7-1

1. Week No. Topic Book

1 (Lect 1)
Recapitulation of Mechanics of Material I
1 (Lect 2) 2.9
Statically Indeterminate Problems
2 (Lect 3)
2 (Lect 4)
Thermal Stresses 2.10
3 (Lect 5)
3 (Lect 6)
4 (Lect 7) Analysis of stress in two dimensions 7.1 – 7.3
4 (Lect 8)
5 (Lect 9)
General State of Stress
5 (Lect 10) 7.5
Introduction to three dimensional stresses
6 (Lect 11)
6 (Lect 12)
7 (Lect 13) Yield Criteria / Failure Theories 7.7
7 (Lect 14)
8 (Lect 15)
Fatigue / Fatigue Failure Theories Ch-6 (Ref ‘b’)
8 (Lect 16)
9 Midterm 2
1. Week No. Topic Book
10 (Lect 17)
Fatigue / Fatigue Failure Theories Ch-6 (Ref ‘b’)
10 (Lect 18)
11 (Lect 19)
Transformation of Plane Strain 7.10
11 (Lect 20)
12 (Lect 21)
12 (Lect 22) Measurement of strain 7.13
13 (Lect 23)
13 (Lect 24)
14 (Lect 25) Thin walled cylinders 7.9
14 (Lect 26)
15 (Lect 27)
15 (Lect 28)
Stresses Under Combined Loadings 8.4
16 (Lect 29)
16 (Lect 30)
17 (Lect 31)
Introduction to theory of columns 10.3
18 (Lect 32)
18 FINAL EXAM 3
At least 2 Quizzes and 2 Assignments spread over 16 weeks will be given.
4
 In materials science, fatigue is the progressive and
localised structural damage that occurs when a material is
subjected to cyclic loading.

The maximum stress values are less than the ultimate tensile
stress limit, and may be below the yield stress limit of the
material.
 The basis of the Stress-Life method is
the Wohler S-N diagram, shown
schematically for two materials in Figure
below.

 The S-N diagram plots nominal stress

amplitude S versus cycles to failure N.

 There are numerous testing procedures

to generate the required data for a proper
S-N diagram.

 S-N test data are usually displayed on a

log-log plot, with the actual S-N line
representing the mean of the data from
several tests.
Fluctuating

Repeated

Reversed
Fully Reversed

Random/Iregular
 The fatigue strength σe or Se
is the stress level that a
material can sustain for ‘N’
number of cycles
 The stress level that a
material can withstand an
infinite number of cycles is
called endurance limit
Most of available S - N fatigue data has been obtained from fully reversed
rotational bending tests. However, material behavior and the resultant S - N curves
are different for different types of loading. It concerns in particular the fatigue
limit Se.

Relative stress amplitude, Sa/Su

S103
1.0 Se

0.5
Bending
0.3 Axial
Torsion

0.1
103 104 105 106 107
Number of cycles, Log(N)

11
The stress endurance limit, Se, of steels (at 106 cycles) and the fatigue strength, S103
corresponding to 103 cycles for three types of loading can be approximated as (ref. 1, 23, 24):
S103= 0.90Su and Se = S106 = 0.5 Su - bending

S103 = 0.75Su and Se = S106 = 0.35 - 0.45Su - axial

S103 = 0.72Su and Se = S106 = 0.29 Su - torsion

12
 Fatigue Strength vs Ultimate Strength
Following can be the approximate relations between fatigue and other
parameters.
If
Sut = σut = ultimate strength in tensile
Se = σe = Fatigue strength in fully reversed bending or
rotating bending
Sea = σea = Fatigue strength in fully reversed axial loading
Seτ = τe = Fatigue strength in fully reversed shearing
Then
σe = 0.5 σu for steel
σe = 0.4 σu for cast iron
σe = 0.3 σu for non – ferrous alloys
σea = 0.8 σe
τe = 0.8 σe for ductile materials
τe = 0.2 σu for non – ferrous metals and alloys
τe = 0.8 σu for cast iron
[approximate relation between shear and tensile strengths]

Ultimate Tensile Strength = Su Ultimate Shear Strength = Ssu

Tensile Yield Strength = Syp Shear yield point = Ssyp

Material Tensile-Relation Yield-Relation

Wrought Steel & alloy steel Ssu ≈ 0.75 x Su Ssyp = Approx 0,58 x Syp

Ductile Iron Ssu ≈ 0.90 x Su Ssyp = Approx 0,75 x Syp

Cast Iron Ssu ≈ 1.3 x Su -

Copper & alloys Ssu ≈ [0.6-0.9] x Su -

Aluminum & alloys Ssu ≈ 0.65 xSu Ssyp = Approx 0,55 x Syp
 Estimating Se´ From Static Data
Se  0.5Sut for Sut  200 ksi
steels Se  100 ksi for Sut  200 ksi
Se  0.4 Sut for Sut  60 ksi
irons
Se  24 ksi for Sut  60 ksi
S f @ 5 E 8  0.4 Sut for Sut  40 ksi
aluminums
S f @ 5 E 8  19 ksi for Sut  40 ksi

BUT, these are all for highly polished, circular rotating beams of a certain size
• Fatigue behavior and properties are calculated from the data
gathered through fatigue test on specimen
• Applied stress is of fully reversed nature
• These specimen are carefully prepared and are tested under
closely controlled conditions
• It is un – realistic to expect the endurance limit or fatigue
strength of a mechanical or structural member to match
values obtained in the laboratory
• Joseph Marine classified some of the factors that modify the
endurance limit and these are known as Marine Factors
• To account for most of these conditions, we employ a variety of these Marine Factors,
each of which is intended to account for a single effect
• If σ’e (S’e) is the endurance limit or fatigue strength of a specimen, and σe (Se) is the
fatigue strength of the mechanical component ( both made of same material), then

σe = ka kb kc kd ke kf σ’e
Where
ka , kb , kc , kd , ke , kf are Marine Factors
 Description - a limit below which repeated stress does not induce
failure, theoretically, for an infinite number of cycles of load. The
limit of a material is affected by different factors.
o Endurance Limit Factors:

§ Surface Condition: such as: polished, ground, machined,

as-forged, corroded, etc.

§ Size: This factor accounts for changes which occur when

the actual size of the part or the cross-section differs from that
of the test specimens

§ Load: This factor accounts for differences in loading

between the actual part and the test specimens
Description - a limit below which repeated stress does not induce
failure, theoretically, for an infinite number of cycles of load. The
limit of a material is affected by different factors.
o Endurance Limit Factors:

§ Temperature: This factor accounts for reductions in fatigue

life which occur when the operating temperature of the part
differs from room temperature

§ Reliability: This factor accounts for the scatter of test data

§ Miscellaneous: This factor accounts for reductions from all

other effects, including residual stresses, corrosion, plating, etc.
Alternate method
Kb
The effective diameter, de, for members with non-circular cross sections
ma
x

+ 0.95max The material volume subjected to stresses   0.95max is

concentrated in the ring of 0.05d/2 thick.

The surface area of such a ring is:

 2
d   0.95d    0.0766d 2
0.05d/
A0.95 max 
2
2 4 
-

* rectangular cross section under bending

A  Ft
A0.95 max  Ft  0.95t  0.05 Ft
0.95t
t

Equivalent diameter

0.0766d e2  0.05Ft
F d e  0.808 Ft
27
The size factor for bending and torsion may be
expressed as

(d/0.3)-0.107 = 0.879d-0.107 0.11 < d ≤ 2 in

0.91d-0/157 2< d ≤ 10 in
kb =
(d/7.62)-0.107 = 1.24d-0.107 2.79 < d ≤ 51 mm
1.51d-0/157 51< d ≤ 254 mm

For axial loading , there is no size effect, so

kb = 1
General form of load factor

(7-25)


 kc
kpsi MPa Average
Bending 1 1 0 1

Axial 1.23 1.43 -0.078 0.85

Torsion 0.328 0.258 0.125 0.59

Values given in Textbook

Temperature Effect

From: Shigley and Mischke, Mechanical Engineering Design,

2001

𝑺𝒖, 𝑻 𝑺𝒖, 𝑻
𝑺𝒆,𝑻 = 𝑺𝒆, 𝑹𝑻 × 𝒌𝒅 = 𝑺𝒆, 𝑹𝑻 × ; 𝒌𝒅 =
𝑺𝒖, 𝑹𝑻 𝑺𝒖, 𝑹𝑻
33
Temperature Factor kd
𝒇𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 ′𝑻′
𝒌𝒅 =
𝑭𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒖𝒓𝒆 ′𝑹𝑻′
kd = 0.975 + 0.432(10-3 ) TF - 0.115(10-5 ) (TF)2 + 0.104(10-8 ) (TF)3 - 0.595(10-3 )(TF )4
where 70 ≤ TF ≤ 1000o F
This may include
• Residual stresses
• Corrosion
• Electroplating
• Metal spraying
• Cyclic frequency
• Frettage corrosion
•?
•?
•?
• Any other parameter found in research
You may find ke as reliability factor in the literature
and kf as miscellaneous factor

σe = k a k b k c k d k e k f σ’
 Reliability factor kf

The reliability factor accounts for the scatter of reference data such as the rotational
bending fatigue limit Se’.

The estimation of the reliability factor is based on the assumption that the scatter can be
approximated by the normal statistical probability density distribution.

𝒌𝒇 = 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 × 𝒁𝒂

The values of parameter za associated with various levels of reliability can be found in Table
7-7 in the textbook by Shigley .

37
Problem from “Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design 9th edition”
>>Prob:- 6 -2 9th Estimate S’e in kpsi for the following
Estimate σ’e for the following materials materials:
a) AISI 1009 CD steel
(a) AISI 1035 CD steel.
b) AISI 1080 HR steel
c) 2024 T3 aluminum (b) AISI 1050 HR steel.
d) AISI 4340 steel heat treated (c) 2024 T4 aluminum.
(d) AISI 4130 steel heat-treated to a tensile
strength of 235 kpsi.

a) AISI 1009 CD steel

σu =68 kpsi table A-23, page 998

σ’e = 0.5 σu

σ’e = 0.5 x 68 kpsi

σ’e = 34 kpsi
Prob:- 6 -2
Estimate σ’e for the following materials
a) AISI 1009 CD steel
b) AISI 1060 Annealed
c) 2024 T3 aluminum
d) AISI 4340 steel heat treated

b) AISI 1060 Annealed

σu =112 kpsi table A-21, page 995

σ’e = 0.5 σu

σ’e = 0.5 x 112 kpsi

σ’e = 56 kpsi
Prob:- 6 -2
Estimate σ’e for the following materials
a) AISI 1009 CD steel
b) AISI 1060 Annealed
c) 2024 T4 aluminum
d) AISI 4340 steel heat treated

c) 2024 T4 aluminium

σu =64.8 kpsi table A-22, page 997

σ’e = 0.3 σu

σ’e = 0.3 x 64.8 kpsi

σ’e = 19.44 kpsi

Prob:- 6 -2
Estimate σ’e for the following materials
a) AISI 1009 CD steel
b) AISI 1060 Annealed
c) 2024 T3 aluminum
d) AISI 4340 steel heat treated

d) AISI 4030 Annealed

σu =250 kpsi table A-21, page 996

σ’e = 0.5 σu

σ’e = 0.5 x 250 kpsi

σ’e = 125 kpsi Why?

Prob:- 6 -1
A 3/16 – in drill rod was heat-treated and ground. The measured hardness was found to be 490 Brinell.
Estimate the endurance strength if the rod is used in rotating bending.

Given
Dia of rod = 3/16 inch

 e  k a kb k c k d k e k f  
Machining = grinding /
Hardness = 490 Brinell
e
Asked
Fatigue strength of rod = ? so for  e , we hav to find
k a kb kc k d ke k f and  e/

for  e/ we need  u
Relation between hardness and ultimate strength
 0.475 H B kpsi
u  
3.41 H B MPa Eq 2-21
Prob:- 6 -1
A 3/16 – in drill rod was heat-treated and ground. The measured hardness was found to be 490 Brinell. Estimate the endurance strength if the
rod is used in rotating bending.
Dia of rod = 3/16 inch Machining = grinding, Hardness = 490 Brinell, Fatigue Limit of rod = ?

Relation between hardness and ultimate strength

0.475 H B kpsi
u  
 3.41 H B MPa Eq 2-21
 u  0.475  490  242.6 kpsi  212 kpsi

Relation between ultimate strength and Fatigue limit

0.504  u kpsi or MPa  u  212 kpsi (1460 MPa)

 e/   107 kpsi  u  212 kpsi
 740 MPa  u  1460 MPa
 Eq 6-8

Relation between ultimate strength and Fatigue limit

as  u  212 kpsi, so
 e/  107 kpsi
Prob:- 6 -1
A 3/16 – in drill rod was heat-treated and ground. The measured hardness was found to be 490 Brinell. Estimate the endurance strength if
the rod is used in rotating bending.
Dia of rod = 3/16 inch Machining = grinding, Hardness = 490 Brinell, Fatigue Limit of rod = ?

For Marine factors,information is avaiable for k a and k b

ka  a ub Eq 6 - 19
 u  242.6 Kpsi
for 'a' and 'b', from table 6-2
a  1.34
b  -0.085 for ground surface finish

k a  1.34242.6
0.085
 0.840
Ka = 0.85
Prob:- 6 -1
A 3/16 – in drill rod was heat-treated and ground. The measured hardness was found to be 490 Brinell. Estimate the endurance strength if the
rod is used in rotating bending.
Dia of rod = 3/16 inch Machining = grinding, Hardness = 490 Brinell, Fatigue Limit of rod = ?

For Marine factors,information is avaiable for k a and k b


 d

0.107
0.107
 0.3  0.897 d 0.11  d  2 in
 0.91d 0.157 2  d  10 in

kb  
 
0.107
 d  1.24d 0.107 2.79  d  51 mm
 7.62
1.51d 0.157 51  d  254 mm
Eq 6 - 20

 0.3
0.107
kb  d  0.897 d 0.107 0.11  d  2 in
Eq 6 - 20

 
0.107
 0.897  3 / 16 
0.107
kb  3 / 16
0.3
kb  1.05
Prob:- 6 -1
A 3/16 – in drill rod was heat-treated and ground. The measured hardness was found to be 490 Brinell.
Estimate the endurance strength if the rod is used in rotating bending.
Dia of rod = 3/16 inch Machining = grinding, Hardness = 490 Brinell, Fatigue Limit of rod = ?

k a  0.840 kb  1.05  e/  107 kpsi

 e  k a kb e/
 e  0.8401.05 107 kpsi
 e  94.4 kpsi
 The rod is used at 450OC.
Prob:- 6 -1 (modified)
A 3/16 – in drill rod was heat-treated and ground. The measured hardness was found to be 490 Brinell. Estimate
the endurance strength if the rod is used in rotating bending.
Dia of rod = 3/16 inch Machining = grinding, Hardness = 490 Brinell, Fatigue Limit of rod = ?

 e  k a kb k c k d k e k f   /
e

 e  k a kb k d  e/
 e  0.840 1.05  0.843107 kpsi
 e  79.6 kpsi
Prob:- 6 -1 (further modified) The rod is used at 450OC with 90% reliability.
A 3/16 – in drill rod was heat-treated and ground. The measured hardness was found to be 490 Brinell. Estimate
the endurance strength if the rod is used in rotating bending.
Dia of rod = 3/16 inch Machining = grinding, Hardness = 490 Brinell, Fatigue Limit of rod = ?

𝒌𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟕
 e  k a kb k c k d k e k f   /
e

 e  k a k b k d k f  e/
 e  0.840  1.05  0.843  0.897  107 kpsi
 e  71.4 kpsi
Example
A circular steel shaft rotates at 2500 rpm. It has a fixed lateral load of 500 N applied at the free end. It has a
machined finish and will be used for infinite life with a reliability of 99%. Find the Fatigue strength and factor of
safety. The shaft is made from G10800 steel HR.

𝝈𝒆 = ?

R 2.5 𝟇 25
𝝈𝒆
𝑭𝑶𝑺 = =?
𝝈𝒙𝒂
37.5
Factor of Safety  Fatigue Srtength of the component
Applied Stress amplitude

e
F .O.S  n 
 xa

 e  ka kb kc kd ke k f  '
e
Find the fatigue strength of the material
Bending moment M = 500x0.25 = 125 N-m

Axial stress in shaft σaxial = Mc/I = 125*32/(πx0.0253) = 81.5 MPa

For this steel we have σU = 731 MPa

Hence σe’ = 0.504 σU = 368 MPa.

Find Marin factors:

surface ka = 4.51x731-0.265 = 0.768

Find the fatigue strength of the material
Bending moment M = 500x0.25 = 125 N-m

Axial stress in shaft σaxial = Mc/I = 125*32/(πx0.0253) = 81.5 MPa

For this steel we have σU = 731 MPa

Hence σe’ = 0.504 σU = 368 MPa.

Find Marin factors:

surface ka = 4.51x731-0.265 = 0.768

size kb = 1.24x25-0.107 = 0.879


 d

0.107
0.107
 0.3  0.897 d 0.11  d  2 in
 0.91d 0.157 2  d  10 in

kb  
 
0.107
 d  1.24d 0.107 2.79  d  51 mm
 7.62
1.51d 0.157 51  d  254 mm
Eq 6 - 20
Find the fatigue strength of the material
Bending moment M = 500x0.25 = 125 N-m

Axial stress in shaft σaxial = Mc/I = 125*32/(πx0.0253) = 81.5 MPa

For this steel we have σU = 731 MPa

Hence σe’ = 0.504 σ’e = 368 MPa.

Find Marin factors:

surface ka = 4.51x731-0.265 = 0.768

size kb = 1.24x25-0.107 = 0.879

load kc = ?

load kc = 1.0

reliability kf = 0.814 for 99%

 Stress concentration: Table A-15-9 on p 984

𝒌𝒇 = 𝟏 + 𝒒 𝒌𝒕 − 𝟏

r/d = 2.5/25 = 0.1 and D/d = 37.5/25 = 1.5

Giving Kt = 1.68

From p 336 we get q = 0.85 from SU and r, hence

Kf = 1+0.85(1.68 – 1) = 1.58

Find Fatigue Strength of the Structure

𝟏
𝝈𝒆 = 𝒌𝒂 𝒌𝒃 𝒌𝒄 𝒌𝒅 𝒌𝒆 𝒌𝒇 = 𝝈ƴ 𝒆
𝒌𝒇,𝒇𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒆

σe = 0.768 x 0.879 x 1 x 0.814 x (1/1.58) x 368 = 131 MPa

 a m 1 a m 1 N a  N m 
2
kf   kf       1
 e  yt N  e  ut N
kf
e   ut 
𝑀𝑐
𝜎𝑏 =
𝐼
 𝑴𝑪
𝝈𝒚−𝒂 =
𝑰

𝑴 = ±𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑵 − 𝒎𝒎

𝟐𝟓
𝒄= 𝒎𝒎
𝟐

𝝅 𝟒 𝝅 𝟒
𝑰= 𝒅 = 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏𝟗𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝒎𝟒
𝟔𝟒 𝟔𝟒

± 𝟓𝟎𝟎×𝟐𝟓𝟎 ×𝟏𝟐.𝟓 𝑵
𝝈𝒃 = = ±𝟖𝟏. 𝟒𝟗
𝟏𝟗𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝒎𝟐
 𝑵
𝝈𝒃 = ±𝟖𝟏. 𝟒𝟗 𝝈𝒖 = 𝟕𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝒎𝒎𝟐

𝟖𝟏.𝟒𝟗−𝟖𝟏.𝟒𝟗 𝑵
𝝈𝒎 = =𝟎 𝝈𝒆 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝟐

𝟖𝟏.𝟒𝟗+𝟖𝟏.𝟒𝟗 𝑵
𝝈𝒂 = = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟒𝟗
𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝟐

𝝈𝒂 𝝈𝒎 𝟏
𝒌𝒇 + =
𝝈𝒆 𝝈𝒖 𝑵

𝟖𝟏.𝟒𝟗 𝟎 𝟏
+ =
𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟕𝟑𝟏 𝑵

𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟔
𝑓𝑜𝑟 2𝐷 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦
Data:-
I Beam Steel 1030 Normalised
Fully Reverse Load 10000N Surface Finish Lapping
Hole Radius at 750 mm 2.5 mm Opr Temp 300OC
Load Bending Reliability 90%

Find FOS = ?
A cantilever I beam as shown in the figure is made of steel 1030 Normalised and
subjected to fully reversible load of 10000 N alone Z – axis . The beam was
manufactured by forging and its surface finish was attained through lapping process. A
hole of radius 2.5 mm had to be drilled in the web as shown. The beam is part of a car
engine area where temperature is expected to raise to 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑶 𝑪. Estimate the endurance
strength for reliability 90%.
𝝈𝒖 = 𝟓𝟐𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝒐𝒓 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝒔𝒊

𝝈ƴ 𝒆 = 𝑺ሖ 𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟓𝟐𝟏 = 𝟐𝟔𝟎. 𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂 (𝒊)

Surface Finish= Given Lapping

𝝈𝒖 = 𝟓𝟐𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝒐𝒓 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝒔𝒊

Surface Finish closest = Ground

𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖 𝒃 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟓

𝒌𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖 × 𝟓𝟐𝟏 −𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟖 𝒊𝒊

 −𝟎.𝟏𝟓𝟕 −𝟎.𝟏𝟓𝟕
𝒌𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟒 𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝒅𝒆

𝑨𝟗𝟓
𝒅𝒆 =
𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟔

𝑨𝟗𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝒂𝒕𝒇 𝑨𝟗𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐𝟓𝟎 × 𝟑𝟖 = 𝟗𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟐

𝑨𝟗𝟓 𝟗𝟓𝟎
𝒅𝒆 = = ≅ 𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝒎
𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟔 𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟔

−𝟎.𝟏𝟓𝟕 −𝟎.𝟏𝟓𝟕
𝒌𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝒅𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟗𝟗 𝒊𝒊𝒊
Load = Bending

𝒌𝒄 = 𝟏 (𝒊𝒗)

Operating Temp = 300OC = 572OF

𝒌𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 × 𝟓𝟕𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 × 𝟓𝟕𝟐 ±−− −

𝒌𝒅 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟒 𝒗
𝒌𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟕 𝒗𝒊
𝒘 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
d= 𝟓 𝒎𝒎
h= 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒎

𝟓
D = d/h= = 𝟎. 𝟐
𝟐𝟓
𝟓
d/w= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟕
𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒌𝒕 ≅ 𝟐. 𝟕
 𝒌𝒕 ≅ 𝟐. 𝟕

𝒒 ≅ 𝟎. 𝟖

𝒌𝒇 = 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟖 𝟐. 𝟕 − 𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟔 (𝒗𝒊𝒊)
 𝝈ƴ 𝒆 = 𝑺ሖ 𝒆 = 𝟐𝟔𝟎. 𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂 (𝒊)

𝒌𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟖 𝒊𝒊

𝒌𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟗𝟗 𝒊𝒊𝒊
𝒌𝒄 = 𝟏 (𝒊𝒗)

𝒌𝒅 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟒 𝒗

𝒌𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟕 𝒗𝒊

𝟏
𝝈𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟖 × 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟒 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟕 × × 𝟐𝟔𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟔 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝒗𝒊𝒊𝒊
𝟐. 𝟑𝟔
 𝑴𝑪
𝝈𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒕 𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒆 =
𝑰

𝑴 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝑵 − 𝒎𝒎

𝟐𝟓
𝒄= 𝒎𝒎
𝟐

𝟑𝟖×𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟑 𝟑𝟖×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟑 𝟑𝟎𝟎×𝟐𝟓𝟑

𝑰= + + 𝒎𝒎𝟒
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝑰 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟒

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟕𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝑵

𝝈𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒕 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 (𝒊𝒙)
𝟔𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝝈𝒖 = 𝟓𝟐𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝒐𝒓 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝒔𝒊
𝝈𝒂 𝝈𝒎 𝟏
𝒌𝒇 + =
𝝈𝒆 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟔 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝝈𝒆 𝝈𝒖 𝑵

𝑵
𝝈𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒕 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 = ±𝟏. 𝟓𝟓
𝒎𝒎𝟐

𝟏.𝟓𝟓+𝟏.𝟓𝟓 𝑵
𝝈𝒂 = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓
𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝟐

𝟏.𝟓𝟓−𝟏.𝟓𝟓 𝑵
𝝈𝒎 = =𝟎
𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝟐

𝝈𝒂 𝝈𝒎 𝟏
𝒌𝒇 + =
𝝈𝒆 𝝈𝒖 𝑵

𝟏.𝟓𝟓 𝟎 𝟏
+ =
𝟖𝟎.𝟔 𝟓𝟐𝟏 𝑵

𝑵 = 𝟓𝟐
 𝒆𝒒𝒂𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝟏 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐

𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒆𝒒𝒂𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 =
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏

𝝈𝒎 − 𝝈𝒖 𝝈𝒂 − 𝟎
𝒆𝒒𝒂𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 =
𝟎 − 𝝈𝒖 𝝈𝒆 − 𝟎
𝝈𝒂 𝝈𝒎 𝝈𝒂
𝒆𝒒𝒂𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 − +𝟏=
𝝈𝒖 𝝈𝒆
𝟎, 𝝈𝒆 𝝈𝒂 𝝈𝒎
𝒆𝒒𝒂𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 + =𝟏
𝝈𝒆 𝝈𝒖

𝝈𝒎
𝝈𝒖 , 𝟎