Purdue Conference on the Human–Animal Bond

Training Veterinary Students in Animal Behavior

to Preserve the Human–Animal Bond
Barbara L. Sherman g James A. Serpell

ABSTRACT
Knowledge of animal behavior is an extremely important component of modern veterinary practice. Appreciation of species-
typical behavior helps to ensure that veterinary patients are handled safely and humanely, and plays a pivotal role in the
diagnosis of health and welfare problems in animals, including the recognition of pain and distress. Veterinary students who
acquire a good understanding of animal behavior will be better clinicians and will be best able to promote and repair the
‘‘human–animal bond,’’ that important connection between people and their pets. Animal behavior problems can negatively
impact this critical relationship, leading to abandonment, re-homing, relinquishment to an animal shelter, and sometimes
premature euthanasia of the animal. Therefore, identifying, preventing, and treating behavior problems is important
in maintaining the human–animal bond. Education in animal behavior should be an essential part of the veterinary
curriculum; a board-certified veterinary behaviorist should be an integral member of the veterinary college faculty.

Key words: human–animal bond, animal behavior education, veterinary medicine, veterinary behavior, animal behavior
problems

INTRODUCTION
As noted by Eyre, ‘‘The entire basis of the veterinary
profession is a partnership between people and animals—
the so-called human–animal bond.’’1 In recent years,
veterinary medical education curricula have expanded to
include topics relevant to the human–animal bond (HAB),
including animal behavior,2–7 although the rate of expansion
has been slow.8 How does animal behavior education
enhance understanding of the HAB? The HAB, and the
benefits that people derive from their relationships with
their animal companions, is forged by the behavior of
the animals.9–11 Well-behaved pets enrich people’s lives
and enhance their health and sense of well-being.12 Animal
behavior problems can negatively impact these sensibilities
and erode the relationships between pets and their
owners.4,11,13 This can lead to abandonment, relinquish-
ment, or even euthanasia of the pet. The prevention and
treatment of animal behavior problems by veterinarians can
avoid this scenario. Thus, training veterinary students in the
field of animal behavior can positively impact the HAB.
In addition, veterinarians serve the HAB by maintaining the
health of the animal.14 Understanding normal behavior
helps veterinarians to recognize abnormal behavior that
might signify a pathologic state.15 Animal behavior educa-
tion helps future veterinarians to become astute clinicians,
recognizing that behavioral complaints made by pet owners
may signal a medical abnormality or indicate that an
animal’s welfare is at risk.
Veterinarians can demonstrate their respect for the animals
in their care, and enhance the veterinarian–patient–client
relationship, by restraining and managing animals in such
a way that their fear and stress responses are reduced.16–20
Using fear and intimidation to manage animals alienates
them from humans and is diametrically opposed to
optimizing the HAB. Fearful displays in response to
veterinary handling signal that the HAB has been broken.
Recognizing behaviors that signal fear, and appropriately
attenuating these responses, are skills that should be taught
to veterinary students.20 Students should also be taught
basic behavior-modification techniques that use positive
methods to train animals to cooperate with veterinarians.
Furthermore, offering behavior services to clients conveys
the veterinarian’s interest in the important relationship
between pet and owner.
Ideally, veterinary student training in the HAB and clinical
aspects of veterinary behavior should be taught by
diplomates of the American College of Veterinary
Behaviorists in collaboration with members of university
centers that specialize in the study of human–animal
interactions, humane ethics, public policy, and animal
welfare. Currently, only one third of veterinary colleges
address training in animal behavior.8
BENEFITS OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR EDUCATION
Training Astute Clinicians
Veterinary students will become veterinarians who support
the continuation of the HAB by maintaining the health
of each animal. Many clients present their pets to their
veterinarian because of behavioral changes that signify an
underlying medical problem, such as lethargy, excessive
water consumption, or poor appetite. Interpreting such
behavioral complaints is an important aspect of good
clinical practice. Diagnostic acumen in physical and
neurological examinations involves an assessment of behav-
ior. Behavioral concomitants of disease and poor health
should be presented in didactic veterinary lectures on
internal medicine, endocrinology, and other subjects integral
to veterinary medical education.

496 JVME 35(4) ß 2008 AAVMC

Behavioral assessment can be used to monitor response to
treatment, improvement or worsening of chronic disease
states, and quality of life. For example, clients can document
increased willingness to play in a dog being treated for
cardiac disease, a behavioral change that may signify an
improvement in cardiac output; decreased house-soiling
incidents may be associated with the successful manage-
ment of diabetes-associated polyuria/polydipsia in a cat.
Several authors have developed useful matrices of beha-
vioral domains that are relevant to the assessment of chronic
conditions in companion dogs, including various indicators
of activity, comfort, appetite, introversion/extroversion,
aggression, anxiety, alertness, dependence, contentment,
agitation, posture-mobility, and compulsiveness.3,21–23
Pain levels may also be evaluated using behavioral criteria,
such as the animal’s willingness to rise in the morning
or negotiate stairs and its posture, tendency to vocalize,
response to touch, and overall demeanor.24–26 Relatively
sophisticated quality of life and welfare-assessment techni-
ques of this kind are likely to grow in importance as
treatments for life-threatening and critical conditions
become increasingly technologically advanced and heroic.
Similarly, standardized behavioral assessments of physical
and cognitive decline among aging veterinary patients will
help with end-of-life care decisions for this growing
population of companion animals.
Humane, Safe, and Effective Handling of Animals
In animal behavior classes in the veterinary medical
curriculum, normal species-specific behavior should be
taught in both didactic and clinical settings. Humane and
safe handling of animals requires a thorough knowledge of
normal behavior, including normal fear responses.27,28
Humane handling avoids fear responses and attempts to
reduce anxiety with each subsequent visit to the veterinary
hospital. Often, fear responses can be managed by non-
confrontational behavioral techniques and desensitization
protocols.20,29 For example, a dog that ‘‘freezes’’ in a
defensive threat when rapidly approached face-on by
an unfamiliar veterinarian can be repositioned before it
displays defensive ‘‘keep away’’ aggression. Then, it can
be approached in a less threatening, parallel manner.
A strategy to reward calm, cooperative behavior can
be initiated and even practiced at home by the client.
The incidence of submissive urination, fear-motivated
(defensive) aggression, and escape behavior by dogs can
be reduced by recognizing the subtle signs of anxiety, and
using gentle handling and protocols that reward calm,
obedient behavior. With positive training, cats can be taught
to accept crate confinement and transport, reducing the risk
of injury and the threat of defensive aggression in the
veterinary hospital. Similar principles may be applied to the
handling of laboratory animals,30 pet birds,31 and nontradi-
tional pets.32,33
In an animal behavior course, veterinary students have the
opportunity to learn basic applied behavior-modification
principles, including the humane use of training aids. Since
animals learn from every interaction with humans, our
goal should be to create a positive learning experience
that contributes to the HAB and facilitates completion
of veterinary medical tasks. Unknowingly, humans can
reinforce (reward) undesirable behaviors. For example,
JVME 35(4) ß 2008 AAVMC
a dog that presents a fearful posture is being rewarded
when the client speaks to it in a cooing voice and gives it
pats. Clients can be taught to ignore fearful behavior and
reward calm, obedient behavior by asking the dog to follow
a simple, familiar command such as ‘‘sit.’’ Such trained
(positive) responses can inhibit spontaneous (negative,
‘‘keep away’’) responses. Verbal praise and tasty tidbits
may be used as rewards and lures.
Animal Welfare
The HAB is not restricted to companion animals and their
owners. Our commitment to the welfare and humane
treatment of animals in our care, both as veterinarians
and as members of a compassionate society, is an expression
of the HAB. Behavior is a critical indicator of welfare
in farmed,34,35 laboratory,30,36 and captive animals.37 Under-
standing the normal behavior of the animals in our care is
required for the design of appropriate animal housing and
the development of optimal management protocols.38 For
example, what is the appropriate cage size for a laboratory
dog? Should a particular species of primate be housed alone
or in a social group?
Recognizing abnormal behavior is important in the assess-
ment of housing and management, as well as in the
expression of pain, illness, or distress. An appreciation of
abnormal behavior requires knowledge of the range of
individual expression of species-typical behavior. Medical
problems can underlie or result from behavioral problems;
thus, behavioral issues are in the purview of the veterinar-
ian. Training in behavior should not be restricted to
companion animal courses; it should also be a component
of food-animal, laboratory-animal, avian, and exotic-animal
courses.
Reducing the Incidence of Behavior Problems
Behavioral issues are probably the most common causes of
premature death among pets in the United States, because
pets with unresolved behavior problems are likely to
be relinquished to animal shelters where the majority will
be euthanized.39 By this unfortunate process, millions of
animals are euthanized each year on the basis of their
behavior and as a result of disruption of the HAB. In
veterinary medical education, the prevention and treatment
of problem behavior should be taught in the curriculum as a
means to help companion animals live long, healthy, and
happy lives, and to enhance their relationships with
humans. Teaching these principles to veterinary students
can help them be more effective in preventing and
managing behavior problems in practice.40 There are two
main components to a clinical veterinary behavior program:
prevention of behavior problems in young animals, and
treatment of existing behavior problems in animals of
all ages.
PREVENTION OF BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
There are a number of ways that the risk of behavior
problems that disrupt the HAB can be prevented by
veterinarians. One way is to emphasize the importance
of providing for the behavioral needs of the animal by
introducing the concept of ‘‘behavioral wellness’’17,41,42 to
veterinary students in animal behavior classes. Daily play,
497
exercise, positive interactions, and ‘‘manners’’ are critical to
behavioral health and the HAB.
Another way to prevent behavior problems is to implement
puppy and kitten socialization programs during the critical
first four months of life. In animal behavior courses,
veterinary students should learn how starting young
animals ‘‘off right’’ with regard to behavior enhances the
HAB. As adults, well-socialized animals are more likely
to be retained by their owners.
Puppy Socialization
Many studies have documented the existence of a
special learning period in dogs, often called the primary
socialization period.43 This stage, from approximately three
to 14 weeks of age, is a time of rapid brain development and
plasticity. Positive and negative experiences acquired
during this time may have effects during the dog’s entire
lifetime. As adults, well-socialized dogs exhibit increased
exploratory behavior, increased learning ability, and
increased sociability toward people and other animals.44 In
contrast, pups who are isolated from people and novel
situations during the critical socialization period will tend
to be fearful and retreat from unfamiliar persons and
circumstances. In extreme cases, this fearfulness can be very
difficult to overcome and the dog may be handicapped for
its entire life.
Key points in the socialization of dogs are as follows:43,44
. The primary socialization ‘‘window’’ for dogs is
approximately three to 14 weeks of age.
. Socialization increases exploratory behavior, learning
ability, confidence in unfamiliar situations, and
sociability toward people and other dogs.
. If isolated from people and novel situations for the
first 14 weeks, pups may become as fearful as wild
or feral dogs.
In a didactic animal behavior course, veterinary students
can learn the importance of the primary socialization period
in normal canine development so that they, in turn, can
educate clients. When clients adopt a new puppy at seven to
eight weeks, they need to dedicate the next six to eight
weeks to appropriate socialization. The puppy should be
exposed in a positive way to people and other animals,
including children and other dogs. The veterinary hospital
should be part of this socialization experience. Dogs should
be handled in positive ways and given rewards (praise,
small treats) when they exhibit calm, friendly behavior.
Gentle handling should characterize all experiences so
that the puppy does not become fearful or defensive. After
16 weeks of age, positive socializing experiences do not
need to be as frequent or intensive, but they do need to be
regularly reinforced until the dog is at least a year old.
Veterinary students should be exposed to activities that
maximize the probability of a long-term bond between the
client, their family, and the puppy. During puppy vaccina-
tion visits, basic instruction in puppy care and handling
should be given and questions related to behavior
answered. In educating clients, the need for appropriate
exercise and play should be emphasized. Many problems
can be avoided if a puppy is properly housetrained,45 taught
to be alone in a confined area, and taught to recognize
498
acceptable chew toys. Behavior problems that develop, such
as chewing, house soiling, excessive vocalizing, and biting,
disrupt the HAB and cause young dogs to be relegated to
the outside or relinquished to an animal shelter. Many such
behavior problems can be avoided with proper socialization
and training.
Kitten Socialization
In an animal behavior course, veterinary students should
learn that, like puppies, kittens have a socialization period
during which learning is enhanced.46,47 The socialization
period in domestic cats is from approximately two to seven
weeks. If possible, kittens should remain with their dam and
siblings during this period, with exposure to people as well.
Studies have shown that kittens that are handled for a few
minutes each day are more affectionate and learn more
quickly as adults compared to unhandled kittens.47
Key points in the socialization of cats are as follows:46,47
. The primary socialization ‘‘window’’ for cats is from
approximately two to seven weeks of age.
. Kittens benefit from social interaction with other
kittens as well as from gentle handling by people.
. Hand-reared kittens that don’t have exposure to
conspecifics may exhibit behavior problems as adults.
. For ‘‘mousers,’’ leave kittens with their dams for as
long as possible so that they can learn effective
predatory behavior.
TREATMENT OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
In animal behavior classes, veterinary students can learn
how to recognize and manage common behavior problems
that disrupt the HAB.40,48 Up to 90% of owners report
behavior problems with their pets; some of these problems
are minor, while others can be fatal to the HAB. For
example, urine marking by cats in the home can lead to the
cat being relegated to the outside (where the mean life span
is diminished), re-homed, or euthanized.49,50 Providing
behavioral counseling to clients about pet behavior pro-
blems is one of the most effective methods by which
veterinarians can influence the number of animals surren-
dered to animal shelters.51 Furthermore, in light of the
growing influence of media-savvy dog trainers, it is
important that veterinary students be made aware of
outmoded, ineffective, and often inhumane behavioral-
modification techniques and training aids so that they can
steer their clients toward better and more humane alter-
natives. Without education during their tenure as veterinary
students, attitudes toward animal welfare may be shaped
largely by previous experience.52–54
Behavior problems should be noted on the patient’s record
and triaged according to the nature of the problem and its
severity. A simple complaint, such as a dog digging under
the backyard fence, may be addressed with a handout, a few
questions to determine the cause, and (in the case of a
roaming male) an appointment to have the pet neutered. If
the patient does not respond to this first-line approach then
a separate behavior appointment should be scheduled to
evaluate underlying medical and behavioral conditions,
such as separation anxiety or cognitive dysfunction. Some
problems, such as a dog that jumps up to greet children,
JVME 35(4) ß 2008 AAVMC
may be referred to a competent, reward-based dog trainer.
More complex problems may need to be referred to a
behavior specialist.
The standard protocol for addressing behavior problems is
to first rule out medical causes, since many presumptive
behavior problems have an underlying medical etiology (see
Table 1). For example, pain can alter the threshold of
expression of problem behaviors, leading to irritable
aggression.55 Ruling out medical etiologies is accomplished
with a behavioral and medical history, physical examina-
tion, neurological examination, and appropriate laboratory
tests and diagnostic procedures.
The next goal is to establish a behavioral diagnosis. Finally, a
treatment program is initiated. Treatment modalities include
management of the environment, behavior-modification
techniques, and pharmacotherapy. In some cases, surgical
procedures, such as castration, can be part of the manage-
ment plan. An introduction to behavioral pharmacology56
should be part of a veterinary medical education. Clinical
rotations in animal behavior can demonstrate to veterinary
students how to collect a behavioral history, and how to
develop and implement a treatment plan for common
behavior problems. While most behavioral history forms
tend to be lengthy and too cumbersome to be useful to
nonspecialist veterinarians, shorter, standardized, and vali-
dated behavioral assessment techniques are now available
that may provide veterinary practitioners with new oppor-
tunities for screening their patients for the presence and
severity of common behavior problems (e.g., C-BARQ).39

Table 1: Protocol for addressing behavioral problems

Rule Out Medical Etiologies

Interview the client How does your pet seem to be feeling? Do you have any concerns about the health or behavior of
your pet?
Are there any changes in activity (e.g., willingness to get up from bed, go up and down stairs, play,
exercise) or sleep patterns?
Are there any changes in patterns of eating, drinking, urinating, or defecating?
Review the data Consider signalment (breed, sex, age), medical history, physical and neurological examination
findings, indicated laboratory tests, and diagnostic procedures.
Develop a medical diagnosis or proceed to establish a behavioral diagnosis.
Establish a Behavioral Diagnosis

Collect a detailed
behavioral history
Make a risk assessment
Schedule a behavior
consultation and make
a behavioral diagnosis
Develop a Treatment Plan
A preprinted data-collection form is helpful. Requested information should include a description of
the nature of the problem, detailed descriptions of recent incidents, a video record of the problem
behavior (if possible), the duration of the problem, specifics of when and where the problem
behavior occurs, a list of family members and other pets in the home, and a simple description and
map of the environment, indicating where the problem behavior occurs.
A risk assessment should consider the ability of family members to comply with behavioral
recommendations. In cases of aggression, the size of the animal, propensity to cause physical injury,
age and competence of family members, and control of people and animals in and out of the home
should be considered.
The risk assessment should include the probability that euthanasia or re-homing will be
recommended, and the ability of the clinician to treat the problem. Referral to a veterinary behavior
specialist should be considered.
During the consultation, the clinician should review the behavior history form, discuss the problem
with family members, observe the pet’s behavior, observe interactions between the pet and family
members, and evaluate submitted video/audio recording (if available).
From the data collected, a behavioral diagnosis should be made.

Set goals The goals are to immediately reduce the frequency or intensity of the problem behavior and to
develop a treatment plan for long-term change.
These goals are accomplished by management of the environment, specific behavior-modification
techniques, and pharmacotherapy (if indicated). Castration may be recommended for certain
behaviors.
Schedule Follow-up Communications and Appointments

Follow-up Follow-up appointments are integral to successful treatment.

If psychotropic medications are prescribed, an emergency contact number should be provided.
A telephone number or e-mail address for a veterinary technician or clinician who is familiar with the
case should be provided, and a follow-up appointment in the office should be scheduled.

JVME 35(4) ß 2008 AAVMC 499

DISCUSSION
Courses in animal behavior teach veterinary students to be
sensitive to the HAB53,57 with regard to both client–animal
and veterinarian–animal relations.58 These courses should
be didactic and clinical,54 and should be taught by a board-
certified veterinary behaviorist.8
A didactic course should be offered in the first or second
year that emphasizes behavioral development, the normal
behavior of juvenile and adult animals, learning principles,
and behavioral pharmacology. Discussion of normal behav-
ioral development should emphasize the importance of
early handling and socialization. Positive socialization
reduces fear responses and enhances learning in adult life,
traits that enhance the HAB. Because of these effects,
good puppy and kitten socialization programs should be
integrated into veterinary practice models.
Recognition of normal versus abnormal behavior is critical
to the assessment of health in clinical veterinary practice. In
addition, veterinarians in training need to become familiar
with normal behavior so that they can recognize behavioral
signals that communicate information about an animal’s
internal state and predict future responses. Animals use
many of the same signals to communicate with humans
that they use to communicate with each other.28 Thus,
understanding animal communication signals can enable us
to interpret their behavior, handle them more effectively and
safely, and lead to more accurate assessments of behavior
problems.
Understanding behavior-modification concepts helps veter-
inary students learn how to most effectively teach animals
to accept handling and procedures, minimizing fear,
defensive, and escape responses. Behavioral concepts,
including habituation, reinforcement, classical, and operant
conditioning can be taught to clients as part of a behavioral
treatment program. Veterinarians who emphasize behav-
ioral education and training in their practices will enhance
client relationships58 and facilitate smoother, more efficient
office visits. Clients respond favorably to techniques that
foster a bond between the pet and veterinarian, rather than
those that establish an adversarial relationship. Increasingly
relevant, behavioral pharmacology should be introduced in
the animal behavior course and integrated into the core
pharmacology course.58
Early recognition of a problem permits early intervention
with behavior-modification techniques. Maintaining the
health of the animal and preservation of the HAB is the
role of veterinarians.58
Electives or selectives that focus on the behavior of different
groups of animals, such as companion animals, horses, food
animals, laboratory animals, and exotic species, should be
available for interested students in the second and third years
of the veterinary curriculum. Animal laboratories should be
integrated with behavior courses to emphasize positive,
humane handling and normal and abnormal behaviors. One
goal is humane, safe handling and avoidance of the fear
response so that veterinary tasks can be performed effi-
ciently. Safe handling of animals requires keen observation
of those visual postures and vocalizations that signify fear
and the likelihood of escape attempts and aggression.20
Another goal is to learn to diagnose and treat common
behavior problems that negatively impact the HAB.
500
Clinical experience in the treatment of animal behavior
problems, particularly of companion animals, should
be available for interested students in the fourth year
of veterinary medical education. In addition, humane
handling and behavior-modification techniques can be
demonstrated during clinical experiences and taught to
veterinary students.
CONCLUSION
The strength and quality of the HAB are to a large extent
dependent on the behavior of the animal and the behavioral
interactions between a pet and its owner. Given the central
importance of the HAB to the veterinary profession, it
would seem self-evident that veterinary medical education
should provide students with didactic and clinical courses
in animal behavior, train them to recognize normal and
abnormal behavior, and incorporate behavioral knowledge
and principles into the routine handling and treatment of
animals. Unfortunately, according to a recent survey,
only slightly more than a third of US veterinary
colleges appear to be attaining this goal.8 The ability to
recognize and interpret behavioral signs is critical to good
diagnostic skills, and the safe and humane handling of
animals. Prevention and treatment of behavior problems
can prevent the dissolution of the HAB and save the lives of
many patients. For these reasons alone, animal behavior
education should play a central role in veterinary medical
education.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Alan Beck for organizing the heuristic Centers
for the Human–Animal Bond Conference, May 15–17, 2006,
Purdue University.
REFERENCES
1 Eyre P. Professing change. J Vet Med Educ 28:3–9, 2001.
2 Adams CL, Conlon PD, Lone KC. Professional and
veterinary competencies: addressing human relations and
the human animal bond in veterinary medicine. J Vet Med
Educ 31:66–71, 2004.
3 Hewson CJ, Baranyiova E, Broom DM, Cockram MS,
Galindo F, Hanlon AJ, Hänninen, Lexer D, Mellor DJ,
Molento CFM, Ödberg FO, Serpell JA, Sisto AM, Stafford KJ,
Stookey JM, Waldau P. Approaches to teaching animal
welfare at 13 veterinary schools worldwide. J Vet Med Educ
32:422–437, 2005.
4 Kogan LR, Salman M, Ruch-Gallie R. Applied animal
behavior and obedience training course: a model for
veterinary curricula. J Vet Med Educ 29:241–244, 2002.
5 McGreevy PD, Della Torre PK, Evans DL. Animal
behaviour learning environment: software to facilitate
learning in canine and feline behavior therapy. J Vet Med
Educ 30:308–317, 2003.
6 Pisula W. Animal behavior: education-standard
proposal (summary). Med Weter 62:135–138, 2006.
7 Seigford JM, Bernardo TM, Malinowski RP, Laughlin K,
Zanella AJ. Integrating animal welfare into veterinary
JVME 35(4) ß 2008 AAVMC
education: using an online, interactive course. J Vet Med
Educ 32:497–504, 2005.
8 Juarbe-Dı́az SV. Behavioral medicine opportunities in
North American colleges of veterinary medicine: a status
report. J Vet Behav 3:4–11, 2008.
9 Budge RC, Spicer J, Jones B, St. George R. Health
correlates of compatibility and attachment in
human–companion animal relationships. Soc Anim
6:219–234, 1998.
10 Hines LM. Historical perspectives on the human–
animal bond. Am Behav Sci 47:7–15, 2003.
11 Serpell JA. Anthropomorphism and anthropomorphic
selection—beyond the ‘cute’ response. Soc Anim 11:83–100,
2003.
12 Hart LA. Dogs as human companions: a review of the
relationship. In Serpell JA, ed. The Domestic Dog: Its
Evolution, Behaviour, and Interactions with People. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1995:161–178.
13 Serpell JA. Evidence for an association between pet
behavior and owner attachment levels. Appl Anim Behav Sci
47:49–60, 1996.
14 Patronek GJ, Dodman NH. Attitudes, procedures, and
delivery of behavior services by veterinarians in small
animal practice. J Am Vet Med Assoc 215:1606–1611, 1999.
15 Horwitz DF. Differences and similarities between
behavioral and internal medicine. J Am Vet Med Assoc
217:1372–1376, 2000.
16 Rollin BE. An Introduction to Veterinary Medical
Ethics: Theory and Cases, 2nd Edition. Ames, IA: Blackwell
Publishing, 2006.
17 Christiansen SB, Forkman B. Assessment of animal
welfare in a veterinary context—a call for ethologists.
Appl Anim Behav Sci 106:203–220, 2007.
18 Grandin T. Factors that impede animal movement at
slaughter plants. J Am Vet Med Assoc 209:757–759, 1996.
19 Levine FD, Mills DS, Houpt KA. Attitudes of veterinary
students at one US college toward factors relating to farm
animal welfare. J Vet Med Educ 32:481–490, 2005.
20 McGreevy P. Firm but gentle: learning to handle with
care. J Vet Med Educ 34:539–541, 2008.
21 Scott EM, Nolan AM, Reid J, Wiseman-Orr ML. Can we
really measure animal quality of life? Methodologies for
measuring quality of life in people and other animals. Anim
Welf 16(Suppl 1):17–24, 2007.
22 Wiseman-Orr ML, Nolan AM, Reid J, Scott EM.
Development of a questionnaire to measure the effects of
chronic pain on health-related quality of life in dogs.
Am J Vet Res 65:1077–1084, 2004.
23 Wojciechowska JI, Hewson CJ. Quality-of-life
assessment in pet dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 226:722–728,
2005.
24 Hansen BD, Lascelles BD, Keene BW, Adams AK,
Thomson AE. Evaluation of an accelerometer for at-home
monitoring of spontaneous activity in dogs. Am J Vet Res
68:468–475, 2007.
JVME 35(4) ß 2008 AAVMC
25 Morton CM, Reid J, Scott EM, Holton LL, Nolan AM.
Application of a scaling model to establish and validate an
interval level pain scale for assessment of acute pain in
dogs. Am J Vet Res 66:2154–2166, 2005.
26 Väisänen MA-M, Tuomikoski SK, Vainio OM.
Behavioral alterations and severity of pain in cats recovering
at home following elective ovariohysterectomy or castration.
J Am Vet Med Assoc 231:236–242, 2007.
27 Bradshaw JWS, Nott HMR. Social and communication
behaviour of companion dogs. In Serpell JA, ed. The
Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour, and Interactions with
People. New York: Cambridge University Press,
1995:115–130.
28 Simpson BS. Canine Communication. Vet Clin N
Am–Small 27:445–464, 1997.
29 Crowell-Davis SL. White coat syndrome: prevention
and treatment. Compend Contin Educ Vet 29:163–165, 2007.
30 Kaliste E. The Welfare of Laboratory Animals.
Netherlands: Springer, 2004.
31 Luescher AU, ed. Manual of Parrot Behavior. Ames, IA:
Blackwell, 2006.
32 Hillyer E, Quesenberry K. Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents:
Clinical Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders,
1997.
33 Bradley Bays T, Lightfoot T, Mayer J. Exotic Pet Behavior
(Birds, Reptiles and Small Mammals). Philadelphia: Elsevier,
2006.
34 Broom DM, Fraser AF. Domestic Animal Behaviour and
Welfare, 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
35 Houpt KA. Domestic Animal Behavior for Veterinarians
and Animal Scientists, 4th ed. Ames, IA: Blackwell, 2004.
36 Carbone L. What Animals Want: Expertise and Advocacy
in Laboratory Animal Welfare Policy. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2004.
37 Kleiman DG, Allen ME, Thompson KV, Lumpkin S,
eds. Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
38 Reinhardt V. Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals,
8th ed. Washington, DC: Animal Welfare Institute, 2002.
39 Segurson SA, Serpell JA, Hart BL. Evaluation of a
behavioral assessment questionnaire for use in the
characterization of behavioral problems of dogs
relinquished to animal shelters. J Am Vet Med Assoc
227:1755–1761, 2005.
40 Houpt KA, Honig SU, Reisner IR. Breaking the
human–companion animal bond. J Am Vet Med Assoc
208:1653–1659, 1996.
41 Hetts S, Heinke ML, Estep DQ. Behaviour wellness
concepts for general veterinary practice. J Am Vet Med Assoc
225:506–513, 2004.
42 McMillan FD. Development of a mental wellness
program for animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 220:965–972,
2002.
43 Serpell J, Jagoe JA. Early experience and the develop-
ment of behaviour. In Serpell JA, ed. The Domestic Dog: Its
501
Evolution, Behaviour, and Interactions with People. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1995:79–102.
44 Seksel K, Mazurski EJ, Taylor A. Puppy socialization
programs: short and long term behavioral effects. Appl Anim
Behav Sci 62:335–249, 1999.
45 Herron ME, Lord LK, Hill LN, Reisner IR. Effects of
preadoption counseling for owners on house-training
success among dogs acquired from shelters. J Am Vet Med
Assoc 231:558–562, 2007.
46 Beaver BV. Feline Behavior: A Guide for Veterinarians,
2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Saunders, 2003 p137–139.
47 Turner DC. The human–cat relationship. In Turner DC,
Bateson PPG, eds. The Domestic Cat: The Biology of its
Behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2000:193–206.
48 Jagoe A, Serpell JA. Owner characteristics and
interactions and the prevalence of canine behaviour
problems. Appl Anim Behav Sci 47(1–2):31–42, 1996.
49 Bergman L, Hart BL, Bain M. Evaluation of urine
marking by cats as a model for understanding veterinary
diagnostic and treatment approaches and client attitudes.
J Am Vet Med Assoc 221:1282–1286, 2002.
50 McMillan FD. Rethinking euthanasia: death as an
unintentional outcome. J Am Vet Med Assoc 219:1204–1206,
2001.
51 Scarlet JM, Salman MD, New JG, Kass PH. The role
of veterinary practitioners in reducing dog and cat
relinquishments and euthanasias. J Am Vet Med Assoc
220:306–311, 2002.
52 Serpell JA. Factors influencing veterinary students’
career choices and attitudes to animals. J Vet Med Educ
32:491–496, 2005.
53 Martin F, Ruby K, Farnum J. Importance of the
human–animal bond for pre-veterinary, first-year, and
502
fourth-year veterinary students in relation to their career
choice. J Am Vet Med Assoc 30:67–72, 2003.
54 Martin F, Taunton A. Perceptions of the human–animal
bond in veterinary education of veterinarians in Washington
state: structured versus experiential learning. J Vet Med Educ
32:523–530, 2005.
55 Horwitz DF, Neilson JC. Blackwell’s Five Minute
Veterinary Consult: Canine and Feline Behavior. Ames, IA:
Blackwell Publishing, 2007 p179–186.
56 Simpson BS, Papich MG. Pharmacologic management
in veterinary behavioral medicine. Vet Clin N Am–Small
33:365–404, 2003.
57 Blackshaw JK, Blackshaw AW. Student perceptions of
attitudes to the human animal bond. Anthrozoös 6:190–198,
1993.
58 Spencer L. Behavioral services in a practice lead to
quality relationships. J Am Vet Med Assoc 203:940–941, 1993.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Barbara L. Sherman, PhD, DVM, DACVB, is Clinical Associate
Professor, Department of Clinical Sciences & Program in Animal
Welfare, Ethics, and Public Policy; and Director, Animal
Behavior Service of the Veterinary Teaching Hospital, North
Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 4700
Hillsborough St., Raleigh, NC 27606-1499 USA.
E-mail: barbara_sherman@ncsu.edu.
James A. Serpell, PhD, is the Marie A. Moore Professor of
Humane Ethics & Animal Welfare; and Director, Center for the
Interaction of Animals and Society, Department of Clinical
Studies, University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary
Medicine, 3900 Delancey Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6010
USA. E-mail: serpell@vet.upenn.edu.
JVME 35(4) ß 2008 AAVMC