of all the free electrons is called
conduction band.

The energy level of free electrons in the conduction band is high compared to the energy
level of valence electrons or holes in the valence band. Therefore, free electrons in the
conduction band need to lose energy in order to recombine with the holes in the valence band.
The free electrons in the conduction band do not stay for long period. After a short period, the

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free electrons lose energy in the form of light and recombine with the holes in the valence band.
Each recombination of charge carrier will emit some light energy.

Figure: Process of light emission in LED

The energy loss of free electrons or the intensity of emitted light is depends on the
forbidden gap or energy gap between conduction band and valence band. The semiconductor
device with large forbidden gap emits high intensity light whereas the semiconductor device with
small forbidden gap emits low intensity light. In other words, the brightness of the emitted light
is depends on the material used for constructing LED and forward current flow through the LED.

In normal silicon diodes, the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is
less. Hence, the electrons fall only a short distance. As a result, low energy photons are released.
These low energy photons have low frequency which is invisible to human eye.

In LEDs, the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very large so the
free electrons in LEDs have greater energy than the free electrons in silicon diodes. Hence, the
free electrons fall to a large distance. As a result, high energy photons are released. These high
energy photons have high frequency which is visible to human eye. The efficiency of generation
of light in LED increases with increase in injected current and with a decrease in temperature.

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In light emitting diodes, light is produced due to recombination process. Recombination of

charge carriers takes place only under forward bias condition. Hence, LEDs operate only in
forward bias condition.

When light emitting diode is reverse biased the free electrons (majority carriers) from n-side and
holes (majority carriers) from p-side moves away from the junction. As a result, the width of
depletion region increases and no recombination of charge carriers occur. Thus, no light is
produced. If the reverse bias voltage applied to the LED is highly increased, the device may also
be damaged.

All diodes emit photons or light but not all diodes emit visible light. The material in an
LED is selected in such a way that the wavelength of the released photons falls within the visible
portion of the light spectrum. Light emitting diodes can be switched ON and OFF at a very fast
speed of 1 ns.

Light emitting diode (LED) symbol:

The symbol of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except that it contains arrows
pointing away from the diode indicating that light is being emitted by the diode.

Figure: LED Symbol

LEDs are available in different colours. The most common colours of LEDs are orange, yellow,
green and red. The schematic symbol of LED does not represent the colour of light. The

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schematic symbol is same for all colours of LEDs. Hence, it is not possible to identify the colour
of LED by seeing its symbol.

LED construction

One of the methods used to construct LED is to deposit three semiconductor layers on the
substrate. The three semiconductor layers deposited on the substrate are n-type semiconductor, p-
type semiconductor and active region. Active region is present in between the n-type and p-type
semiconductor layers.

Figure: LED Construction

When LED is forward biased, free electrons from n-type semiconductor and holes from p-type
semiconductor are pushed towards the active region. When free electrons from n-side and holes
from p-side recombine with the opposite charge carriers (free electrons with holes or holes with
free electrons) in active region, an invisible or visible light is emitted. In LED, most of the
charge carriers recombine at active region. Therefore, most of the light is emitted by the active
region. The active region is also called as depletion region.

What determines the colour of an LED?

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The material used for constructing LED determines its colour. In other words, the wavelength or
colour of the emitted light depends on the forbidden gap or energy gap of the material.

Different materials emit different colours of light.

 Gallium arsenide LEDs emit red and infrared light.

 Gallium nitride LEDs emits bright blue light.
 Yttrium aluminium garnet LEDs emits white light.
 Gallium phosphide LEDs emits red, yellow and green light.
 Aluminium gallium nitride LEDs emits ultraviolet light.
 Aluminium gallium phosphide LEDs emit green light.

Figure: Interfacing LED with Arduino

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CHAPTER-5
PASSIVE COMPONENTS

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow,
adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines,
among other uses. In this project we are using 330 ohm resistors to limit the flow of current to
LEDS from Arduino

Figure: Resistors

Figure: LED interfacing with Arduino using Resistor

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The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy in the
form of an electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates,
much like a small rechargeable battery.

They are input and output decoupling capacitors for the 7805 voltage regulator. ... Both
are needed and recommended to suppress high frequency noise from the source and/or from the
load (e.g. peak currents absorbed by digital circuits), to avoid bounce on the regulated voltage
and to achieve EMC [Electromagnetic Compatibility, EMC is the term used to describe how
well a device or system is able to function in an electromagnetic environment without
introducing electromagnetic disturbances that interfere with the operation of other electrical
products in the environment].

Figure: Capacitors

Figure: Capacitors at 7805

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Chapter-5

LDR SENSOR
An LDR or light dependent resistor is also known as photo resistor, photocell, and
photoconductor. It is a one type of resistor whose resistance varies depending on the amount of
light falling on its surface. When the light falls on the resistor, then the resistance changes. These
resistors are often used in many circuits where it is required to sense the presence of light. These
resistors have a variety of functions and resistance. For instance, when the LDR is in darkness,
then it can be used to turn ON a light or to turn OFF a light when it is in the light. A typical light
dependent resistor has a resistance in the darkness of 1MOhm, and in the brightness a resistance
of a couple of KOhm

This resistor works on the principle of photo conductivity. It is nothing but, when the
light falls on its surface, then the material conductivity reduces and also the electrons in the
valence band of the device are excited to the conduction band. These photons in the incident
light must have energy greater than the band gap of the semiconductor material. This makes the
electrons to jump from the valence band to conduction.

These devices depend on the light, when light falls on the LDR then the resistance
decreases, and increases in the dark. When a LDR is kept in the dark place, its resistance is high
and, when the LDR is kept in the light its resistance will decrease.

What is a Light Dependent Resistor and Its Applications

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Light Dependent Resistor

The dominant of street lights, outside lights, a number of indoor home appliances, and so
on are typically operated and maintained manually on many occasions. This is not only risky,
however additionally leads to wastage of power with the negligence of personnel or uncommon
circumstances in controlling these electrical appliances ON and OFF. Hence, we can utilize the
light sensor circuit for automatic switch OFF the loads based on daylight’s intensity by
employing a light sensor. This article discusses in brief about what is a light dependent resistor,
how to make a light dependent resistor circuit and its applications.

Light Dependent Resistor

An LDR or light dependent resistor is also known as photo resistor, photocell,

photoconductor. It is a one type of resistor whose resistance varies depending on the amount of
light falling on its surface. When the light falls on the resistor, then the resistance changes. These
resistors are often used in many circuits where it is required to sense the presence of light. These
resistors have a variety of functions and resistance. For instance, when the LDR is in darkness,
then it can be used to turn ON a light or to turn OFF a light when it is in the light. A typical light
dependent resistor has a resistance in the darkness of 1MOhm, and in the brightness a resistance
of a couple of KOhm

Working Principle of  LDR

This resistor works on the principle of photo conductivity. It is nothing but, when the
light falls on its surface, then the material conductivity reduces and also the electrons in the
valence band of the device are excited to the conduction band. These photons in the incident
light must have energy greater than the band gap of the semiconductor material. This makes the
electrons to jump from the valence band to conduction.

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Working Principle of LDR

These devices depend on the light, when light falls on the LDR then the resistance
decreases, and increases in the dark. When a LDR is kept in the dark place, its resistance is high
and, when the LDR is kept in the light its resistance will decrease.

Variation of LDR Resistance with Variation in Light Intensity

If a constant “V’ is applied to the LDR, the intensity of the light increased and current
increases. The figure below shows the curve between resistance Vs illumination curve for a
particular light dependent resistor.

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Light Intensity vs LDR Resistance

Types of light Dependent Resistors

Light dependent resistors are classified based on the materials used.

Intrinsic Photo Resistors

These resistors are pure semiconductor devices like silicon or germanium. When the light
falls on the LDR, then the electrons get excited from the valence band to the conduction band
and number of charge carriers increases.

Extrinsic Photo Resistors

These devices are doped with impurities and these impurities creates a new energy bands
above the valence band. These bands are filled with electrons. Hence this decrease the band gap
and small amount of energy is required in moving them. These resistors are mainly used for long
wavelengths.

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Circuit Diagram of a Light Dependent Resistor

The circuit diagram of a LDR is shown below. When the light intensity is low, then the
resistance of the LDR is high. This stops the current flow to the base terminal of the transistor.
So, the LED does not light. However, when the light intensity onto the LDR is high, then the
resistance of the LDR is low. So current flows onto the base of the first transistor and then the
second transistor. Consequently the LED lights. Here, a preset resistor is used to turn up or down
to increase or decrease the resistance.

Chapter-5

( LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)

This is an example for the Parallel Port. This doesn't use the Bi-directional feature found
on newer ports, thus it should work with most, if no all Parallel Ports. It however doesn't show
the use of the Status Port as an input.. These modules are preferred over seven segments and
other multi segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have
no limitation of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments),
animations and so on.
The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is
an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting
the cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed on
the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.

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Figure 5.6.1

LCD BACKGROUND:

The 44780 standard requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for the data
bus. The user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit data bus.
If a 4-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines (3 control lines plus the 4
lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 11 data lines (3
control lines plus the 8 lines for the data bus). The three control lines are referred as EN, RW and
RS
EN: The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are
sending it data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line is low (0) and
then set the other two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are
completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the
LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.
RS: The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a
command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1),
the data being sent is text data which should be displayed on the screen. For example, to display
the letter "T" on the screen you would set RS high.
RW: The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the
data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying
(or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are
write commands--so RW will almost always be low.
Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation selected by the
user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4,
DB5, DB6, and DB7.

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LCD PIN OUT

PIN DESCRIPTION

Pin No: Name Function

1 VSS This pin must be connected
to the ground
2 VCC Positive supply voltage pin
(5V DC)
3 VEE Contrast adjustment
4 RS Register selection
5 R/W Read or write
6 E Enable
7 DB0 Data
8 DB1 Data
9 DB2 Data
10 DB3 Data
11 DB4 Data
12 DB5 Data
13 DB6 Data
14 DB7 Data
15 LED+ Back light LED+
16 LED- Back light LED

INTERFACING LCD WITH AN ARDUINO

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The circuit diagram of interfacing LCD to Arduino for displaying a text message is shown above. RS pin
of the LCD module is connected to digital pin 12 of the Arduino. R/W pin of the LCD is grounded.
Enable pin of the LCD module is connected to digital pin 11 of the Arduino. In this project, the LCD
module and Arduino are interfaced in the 4-bit mode. That means only four of the digital input lines (DB4
to DB7 of the LCD are used). This method is very simple, requires less connections and you can almost
utilize the full potential of the LCD module. Digital lines DB4, DB5, DB6 and DB7 are interfaced to
digital pins 5, 4, 3 and 2 of the Arduino. The 10K potentiometer is used for adjusting the contrast of the
display. 560 ohm resistor R1 limits the current through the back light LED. The Arduino can be powered
through the external power jack provided on the board. +5V required in some other parts of the circuit can
be tapped from the 5V source on the Arduino board. The Arduino can be also powered from the PC
through the USB port.

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Chapter-6

IR SENSOR

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.
These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called as
a passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of thermal
radiations. These types of radiations are  invisible to our eyes, that can be detected by an infrared
sensor. The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an IR
photodiode which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted by the IR LED.

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When IR light falls on the photodiode, The resistances and these output voltages, change in
proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.

IR Sensor Circuit Diagram and Working Principle

An infrared  sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular sensor module in an electronic
device. This sensor is analogous to human’s visionary senses, which can be used to detect
obstacles and it is one of the common applications in real time. This circuit comprises of the
following components
 LM358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair
 Resistors of the range of kilo ohms.
 Variable resistors.
 LED (Light Emitting Diode).

In this project, the transmitter section includes an IR sensor, which transmits continuous
IR rays to be received by an IR receiver module. An IR output terminal of the receiver varies
depending upon its receiving of IR rays. Since this variation cannot be analyzed as such,
therefore this output can be fed to a comparator circuit. Here an operational amplifier (op-amp)
of LM 339 is used as comparator circuit.
When the IR receiver does not receive a signal, the potential at the inverting input goes
higher than that non-inverting input of the comparator IC (LM339). Thus the output of the

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comparator goes low, but the LED does not glow. When the IR receiver module receives signal
to the potential at the inverting input goes low. Thus the output of the comparator (LM 339) goes
high and the LED starts glowing. Resistor R1 (100 ), R2 (10k ) and R3 (330) are used to ensure
that minimum 10 mA current passes through the IR LED Devices like Photodiode and normal
LEDs respectively. Resistor VR2 (preset=5k ) is used to adjust the output terminals. Resistor
VR1 (preset=10k ) is used to set the sensitivity of the circuit Diagram. Read more about IR
sensors.

Different Types of IR Sensors and Their Applications

IR sensors are classified into different types depending on the applications. Some of the
typical applications of different types of sensors are
The speed sensor is used for synchronizing the speed of multiple motors. The temperature
sensor is used for industrial temperature control. PIR sensor is used for automatic door opening
system and  Ultrasonic sensor are used for distance measurement.
IR Sensor Applications

IR sensors are used in various Sensor based projects and also in various electronic devices which
measures the temperature that are discussed in the below.
Radiation Thermometers

IR sensors are used in radiation thermometers to measure the temperature depend upon the
temperature and the material of the object and these thermometers have some of the following
features

 Measurement without direct contact with the object

 Faster response
 Easy pattern measurements
Flame Monitors

These types of devices are used for detecting the light emitted from the flames and to monitor
how the flames are burning. The Light emitted from flames extend from UV to IR region types.
PbS, PbSe, Two-color detector, pyro electric detector are some of the commonly employed
detector used in flame monitors.

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Moisture Analyzers

Moisture analyzers use wavelengths which are absorbed by the moisture in the IR region.
Objects are irradiated with light having these wavelengths(1.1 µm, 1.4 µm, 1.9 µm, and 2.7µm)
and also with reference wavelengths. The Lights reflected from the objects depend upon the
moisture content and is detected by analyzer to measure moisture (ratio of reflected light at these
wavelengths to the reflected light at reference wavelength). In GaAs PIN photodiodes, Pbs
photoconductive detectors are employed in moisture analyzer circuits.

Gas Analyzers

IR sensors are used in gas analyzers which use absorption characteristics of gases in the IR
region. Two types of methods are used to measure the density of gas such as dispersive and non
dispersive.

Dispersive: An Emitted light is spectroscopically divided and their absorption characteristics are
used to analyze the gas ingredients and the sample quantity.
Non dispersive: It is most commonly used method and it uses absorption characteristics without
dividing the emitted light. Non dispersive types use discrete optical band pass filters, similar to
sunglasses that are used for eye protection to filter out unwanted UV radiation.
This type of configuration is commonly referred to as non dispersive infrared (NDIR)
technology. This type of analyzer is used for carbonated drinks, whereas non dispersive analyzer
is used in most of the commercial IR instruments, for an automobile exhaust gas fuel leakages.

IR Imaging Devices

IR image device is one of the major applications of IR waves, primarily by virtue of its property
that is not visible. It is used for thermal imagers, night vision devices, etc.

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IR Imaging Devices

For examples Water, rocks, soil, vegetation, an atmosphere, and human tissue all features emit
IR radiation. The Thermal infrared detectors measure these radiations in IR range and map the
spatial temperature distributions of the object/area on an image. Thermal imagers usually
composed of a Sb (indium antimonite), Gd Hg (mercury-doped germanium), Hg Cd Te
(mercury-cadmium-telluride) sensors.

An electronic detector is cooled to low temperatures using liquid helium or liquid nitrogen’s. 
Then the Cooling the detectors ensures that the radiant energy (photons) recorded by the
detectors comes from the terrain and not from the ambient temperature of objects within the
scanner itself an IR imaging electronic devices.

Chapter-7

SOIL MOISTURE SENSOR

The Moisture sensor is used to measure the water content (moisture) of soil. When the
soil is having water shortage, the module output is at high level, else the output is at low level.
This sensor reminds the user to water their plants and also monitors the moisture content of soil.
It has been widely used in agriculture, land irrigation and botanical gardening.

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SPECIFICATIONS

 Working Voltage:5V
 Working Current:<20mA
 Interface type: Analog
 Working Temperature:10°C~30°C

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WORKING

The Soil Moisture Sensor uses capacitance to measure dielectric permittivity of the
surrounding medium. In soil, dielectric permittivity is a function of the water content. The sensor
creates a voltage proportional to the dielectric permittivity, and therefore the water content of the
soil. The sensor averages the water content over the entire length of the sensor. There is a 2 cm
zone of influence with respect to the flat surface of the sensor, but it has little or no sensitivity at
the extreme edges.The Soil Moisture Sensor is used to measure the loss of moisture over time
due to evaporation and plant uptake,evaluate optimum soil moisture contents for various species
of plants,monitor soil moisture content to control irrigation in greenhouses and enhance bottle
biology experiments.

The soil moisture sensor consists of two probes which are used to measure the volumetric
content of water. The two probes allow the current to pass through the soil and then it gets the
resistance value to measure the moisture value.

When there is more water, the soil will conduct more electricity which means that there
will be less resistance. Therefore, the moisture level will be higher. Dry soil conducts electricity
poorly, so when there will be less water, then the soil will conduct less electricity which means
that there will be more resistance. Therefore, the moisture level will be lower.

This sensor can be connected in two modes; Analog mode and digital mode. First, we
will connect it in Analog mode and then we will use it in Digital mode.

The soil Moisture sensor FC-28 has four pins

 VCC: For power

 A0: Analog output
 D0: Digital output
 GND: Ground

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The Module also contains a potentiometer which will set the threshold value and then this
threshold value will be compared by the LM393 comparator. The output LED will light up and
down according to this threshold value.

Digital Mode – Interfacing Arduino and Soil Moisture Sensor

To connect the soil moisture sensor FC-28 in the digital mode, we will connect the digital
output of the sensor to the digital pin of the Arduino. The Sensor module contains a
potentiometer with it, which is used to set the threshold value. This threshold value is then
compared with the sensor output value using the LM393 comparator which is placed on the
sensor module.

The LM393 comparator will compare the sensor output value and the threshold value and
then gives us the output through the digital pin. When the sensor value will be greater than the
threshold value, then the digital pin will give us 5V and the LED on the sensor will light up and
when the sensor value will be less than this threshold value, then the digital pin will give us 0V
and the light will go down.

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Analog Mode – Interfacing Soil Moisture Sensor and Arduino

To connect the sensor in the analog mode, we will need to use the analog output of the
sensor. When taking the analog output from the soil moisture sensor FC-28, the sensor gives us
the value from 0-1023. The moisture is measured in percentage, so we will map these values
from 0 -100 and then we will show these values on the serial monitor.

You can further set different ranges of the moisture values and turn on or off the water pump
according to it.

Hardware and Software Required

 Moisture Sensor Module

 Arduino Uno
 Arduino IDE(1.0.6 Version)

The moisture sensor module should be connected to the as follows:

 Vcc to 5V
 GND to GND
 A0 to Analog 0 of Arduino

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Chapter-8

Dht11

Humidity is the measure of water vapour present in the air. The level of humidity in air affects
various physical, chemical and biological processes.  In industrial applications, humidity can
affect the business cost of the products, health and safety of the employees. So,
in semiconductor industries and control system industries measurement of humidity is very
important.  Humidity measurement determines the amount of moisture present in the gas that can
be a mixture of water vapour, nitrogen, argon or pure gas etc…  Humidity sensors are of two
types based on their measurement units.  They are a relative humidity sensor and Absolute
humidity sensor. DHT11 is a digital temperature and humidity sensor.

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What is a DHT11 Sensor?

DHT11 is a low-cost digital sensor for sensing temperature and humidity.  This sensor can be
easily interfaced with any micro-controller such as Arduino, Raspberry Pi etc… to measure
humidity and temperature instantaneously.

DHT11 humidity and temperature sensor is available as a sensor and as a module. The difference
between this sensor and module is the pull-up resistor and a power-on LED. DHT11 is a relative
humidity sensor.  To measure the surrounding air this sensor uses a thermistor and a capacitive
humidity sensor.

Working Principle of DHT11 Sensor

DHT11 sensor consists of a capacitive humidity sensing element and a thermistor for sensing
temperature.  The humidity sensing capacitor has two electrodes with a moisture holding
substrate as a dielectric between them. Change in the capacitance value occurs with the change in
humidity levels. The IC measure, process this changed resistance values and change them into
digital form.
For measuring temperature this sensor uses a Negative Temperature coefficient thermistor,
which causes a decrease in its resistance value with increase in temperature. To get larger
resistance value even for the smallest change in temperature, this sensor is usually made up of
semiconductor ceramics or polymers.

The temperature range of DHT11 is from 0 to 50 degree Celsius with a 2-degree accuracy.
Humidity range of this sensor is from 20 to 80% with 5% accuracy. The sampling rate of this
sensor is 1Hz .i.e. it gives one reading for every second.  DHT11 is small in size with operating
voltage from 3 to 5 volts. The maximum current used while measuring is 2.5mA.

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DHT11 sensor has four pins- VCC, GND, Data Pin and a not connected pin. A pull-up resistor of
5k to 10k ohms is provided for communication between sensor and micro-controller.

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ADVANTAGES

i. Reduces the number of labors require for agricultural activity.

ii. Due its quick action time will be saved.

iii. Agribot can able to work in any environmental condition. iv.The robots can work without
sleep so they can work 24/7/365.

v. Protection against harmful effects of chemicals

APPLICATIONS

• Robot has rotor which will destroy the unwanted grasses while moving and also level the
ground.

• The robot also has a digger to dig the vegetables from the ground.

• In Automatic turn on and turn off of water pumping motor.

This sensor is used in various applications such as measuring humidity and temperature values in
heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems. Weather stations also use these sensors to
predict weather conditions.  The humidity sensor is used as a preventive measure in homes where
people are affected by humidity.  Offices, cars, museums, greenhouses and industries use this
sensor for measuring humidity values and as a safety measure.

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Chapter-9

Methodology

Working

The project aims on the design, development and the fabrication of the robot which can dig the
soil, leveler to close the mud and turn on and turn off the motor depending on water level in the
ground and this whole system of the robot works with the battery and the solar power. The
language input allows a user to interact with the robot which is familiar to most of the people.
The advantages of these robots are hands-free and fast data input operations. In the field of
agricultural autonomous vehicle, a concept is been developed to investigate if multiple small
autonomous machine could be more efficient than traditional large tractors and human forces.
Keeping the above ideology in mind, a unit with the following feature is designed:

Power supply

Motor-1

L29 3D motor
DHT 11 Motor-
2
Arduino
Soil moisture
sensor Water spray pump

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Results

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Source code

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Chapter-10
Conclusion

In agriculture, the opportunities for robot-enhanced productivity are immense – and the robots
are appearing on farms in various guises and in increasing numbers. The other problems
associated with autonomous farm equipment can probably be overcome with technology. This
equipment may be in our future, but there are important reasons for thinking that it may not be
just replacing the human driver with a computer. It may mean a rethinking of how crop
production is done. Crop production may be done better and cheaper with a swarm of small
machines than with a few large ones. One of the advantages of the smaller machines is that they
may be more acceptable to the non-farm community. The jobs in agriculture are a drag,
dangerous, require intelligence and quick, though highly repetitive decisions hence robots can be
rightly substituted with human operator. The higher quality products can be sensed by machines
(color, firmness, weight, density, ripeness, size, shape) accurately. Robots can improve the
quality of our lives but there are downsides. The present situation in our country all the
agricultural machine is working on manual operation otherwise by petrol engine or tractor is
expensive, farmer can’t work for long time manually to avoid this problem, we need to have
some kind of power source system to operate the digging machine.

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Future scope

Robotics is playing a significant role in agricultural production and management. There is a need
for autonomous and time saving technology in agriculture to have efficient farm management.
The researchers are now focusing towards different farming operational parameters to design
autonomous agricultural vehicles as the conventional farm machineries are crop and topological
dependent. Till date the agricultural robots have been researched and developed principally for
harvesting, chemical spraying, picking fruits and monitoring of crops. Robots like these are
perfect substitute for manpower to a great extent as they deploy unmanned sensing and
machinery systems. The prime benefits of development of autonomous and intelligent
agricultural robots are to improve repeatable precision, efficacy, reliability and minimization of
soil compaction and drudgery. The robots have potential for multitasking, sensory acuity,
operational consistency as well as suitability to odd operating conditions. The study on
agricultural robotic system had been done using model structure design mingled with different
precision farming machineries. Few prototypes were designed by European Union named
CROPS, USA-ISAAC2 & Michigan Hortibot, Australia-AgBot, Finland-Demeter, India-Agribot
and many other countries. The agricultural robots are designed using different localization
techniques which are vision, GPS, laser and sensor based navigation control system. In this
paper, comparative study including an overview of Robotics approach for precision Agriculture
in India and worldwide development is explored.

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REFERENCES
[1] Butler, S. (1887). Luck, or cunning, as the main means of Organic Modification? An attempt to throw
additional light upon Darwin’s theory of natural selection. (London:Trübner & Co.) Reprinted as vol 8 of
The Shrewsbury Edition of the works of Samuel Butler (London: Jonathan Cape, 1924).

[2] Shibusawa, S. 1996. PhytoTechnology - An introduction to the concept and topic of a new Project.
http://phytech.ishikawac.ac.jp/WhatIs.html.

[3] Dyson, G. (1997). Darwin among the machines, The Penguin Press.

[4] Tillett, N.D., Hague, T. and Marchant, J.A.(1998) A robotic system for plant scale husbandry. Journal
of Agricultural Engineering Research, 69, 169-178.

[5] Tang, L., Tian, L., and Steward, B. L. 2000, Color image segmentation with genetic algorithm for in-
field weed sensing, Transactions of the ASAE - American Society of Agricultural Engineers 43:41019-
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[6] Pedersen, B. B. 2001, Weed density estimation from digital images in spring barley, Unpublished MSc
thesis KVL, Denmark.

[7] Søgaard, H. T. and Heisel, T. 2002, Weed classification by active shape models. AgEng 2002,
International Conference on Agricultural Engineering, Budapest, Hungary, June-July 2002.

[8] Leropoulos, I., Greenman, J., and Melhuish, C. (2003). Imitating metabolism: Energy autonomy in
biologically inspired robots. AISB '03 Second international symposium on imitation in animals and
artifacts. Aberystwyth, Wales, pp.191-194.

[9] Graglia, E. 2004, Importance of herbicide concentration, number of droplets and droplet size on
growth of Solanum nigrum L, using droplet application of Glyphosphate, XIIeme Colloque International
sur la Biologie des Mauvaises Herbes.

[10] Nørremark, M. and Griepentrog, H. W. 2004, Physical methods to control weeds within crop rows,
AgEng04, Leuven, Belgium.

[11] Lund, I. and Søgaard, H. T. 2005, Robotic Weeding - Plant recognition and micro spray on single
weeds, 5ECPA (This conference), ed. J. V. Stafford.

[12] Blackmore, S. (2007). A systems view of agricultural robotics. Precision Agriculture conference,
Wageningen Academic Publishers, the Netherlands. pp. 23-31.

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