36 Ecosystem

Ecosy stem
CHAPTER

1. A natural ecosystem 10. Humus is good for plant growth because

(a) depends on man (a) it improves physical condition of soil
(b) depends on plants (b) it makes soil porous
(c) depends on animals (c) it increases water holding & aeration of soil
(d) is auto operated (d) all
2. Which of the following is a man made artificial 11. Source of energy in an ecosystem is
ecosystem? (a) sun (b) ATP
(a) Grassland ecosystem (c) sugar (d) green plants
(b) Agro ecosystem 12. Tropical dense forest is due to
(c) Ecosystem of artificial lakes and dams (a) low rainfall & low temperature
(d) Forest ecosystem (b) high rainfall & low temperature
3. Grasshopper in grassland is a (c) low rainfall & high temperature
(a) producer (b) herbivore (d) all
(c) carnivore (d) scavenger 13. Good soil is
4. In an ecosystem the function of the producers is (a) which holds whole of the water that enters
(a) to convert organic compound into inorganic into it
form (b) which allows percolating the water slowly
(b) to utilize chemical energy from it
(c) to trap solar energy and convert into (c) which allows water to pass very quickly
chemical energy from it
(d) to release energy (d) which allows limited amount of water to
5. The driving force for an ecosystem is
(a) biomass retain into it
(b) producers 14. Maximum solar energy may be trapped by
(c) carbohydrates in producers (a) growing grasses
(d) solar energy (b) planting trees
6. Biotic components of an ecosystem include (c) growing algae in large water bodies
(a) producers, consumers and decomposers (d) more cultivation of crop plants
(b) producers and consumers 15. Green plants constitute
(c) producers only (a) first trophic level
(d) consumers only (b) second trophic level
7. A food chain can have trophic levels (c) third trophic level
(a) four (b) three (d) complete food chain
(c) two (d) one 16. Ecosystem has two components
8. In a food chain herbivores are (a) plants and animals
(a) primary producers (b) weeds and trees
(b) primary consumers (c) biotic and abiotic
(c) secondary consumers (d) frog and men
(d) decomposers 17. Biological equilibrium is found among the
9. Which one of the following is nature's cleaner ? (a) producer plants
(a) consumers (b) consumers and producers
(b) producers (c) decomposers
(c) decomposers and scavengers (d) producers, consumers and decomposers
(d) symbionts
300 Question Bank-BIOLOGY
18. The correct path of energy flow in an ecosystem 27. The pyramid which cannot be inverted in a stable
is ecosystem is that of
(a) Produers ® Carnivores ® Herbivores (a) biomass (b) number
® Decomposers (c) energy (d) all of the above
(b) Producers ® Herbivores ® Carnivores 28. Bulk CO2 fixation occurs in
(a) crop plants
® Decomposers (b) oceans
(c) Herbivores ® Carnivores ® Producers (c) tropical rain forests
® Decomposers (d) temperate forests
(d) Herbivores ® Producers ® Carnivores 29. If we completely remove the decomposers from
® Decomposers an ecosystem, its functioning will be adversely
19. The first link in any food chain isalways a green affected, because
(a) energy flow will be blocked
plant because (b) herbivores will not receive solar energy
(a) they are widely distributed (c) mineral movement will be blocked
(b) they are firmly fixed to the soil (d) rate of decomposition will be very high
(c) they alone have a capacity to fix atmospheric 30. The primary succession refersto the development
CO2 in the presence of sunlight of communities on a
(d) all of the above (a) fleshly cleared crop field
20. Trophic levels are formed by (b) forest clearing after devastating fire
(a) organisms linked in food chain (c) pond, freshly filled with water after a dry
(b) only plants phase
(c) only animals (d) newly-exposed habitat with no record of
(d) only carnivores earlier vegetation
21. Pyramid of numbers in a grassland/true ecosystem 31. Which of the following is the most stable
is
(a) always inverted (b) always upright ecosystem?
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) spindle-shaped (a) Forest (b) Desert
22. Food chain in which micro-organisms breakdown (c) Mountain (d) Ocean
the food formed by primary producers is 32. In a biotic community, theprimary consumers are
(a) parasitic food chain (a) carnivores (b) omnivores
(b) detritus food chain (c) detritivores (d) herbivores
(c) consumer food chain 33. In a food chain, the largest population is that of
(d) predator food chain (a) decomposers
23. Pick up the correct food chain (b) producers
(a) Grass ® Chameleon ® Insect ®Bird (c) primary consumers
(b) Grass ® Fox ® Rabbit ® Bird (d) tertiary consumers
(c) Phytoplankton ® Zooplankton ® Fish 34. Which of the following ecosystems have highest
(d) Fallen leaves ® Bacteria ® Insect larvae rate of gross primary production?
24. Study of inter-relationships between organisms (a) Grasslands
and their environment is (b) Mangroves
(a) ecology (b) ecosystem (c) Coral reefs
(c) phytogeography (d) ethology (d) Equatorial rain forest
25. Pyramid of numbers deals with number of
(a) species in an area 35. The rate at which light energy is converted to
(b) individuals in a community the chemical energy of organic molecules is the
(c) individuals in a trophic-level ecosystem’s
(d) subspecies in a community (a) net primary productivity
26. Pyramid of numbers in a pond ecosystem is (b) gross primary productivity
(a) irregular (b) inverted (c) net secondary productivity
(c) upright (d) spindle shaped (d) gross secondary productivity
Ecosystem 301
36. Upper part of sea/aquatic ecosystem contains 43. Mass of living matter at a trophic level in an area
(a) plankton at any time is called
(b) nekton (a) standing crop (b) deteritus
(c) plankton and nekton (c) humus (d) standing state
(d) benthos 44. Which one of the following statements for
37. What is true about ecosystem? pyramid of energy is incorrect, whereas the
(a) Primary consumers are least dependent remaining three are correct ?
upon producers (a) Its base is broad
(b) Primary consumers out-number producers (b) It shows energy content of different trophic
(c) Producers are morethan primary consumers level organisms
(d) Secondary consumers are the largest and (c) It is inverted in shape
most powerful (d) It is upright in shape
38. The greatest biomass of autotrophs in the 45. Both, hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to
oceans is that of (a) medium water conditions
(a) sea grasses and slime moulds (b) xeric conditions
(b) free floating microalgae, cyanobacteria and (c) highly dry conditions
nanoplankton (d) excessive wet conditions
(c) benthic brown algae,coastal red algae and 46. A pond is a
diatoms (a) a biome
(d) benthic diatoms and marine viruses (b) a community of plants and animals
39. An ecosystem which can be easily damaged but (c) a natural ecosystem
can recover after some time if damaging effect (d) none of the above
stops will be having 47. Which one statement is correct regarding man
(a) low stability and high resilience made ecosystem ?
(b) high stability and low resilience (a) They are highly efficient
(c) low stability and low resilience (b) They are poor in diversity
(d) high stability and high resilience (c) They are vulnerable to drought, floods and
40. Which one of the following is not used for diseases
construction of ecological pyramids? (d) All are correct
(a) Number of individuals 48. The largest vegetational group is known as
(b) Rate of energy flow (a) ecosystem (b) association
(c) Fresh weight (c) consociation (d) formation
(d) Dry weight 49. The largest ecosystem of the world is
41. About 70% of total global carbon is found in (a) forest (b) grassland
(a) grasslands (b) agroecosystems (c) great lake (d) ocean
(c) oceans (d) forests 50. Dynamic aspect of an ecosystem is
42. Consider the following statements concerning (a) producer and energy flow
food chains (b) producer and mineral cycles
(i) removal of 80% tigers from an area resulted (c) consumer and mineral cycles
in greatly increased growth of vegetation (d) energy flow and mineral cycles
(ii) removal of most of the carnivores resulted 51. Most important determinant of marineecosystem
in an increased population of deers is
(iii) the length of food chains is generally limited (a) rainfall
to 3-4 trophic levels due to energy loss (b) geographical location
(iv) the length of food chains may vary from 2 (c) depth of distance from the shore
to 8 trophic levels (d) all the above
Which two of the above statement are correct ? 52. The resource which regulates the flow of energy
(a) ii and iii (b) iii and iv in desert ecosystem is the availability of
(b) i and iv (d) i and ii (a) light (b) water
(c) minerals (d) heat
302 Question Bank-BIOLOGY
53. Grassland with scattered trees are called 62. In a food chain, the total amount of living
(a) rain forest material, is depicted by
(b) evergreen forest (a) pyramid of energy
(c) savanna (b) pyramid of numbers
(d) deciduous forest (c) pyramid of biomass
54. Ecosystem is (d) all of these
(a) always open 63. In a pond ecosystem, benthos means
(b) always closed (a) epineuston
(c) both open and closed depending upon (b) periphyton
community (c) zooplankton on the water surface
(d) both open and closed depending upon (d) primary consumers in the depth of a pond
biomass
55. Zone of transition present between two types of 64. Energy storage at consumer level is called
communities for special ecological interest is (a) gross primary productivity
called (b) secondary productivity
(a) ecotype (b) ecotone (c) net primary productivity
(c) border effect (d) niche (d) net productivity
56. Succession in saline soil is 65. Food chain is a series of population which starts
(a) mesosere (b) lithosere with producers. It is concerning with
(c) psammosere (d) halosere (a) biotic components only
57. Pneumatophores are found in vegetation of (b) energy flow and transfer of nutrients
which ecosystem (c) both (a) and (b)
(a) desert (d) biotic and decomposers
(b) tropical rain forest 66. The communities of primary succession are
(c) mangroves of sunderban called as
(d) taiga (a) sub sere
58. Animals which occupy the same trophic level (b) meso sere
are (c) pioneer sere
(a) tiger and bees (d) none of the above
(b) deer and bees
(c) snake and earth worm 67. The natural cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
(d) crow and cow water, phosphorus, sulphur etc. are collectively
59. Which is not correct for ancient plants ? called as
(a) They have photosynthetic pigment (a) chemical cycles
(b) They are primitive algae like (b) geological cycles
(c) They use H2S as hydrogen source (c) material cycles
(d) They release O2 as by product (d) none of the above
60. Stability of ecosystem depends upon 68. Micro-organisms are
(a) primary productivity (a) primary consumers
(b) interchange between producers and (b) secondary consumers
consumers (c) tertiary consumers
(c) number of producers (d) decomposers
(d) number of consumers 69. A man-made ecosystem is
61. In an ecosystem, bacteria are considered as (a) less in diversity
(a) microconsumers (b) more in diversity
(b) macroconsumers (c) man does not make ecosystem
(c) primary consumers
(d) secondary consumers (d) more stable than natural ecosystem
Ecosystem 303
70. Ecosystem creates 75. Which of the following statement(s) is/are
(a) food chain (b) food web correct?
(c) both the above (d) none of the above (i) An important characteristic of all
71. The primary difference between sedimentary and communities is that their composition and
atmospheric cycles is that in _____ cycles the structure constantly change in response to
nutrient does not _____. the changing environmental conditions.
(a) sedimentary; leave the terrestrial (ii) These changes lead finally to a community
environment that equilibrium with itself and not the
(b) sedimentary; leave the aquatic environment environment and that is called climax
community.
(c) atmospheric; leave the aquatic environment (iiii) The entire sequence of communities that
(d) sedimentary; enter the atmosphere successively change in a given area are
72. Which one of the following pairs is a sedimentary called sere(s).
type of biogeochemical cycle ? (a) (i), (ii) and (iii) (b) (i) and (ii)
(a) Phosphorus and Carbon monoxide (c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (i) and (iii)
76. Statement-1 : Net primary productivity is gross
(b) Oxygen and Nitrogen primary productivity minus respiration.
(c) Phosphate and Nitrogen Statement-2 : Secondary productivity is
(d) Phosphorus and Sulphur produced by heterotrophs.
73. Which one of the following statement is correct? (a) If both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are
(a) Warm and moist environment favour correct and Statement-2 is the correct
decomposition whereas low temperature explanation of Statement-1.
and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition. (b) If both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are
(b) Warm and moist environment inhibit correct, but Statement-2 is not the correct
decomposition whereas low temperature explanation of Statement-1.
and anaerobiosis favour decomposition. (c) If Statement-1 is correct but Statement-2 is
(c) Warm and anaerobiosis favour incorrect.
decomposition whereas low temperature (d) If Statement-1 is incorrect but Statement-2
favours decomposition. is correct.
(d) Warm and low temperature inhibit 77. Match the following and choose the correct
decomposition whereas anaerobiosis option.
favours decomposition. Column - I Column - II
74. Which of the following is not true of a pyramid A. Standing state I. Nitrogen,
of productivity? Carbon
(a) Only about 10% of the energy in one trophic B. Gaseous cycles II. Amount of
level is passed into the next level. nutrients
(b) Because ofthe loss of energy at each trophic C. Standing crop III. Sulphur,
level, most food chains are limited to three Phosphorus
to five steps. D. Sedimentary cycles IV. Living
(c) The pyramid of productivity of some matter at
aquatic ecosystems is inverted because of different
the large zooplankton primary - consumer trophic levels
level. (a) A– II, B – I, C – IV, D – III
(d) Eating grain-fed beef is an inefficient means (b) A – I, B – II, C – III, D – IV
of obtaining the energy trapped by (c) A– III, B – II, C – IV, D – I
photosynthesis.
(d) A– I, B – IV, C – III, D – II
304 Question Bank-BIOLOGY
78. Find thewrongly matched pair. (c) trophic level
(a) Autotrophs – Fungi 4
(b) Primary consumers – Zooplankton 3
(c) Secondary consumers – Fishes 2
1
(d) Decomposers – Flagellates
79. Two food chains are shown. trophic level
(i) Tree ® aphid ® insectivorous bird ® prey (d)
feed on bird 4
3
(ii) Phytoplankton ® zooplankton ®plankton- 2
feeding fish ® carnivorous fish 1
Which diagram is a pyramid of energy 80. The phosphorus cycle differs from the carbon
representing both food chains? cycle in that
(a) trophic level (a) the phosphorus does not enter living
4 organisms, whereas carbon does
3 (b) the phosphorus cycle does not include a
2 gaseous phase, whereas the carbon cycle
1 does
trophic level (c) the phosphorus cycle includes a solid
(b) 4 phase, whereas the carbon cycle does not
3 (d) the primary reservoir of the phosphorus
2 cycle is the atmosphere, whereas the
1 primary reservoir for the carbon cycle is in
rock
Ecosystem 305
ANSWER KEY
1 (d) 11 (a) 21 (b) 31 (d) 41 (c) 51 (c) 61 (a) 71 (d)
2 (b) 12 (b) 22 (b) 32 (d) 42 (a) 52 (a) 62 (c) 72 (d)
3 (b) 13 (b) 23 (c) 33 (b) 43 (a) 53 (c) 63 (d) 73 (a)
4 (c) 14 (c) 24 (a) 34 (d) 44 (c) 54 (c) 64 (b) 74 (c)
5 (c) 15 (a) 25 (c) 35 (b) 45 (a) 55 (b) 65 (c) 75 (d)
6 (a) 16 (c) 26 (c) 36 (a) 46 (c) 56 (d) 66 (d) 76 (b)
7 (a) 17 (d) 27 (c) 37 (c) 47 (d) 57 (c) 67 (d) 77 (a)
8 (b) 18 (b) 28 (b) 38 (b) 48 (d) 58 (b) 68 (d) 78 (a)
9 (c) 19 (c) 29 (c) 39 (a) 49 (d) 59 (d) 69 (a) 79 (c)
10 (d) 20 (a) 30 (d) 40 (c) 50 (d) 60 (b) 70 (c) 80 (b)

HINTS & SOLUTIONS

4. (c) In an ecosystem the function of the producers
is to trap solar energy and convert into chemical
energy.
10. (d) Humus is rich source of organic matter and it
makes soil porous and increases its water holding
capacity.
11. (a) Source of energy in ecosystem is sun. Energy
from the sun in the form of sunlight, supports
almost all life on earth via photosynthesis, and
drives the earth's climate and weather.
12. (b) Tropical rainforests are generally found near
the equator. They are common in Asia,Australia,
Africa, South America, Central America, and on
many of the Pacific Islands. Within the world
wildlife fund's biome classification scheme,
tropical rainforests are considered a type of
tropical wet forest (or tropical moist broadleaf
forest) and may also be referred to as lowland
equatorial evergreen rainforests. Minimum
normal annual rainfall between 1,750 millimetres
(69 in)and 2,000 millimetres (79 in) occur in this
climate region. Mean monthly temperatures
exceed 18 °C during all months of the year.
13. (b) Good soil is essential to a healthy garden.
One of the most important parts of indoor and
outdoor gardening is the soil you provide for
your plants and flowers. One of the most
important parts of indoor and outdoor gardening
is the soil you provide for your plants and
flowers.
14. (c) Because in large water bodies the number of
(producers) for food.
15. (a) Because plants have the capacity of
synthesizing food (producers).
16. (c) The ecosystem comprises abiotic and biotic
components. The entire living community
comprising plants and animals constitute the
biotic component whereas the entire physical
environment forms the abiotic component.
17. (d) An ecosystem should always maintains a
balance, if primary consumers in an ecosystem
are absent, then over crowding occur. It results
in competition and consequently number of
producers will decrease to near normal.
20. (a) The trophic structure in any ecosystem is a
kind of producer consumer arrangement. Here
each food level is called trophic level.
21. (b) Pyramid of numbers in a grassland ecosystem
is always upright. Pyramids of numbers are
upright because numbering of organisms
decrease at successively higher trophic levels.
Trophic level refers to the organisms, position
in the food chain.
306
22. (b) Detritus food chain being with dead organic
matter with dead plant parts, animals and their
excretory products which is being acted upon
by decomposers such as saprophytes to obtain
energy needed for their survival.
23. (c) Phytoplankton ® Zooplankton ® Fish. This
is a type of food chain in aquatic ecosystem.
24. (a) German biologist Ernst Haeckel coined the
term ‘ecology’, the study of inter-relationship
between organisms and their environment.
Ecosystem, consist of different communities of
organism and the physical environment with
which they interact. Phytogeography is the study
of geographic distribution of plants species on
earth.
25. (c) Pyramid of number represents the number of
individuals on each trophic level.
26. (c) Pyramid of numbers of pond ecosystem is
upright.
27. (c) Energy pyramid can not be inverted because
energy always flows in one direction only.
According to 10% law of energy transfer given
by Lindemann (1972), during transfer of energy
from one trophic level to other there is always
loss in respiration and other activities only 10%
of energy is transferred to next trophic level. So
the amount of energy flow decreases with
successive trophic levels.
28. (b) It due to majority of phytoplanktons.
29. (c) The decomposers act on the dead organic
matter and break them down into simpler
compounds and minerals.
30. (d) The primary succession means the
development of communities only on a newly
exposed habitat with no record of earlier
vegetation.
31. (d) The oceans cover about 2/3 of the whole
surface of our earth. Thus it is the most stable
ecosystem, because of buffering action by water.
32. (d) In a biotic community the herbivores (goat,
deer) are those animals, which consume the
primary producers (green plants). Hence they
are primary consumers.
Question Bank-BIOLOGY
33. (b) Producers are the direct and indirect source
of food for all the trophic levels. They are always
more in number.
34. (d) Coral reefs are often called “rainforest of the
sea”. It forms some of the most diverse
ecosystem on earth. Coral reef ecosystem have
the highest grass primary productivity in the sea.
35. (b) The rate at which organic molecules are
formed in a green plants is called gross
productivity.
36. (a) Plankton ® Organisms passively floating in
upper water.
Nekton ®Actively swimming
Benthos ® Lead sedentary life upon the sea
bottom
37. (c) In an ecosystem producers (green plants) are
always more than consumers (herbivores,
carnivores etc.)
38. (b) The greatest biomass of autotrophs in the
oceans is that of free floating microalgae,
cyanobacteria and nanoplankton.
39. (a) An ecosystem having low stability can be
easily damaged. An ecosystem having high
resilience will take less time to recover.
40. (c) Fresh weight is not used for the construction
of ecological pyramids because the total fresh
weight does not change into energy. Hence we
can say that fresh weight is not continuous in
the trophic levels.
41. (c)About 70% of total global carbon is found in
oceans. This oceanic reservoir regulates the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Atmosphere contains only about one percent of
total global carbon.
42. (a) Food chain is the transfer of energy fromgreen
plants (primary producers), through a sequence
of organisms occupies in a food chain is known
as its trophic level. Therefore, statements b and
c are correct.
43. (a)A standing crop is the quantity or total weight
or energy content of the organism, which are in
a particular location at a particular time.
Ecosystem
44. (c) An energy pyramid is the graphical
representation of the trophic level (nutritionals)
by which the incoming solar energy is transferred
into an ecosystem. It can never be inverted in
shape.
45. (a) Hydrarch succession takes place in wetter
areas and xerarch succession takes place in dry
areas. So, both hydrarch and xerarch successions
lead to medium water conditions.
48. (d) The largest vegetational group is known as
formation.
53. (c) Grassland with scattered trees are called
savanna.
55. (b) Zone of transition present between two types
of communities for special ecological interest is
called ecotone.
58. (b) Deer and bees occupy same trophic level.
Both are primary consumers or consumers of first
order. They get their food directly from green
plants i.e. they are herbivores. Alton 1939 have
given the name key industry animals to them
because many other organisms of ecosystem
depend on them for their food e.g. deer, cow,
insects etc.
59. (d)Ancient plants were photosynthetic but they
were not using water as source of electrons.
Hence, evolution of oxygen was absent.
60. (b) Stability of the ecosystem mainly depends
upon interaction between two components of the
ecosystems, the producers and the consumers.
Interactions between the two lead to development
of different trophic levels and flow of energy in
the ecosystems. The balance in the ecosystem is
maintained by the relationship between the
producers and the consumers. They maintain a
constant ratio in the evironment since primary
consumers eat producers. The latter are eaten by
secondary consumers these are then by tertiary
consumers and finally all by decomposers. So,
their number do not increase immensely.
61. (a) Bacteria and fungi are decomposers in an
ecosystem. They decompose complex organic
matter into simple, soluble inorganic matter.This
helps in cycling of materials in ecosystem.
307
62. (c) In food chain, the total amount of living
material is depicted by pyramid of biomass. The
biomass of the members of the food chain present
at any one time forms the pyramid of biomass. It
indicates the decreaseof biomass in each trophic
level from base to apex.
63. (d) Benthic zone is the bottom zone of the pond,
lakes and seas. The organisms which reside in
the bottom zone are called as benthos. Snails,
slugs, are benthic animals.
64. (b) Energy stored at the consumer level is called
as secondary productivity. The organism uses
the energy stored by the primary producers.
65. (c) Food chain is a series of population that starts
with producers. The food chain essentially has
only biotic components only. It is concerned with
energy flow and transfer of nutrients.
66. (d)Primary ecological succession occurs in a bare
area e.g. igneous rocks, lava etc. It is also known.
The first community appeared is called the
pioneer community while the community
developing at last is called climax community.
67. (d) These cycles are biogeochemical in nature.
These are concerned with the exchange, storage,
transfer and transformation of various
substances as they pass through the different
components of ecosystem.
68. (d) Because these organisms are not seen by
naked eyes.
69. (a) Man-made ecosystems or artificial ecosystems
have low diversity and is more vulnerable to
sudden changes. Crop ecosystems are man made
ecosystem.
71. (d) Two types of nutrient cycles are – (i)
Gaseous cycles (nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
cycles), (ii) Sedimentary cycles (phosphorus,
sulphur cycles). In gaseous cycle, the main
reservoirs of chemicals are the atmosphere and
ocean. In sedimentary cycles, the main reservoirs
are soils and rocks.
72. (d) In sedimentary cycles of matter, materials
involved in circulation between biotic and abiotic
308 Question Bank-BIOLOGY
components of biosphere are non-gaseous and stabilised for a longer period of time and it can
the reservoir pool is lithosphere, e.g., maintain itself in equlibrium with the climate of
phosphorus, calcium, magnesium. Sulphur has the area. This final community is not replaced,
both sedimentary and gaseous phases. and is known as climax community.
74. (c) In aquatic ecosystem such as pond, as the 76. (b) Net primary productivity is the rate of
producers (macrophytes, phytoplankton) are organic matter built up or stored by producers in
small organisms. Their biomass is least, and this their bodies per unit time and area. Net
value gradually shows an increase towards the productivity is equal to gross primary
apex of the pyramid, thus making the pyramid productivity minus loss due to respiration and
inverted in shape. other reasons. Rate of increase in energy
75. (d) During the process of succession, there containing organic matter or biomass by
occurs a stage in the process, when the final heterotrophs or consumers per unit time and area
terminal community becomes more or less is known as secondary productivity.