Materials for Construction (1)

Iron-Steels-Aluminium
 Reading

Chapter 9
- Section 9.18 The iron-iron carbide phase diagram
- Section 9.19 Development of microstructure in iron-carbon alloys
- Section 9.20 The influence of other alloying elements
Chapter 10
- Section 10.5 Isothermal transformation diagrams
- Section 10.7 Mechanical behavior of iron-carbon alloys
- Section 10.8 Tempered martensite
- Section 10.9 Review of phase transformations and mechanical properties for iron-
carbon alloys
Chapter 11
- Section 11.2 Ferrous alloys
- Section 11.3 Nonferrous alloys – only aluminum and its alloys
- Section 11.9 Precipitation hardening

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 Materials Used in Construction

– Carbon steels – Concrete

– Stainless steels – Glass reinforced cement
– Bronzes – Bricks
– Aluminium alloys – Glass
– Lead – Timber
– Zinc – Polymers
– Copper – Composites

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Ferrous alloys
 Classification of Metal Alloys

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 Making of Pig Iron

Iron ores used:

- Magnetite
- Haematite
- Limonite
- Siderite

Australia is the world

3rd largest producer
of iron ore

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 Making of Pig Iron

– To produce 1 ton of pig iron:

- 1.75 tons of iron ore
- ½ tons of coal
- ¼ tons of limestone
- 2 tons of hot air
- 40,000 liters of cooling water

– Composition of pig iron:

- >3.5% Carbon
- 2% Silicon Brittle material Need to
- 1% Sulfur Too much impurities reduce
- 1.5% Manganese to be processed impurities
- 1% Phosphorus
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 Making of Steels

Techniques to go from pig

iron to steels:
- Basic oxygen furnace

- Electrical furnace

Processing of steels

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Iron – Carbon Phase Diagram

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 Eutectic, Eutectoid & Peritectic

– Eutectic - liquid in equilibrium with two solids

cool
L α+β
heat

› Eutectoid - solid phase in equation with two solid phases

intermetallic compound
S2 S1+S3 - cementite
γ cool α + Fe C (727ºC)
3
heat

› Peritectic - liquid + solid 1  solid 2 (Fig 9.21)

S1 + L S2
δ + L cool γ (1493ºC)
heat

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 Microstructure Constituents

For the
compositions A, BA C
B and C, what
microstructures
do we obtain
upon cooling
from 1200°C

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 Microstructure for eutectoid composition

T(°C)
1600
δ
-Eutectoid (B): L
1400
γ ⇒ α + Fe3C
γ γ +L
1200 1148°C L+Fe3C
(austenite)

Fe3C (cementite)
1000 γ γ
γ γ γ +Fe3C
800
α B 727°C = T
eutectoid
R S
600
α+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
120 µm (Fe) 0.76 Co, wt% C
Fe3C (cementite-hard)
C eutectoid

Result: Pearlite =
alternating layers of α (ferrite-soft)
α and Fe3C phases
(Adapted from Fig. 9.27, Callister 7e.) Adapted from Fig. 9.24,Callister 7e.
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 Formation of Pearlite

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Hypoeutectoid Steel
T(°C)
1600
δ
1400 L
γ γ (Fe-C
γ γ +L
γ γ 1200 1148°C L+Fe3C System)
(austenite)

Fe3C (cementite)
γ γ 1000
γ γ γ + Fe3C Adapted from Figs. 9.24
and 9.29,Callister 7e.
α (Fig. 9.24 adapted from
αγ γ 800 r s 727°C Binary Alloy Phase
γ αγ αRS Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol.
1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-
w α =s/(r +s) 600
w γ =(1- wα )
α + Fe3C Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH,
1990.)
400
α 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) Co , wt% C
0.76

C0
pearlite
w pearlite = w γ
Hypoeutectoid
w α =S/(R+S) 100 µm
steel
w Fe3 =(1-w α )
C
pearlite proeutectoid ferrite
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Hypereutectoid Steel
T(°C)
1600
δ
1400 L (Fe-C
γ γ +L System)
γ 1200
γ
γ γ 1148°C L+Fe3C
(austenite)

Fe3C (cementite)
γ γ 1000
γ γ γ +Fe3C Adapted from Figs. 9.24
and 9.32,Callister 7e.
Fe3C (Fig. 9.24 adapted from
γ γ 800 r s Binary Alloy Phase
γ γ α R S
Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol.
1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-
600
w Fe3C =r/(r +s) α +Fe3C Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH,
w γ =(1-w Fe3C ) 1990.)
400
0 1 Co 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
0.76

(Fe)
pearlite Co , wt%C
w pearlite = w γ
w α =S/(R+S)
w Fe3C =(1-w α ) 60 µmHypereutectoid
steel
pearlite proeutectoid Fe3C
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 Question Time 1

For a 99.6 wt% Fe-0.40 wt% C at a temperature just below the eutectoid, determine the
following
a) composition of Fe3C and ferrite (α)
b) the amount of carbide (cementite) in grams that forms per 100 g of steel
c) the amount of pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite (α)

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 Alloying Steel with More Elements

• Teutectoid changes: • Ceutectoid changes:

Ceutectoid (wt%C)
T Eutectoid (°C)

Ti Si
Mo W Ni
Cr
Cr Si
Mn
Mn W
Ti Mo
Ni

wt. % of alloying elements wt. % of alloying elements

Adapted from Fig. 9.34,Callister 7e. (Fig. 9.34 Adapted from Fig. 9.35,Callister 7e. (Fig. 9.35
from Edgar C. Bain, Functions of the Alloying from Edgar C. Bain, Functions of the Alloying
Elements in Steel, American Society for Metals, Elements in Steel, American Society for Metals,
1939, p. 127.) 1939, p. 127.)

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 Transformations & Undercooling

• Eutectoid transf. (Fe-C System): γ ⇒ α + Fe3C

• Can make it occur at: 0.76 wt% C 6.7 wt% C
...727ºC (cool it slowly) 0.022 wt% C
...below 727ºC (“undercool” it!)
T(°C)
1600
Adapted from Fig.
δ 9.24,Callister 7e. (Fig. 9.24
1400 L adapted from Binary Alloy
Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
γ γ +L Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-
1200 1148°C L+Fe3C in-Chief), ASM International,

Fe3C (cementite)
(austenite) Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

1000
α Eutectoid: γ +Fe3C
ferrite 800 Equil. Cooling: Ttransf. = 727ºC
727°C
∆T α +Fe3C
600
Undercooling by ∆Ttransf. < 727°C
0.022

0.76

400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) Co , wt%C
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Transformation Rate – Temperature

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 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams

• Fe-C system, Co = 0.76 wt% C

• Transformation at T = 675°C.
% transformed

100
T = 675°C
y,

50

0
1 10 2 10 4 time (s)
T(°C) Austenite (stable)
TE (727°C)
700 Austenite
(unstable)

600 Pearlite Adapted from Fig. 10.13,Callister 7e.

isothermal transformation at 675°C (Fig. 10.13 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.)
Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and
500 Cooling Transformation Diagrams,
American Society for Metals, 1977, p.
369.)
400
time (s)
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1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 Page 21
Effect of Cooling History in Fe-C System

• Eutectoid composition, Co = 0.76 wt% C

• Begin at T > 727°C
• Rapidly cool to 625°C and hold isothermally.

T(°C) Austenite (stable)

TE (727°C)
700 Austenite
(unstable)

Adapted from Fig.

600 Pearlite 10.14,Callister 7e.
γ γ (Fig. 10.14 adapted from
H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of
γ γ γ γ Isothermal Transformation
and Cooling
500 Transformation Diagrams,
American Society for
Metals, 1997, p. 28.)

400

1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
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time (s)
 Transformations with Proeutectoid Materials

CO = 1.13 wt% C
T(°C) T(°C)
900 1600
δ
A 1400 L
800

Fe3C (cementite)
A TE (727°C) γ +L
+ 1200 γ L+Fe3C
700 A C (austenite)
P 1000
A
+ P+C α γ +Fe3C
600
800
727°C
∆T α +Fe3C
500 600

0.022
0.76
1 10 102 103 104 400
time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7

1.13
(Fe)
Co , wt%C
Adapted from Fig. 10.16, Adapted from Fig. 9.24,
Callister 7e. Callister 7e.

Hypereutectoid composition – proeutectoid cementite

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Non-Equilibrium Transformation Products: Fe-C

• Bainite:
--α lathes (strips) with long
rods of Fe3C
--diffusion controlled.
• Isothermal Transf. Diagram
800 Austenite (stable) Fe3C
T(°C) A
TE (cementite)
P α (ferrite)
600 100% pearlite
pearlite/bainite boundary
100% bainite
400 A B
5 µm
(Adapted from Fig. 10.17, Callister, 7e. (Fig.
10.17 from Metals Handbook, 8th ed.,
200 Vol. 8, Metallography, Structures, and Phase
Diagrams, American Society for Metals,
Materials Park, OH, 1973.)
10-1 10 103 105

Adapted from Fig. 10.18, Callister 7e.

time (s)
(Fig. 10.18 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
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Transformation Diagrams, American Society for Metals, 1997, p. 28.)
 Spheroidite: Fe-C System

• Spheroidite: α
--α grains with spherical Fe3C (ferrite)
--diffusion dependent.
--heat bainite or pearlite for long times Fe3C
--reduces interfacial area (driving force) (cementite)

60 µm
(Adapted from Fig. 10.19, Callister, 7e.
(Fig. 10.19 copyright United States
Steel Corporation, 1971.)

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 Martensite: Fe-C System
• Martensite:
--γ(FCC) to Martensite (BCT)
(involves single atom jumps)
x
Fe atom potential
x x
sites C atom sites

60 µm
x x
(Adapted from Fig.
x
10.20, Callister, 7e.

• Isothermal Transf. Diagram

800 Austenite (stable)
T(°C) A TE Martensite needles
P Austenite
600
(Adapted from Fig. 10.21, Callister, 7e.
Adapted from (Fig. 10.21 courtesy United States
Fig. 10.22, Steel Corporation.)
Callister 7e. 400 A B

• γ to M transformation..
0%
200 M+A 50% -- is rapid!
M+A 90%
M+A -- % transf. depends on T only.
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 Martensite Formation

γ (FCC) slow cooling α (BCC) + Fe3C

quench
tempering
M (BCT)

M = martensite is body centered tetragonal (BCT)

Diffusionless transformation BCT if C > 0.15 wt%

BCT  few slip planes  hard, brittle

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 Isothermal Transformation Diagram
for Iron-Carbon Alloy

A: Austenite
P: Pearlite
B: Bainite
M: Martensite

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 Question Time 2

Using the isothermal transformation diagram for Fe-C alloy of eutectoid composition,
specify the final microstructure for the following heat-treatments (starting temperature:
760°C):
a) Rapidly cool to 350°C, hold for 104s, and quench to 20°C
b) Rapidly cool to 250°C, hold for 100s, and quench to 20°C
c) Rapidly cool to 650°C, hold for 20s, rapidly cooling to 400°C, hold for 103s, and
quench to 20°C

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Phase Transformations of Alloys

Effect of adding other elements

Change transition temp.

Cr, Ni, Mo, Si, Mn

retard γ  α + Fe3C
transformation

Adapted from Fig. 10.23, Callister 7e.

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 Mechanical Prop: Fe-C System (1)

• Effect of wt% C Pearlite (med)

Pearlite (med) Cementite
ferrite (soft) (hard)
Adapted from Fig. 9.30,Callister Co < 0.76 wt% C Co > 0.76 wt% C Adapted from Fig. 9.33,Callister 7e.
7e. (Fig. 9.30 courtesy Republic
Steel Corporation.)
Hypoeutectoid Hypereutectoid (Fig. 9.33 copyright 1971 by United
States Steel Corporation.)
Hypo Hyper Hypo Hyper
TS(MPa) %EL
1100 80
YS(MPa)

Impact energy (Izod, ft-lb)

100 Adapted from Fig.
10.29, Callister 7e.
900
hardness (Fig. 10.29 based on
40 data from Metals
700 Handbook: Heat
50 Treating, Vol. 4, 9th
ed., V. Masseria
500 (Managing Ed.),
0 American Society for
300 Metals, 1981, p. 9.)

0 0.5 1 0
0.76

1
0.76
wt% C 0 0.5
wt% C
• More wt% C: TS and YS increase, %EL decreases.
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 Mechanical Prop: Fe-C System (2)

• Fine vs coarse pearlite vs spheroidite

Hypo Hyper Hypo Hyper
90
320
fine

Ductility (%AR)
spheroidite
pearlite 60
Brinell hardness

240 coarse
pearlite
spheroidite
160 30 coarse
pearlite
fine
80 pearlite
0
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
wt%C wt%C
Adapted from Fig. 10.30, Callister 7e.
• Hardness: fine > coarse > spheroidite (Fig. 10.30 based on data from Metals
Handbook: Heat Treating, Vol. 4, 9th
• %RA: fine < coarse < spheroidite ed., V. Masseria (Managing Ed.),
American Society for Metals, 1981, pp.
9 and 17.)

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 Mechanical Prop: Fe-C System (3)

• Fine Pearlite vs Martensite:

Hypo Hyper

600
martensite
Brinell hardness

Adapted from Fig. 10.32,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 10.32 adapted
400 from Edgar C. Bain, Functions of
the Alloying Elements in Steel,
American Society for Metals,
1939, p. 36; and R.A. Grange,
200 C.R. Hribal, and L.F. Porter,
fine pearlite Metall. Trans. A, Vol. 8A, p.
1776.)
0
0 0.5 1
wt% C
• Hardness: fine pearlite << martensite.

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 Tempering Martensite

• reduces brittleness of martensite,

• reduces internal stress caused by quenching.
TS(MPa)
YS(MPa)
1800

1600 TS
Adapted from Adapted from
Fig. 10.34, 1400 YS Fig. 10.33,

9 µm
Callister 7e. Callister 7e.
(Fig. 10.34 1200 (Fig. 10.33
adapted from 60 copyright by
Fig. furnished 50 United States
courtesy of 1000 %RA Steel
%RA
Republic Steel 40 Corporation,
Corporation.) 800 30
1971.)

200 400 600

Tempering T (°C)
• produces extremely small Fe3C particles surrounded by α.
• decreases TS, YS but increases %RA
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 Summary: Processing Options
Austenite (γ) Adapted from
Fig. 10.36,
slow moderate rapid Callister 7e.

cool cool quench

Pearlite Bainite Martensite

(α + Fe3C layers + a (α + Fe3C plates/needles) (BCT phase
proeutectoid phase) diffusionless
transformation)

Martensite reheat
T Martensite
Strength

Ductility
bainite Tempered
fine pearlite Martensite
coarse pearlite (α + very fine
spheroidite Fe3C particles)

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General Trends Page 35
 Question Time 3

Rank the following iron-carbon alloys and associated microstructures from the highest to
the lowest tensile strength:
a)0.25 wt% C with spheroidite
b)0.25 wt% C with coarse pearlite
c)0.6 wt% C with fine pearlite
d)0.6 wt% C with coarse pearlite
e)0.6 wt% C with bainite

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Relationship of Carbon Content to Usage

– Low carbon content: %C ≤ 0.25%

Nails, welding material, structural steels, heavy duty bolts, automobile body components
– Medium carbon content: 0.25 < %C ≤ 0.6%
Screws, nuts, axles, forging dies, screw drivers, railway wheels and tracks, gears
– High Carbon Content: %C > 0.6%
Wrenches, saws, knives, cutting tools, dies for forming processes

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 Some Alloying Elements
High
Corrosion
temperature Hardenability Toughness Machinability Weldability
resistant
strength

Aluminium +

Chromium ++ ++ +++

Molybdenum ++ +++

Manganese +

Nickel + ++

Tungsten +++

Vanadium +++

Copper +

Sulphur ++ -- ++ --

Silicon ++ ++

Phosphorus ++ -- ++ --

+ mild improvement; ++ moderate improvement; +++ high improvement

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-- moderate negative effect Page 38
 Mechanical Behaviour of Steels

Grades YM YS TS

(GPa) (MPa) (MPa)

4541 165-200 200-290 500-1200

4571 165-200 220-450 570-1200

4016 195-220 260-380 520

4710 205 450 500

4027 205 325 515

A588 205 320 460

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 High Strength Steels

– Composition:
Carbon: 0.08%
Manganese: 1%
Nickel: 1.25%
Chromium: 0.45%
Molybdenum: 0.4%
Copper: 0.2%

– Property of interest:
Yield strength = 800 MPa

Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, Japan

www.wikipedia.org

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 Stainless steels

– Advantages:
- Resistance to corrosion in an oxidizing environment
- Increased strength at elevated temperature

– 5 categories: martensitic, ferretic, austenitic, precipitation, duplex

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 Stainless Steels

Source: The Atlas Specialty Metal Handbook of Stainless Steels

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 Mechanical Properties of Stainless Steels

Source: The Atlas Specialty Metal Handbook of Stainless Steels

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 Stainless Steel Stress-Strain Curve

Approximation of stress-strain curves:

Ramberg-Osgood equation:
n
σ  σ 
ε= + 0.002  
E0  σ 0.002 
E0: modulus of elasticity
σ0.002: yield or proof strength.
n describes non-linearity of the curve

How to find the Ramberg-Osgood parameter n?

 0.002 
ln 
 0.0001  ln (20 )
n= =
σ  σ 
ln 0.002  ln 0.002 
 σ 0.0001   σ 0.0001 
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Aluminium Alloys
 Making of Aluminium

– Ore: Bauxite (Al2O3:3H2O, Al2O3:H2O)

Australia is the largest producer (32% of world production)

– Production of pure alumina by calcination in presence of caustic soda

(NaOH)

– Production of aluminium by electrolysis of the alumina

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 Advantages of Aluminium over Steels

– Light: 1/3 of weight of steels

– Better corrosion resistance than most steels in most environments
– Better fabricability: more freedom of shapes
– Weldability
– Better machinability than steels
– No brittle fracture at low temperatures

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 Bad Points for Aluminium

– Cost: metal more expensive than steels (but can be compensated by lower costs of
machining and maintenance)
– Buckling: failure by buckling occur at lower load in aluminium than in steels
– Lower strength at high temperature
– More chance of failure by fatigue
– More deflection due to lower elastic modulus

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 Application Examples

Examples of complex extruded shapes

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 Wrought Aluminum Alloys

– Primary Fabrication: Usually semiconsciously cast by direct chill method.

– Scalping: ½ inch metal is removed from hot rolled surface for good finishing.
– Ingots are homogenized and rolled.
– Classification: According to
major alloying elements.
– Four digits: First digit -
major group of alloying
elements.
– Second digit: Impurity limits.
– Last 2 digits: Identify
aluminum alloy.

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 Temper Designations

– Temper designations are designated by hyphen.

– Example: 2024-T6

T1 – Naturally aged
T3 – Solution heat treated.
F – as fabricated H1 – Strain hardened T4 – Solution heat treated
O – Annealed alloy. and naturally aged.
H – Strain hardened. H2 – Strain hardened T5 - Cooled and artificially
T – Heat treated to and partially aged.
T6 - Solution heat treated
produce stable annealed.
and artificially aged.
temper H3 - Strain hardened T7 - Solution heat treated
an annealed and stabilized.
T8 - Solution heat treated,
cold worked and then
artificially aged.

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 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical Behaviour of Aluminium Alloys

stress strain
Comparison of different Comparison of aluminium
aluminium alloys alloy 5083-H34 and mild steel

http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/
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 Comparison of Three Structural Metals

Aluminium Stainless steel 304, cold-

Property Carbon Steel A36
6061- T6 finished
Extrudability Very good Not practical Very limited
Weldability Fair Good Good
Corrosion resistance Good Fair Very good
Tensile YS (MPa) 240 250-345 310
YM (GPa) 69 200 185
Elongation (%) 8-10 20 30
Density (g/cm3) 2.74 7.83 7.86
Fatigue strength 5 millions
70 165 Non Available
cycles (MPa)
Relative yield strength to
2.8 1.0-1.4 1.2
weight ratio
Cost by weight
2.38 0.60 2.78
(AU $/kg)
Cost by volume
6590 4610 23000
(AU $/m3)
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Fire Considerations
 Fire Regulation

– When buildings are designed and constructed, one has to consider the protection of
human life in case of fire. The design must now incorporate measures which protect
the structural integrity of the steel framework so that residents of the building can be
safely evacuated, as well as allowing time for fire fighters to douse the flames.
– The longer the structure maintains its strength and form the better the chance of
getting people out safely.

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 Properties to Consider

Modulus of Elasticity Yield Strength

Yield Strength (MPa)

Temperature (K)

Data obtained for 316 stainless steel

Callister, 2007
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 Variation of Yield Strength with Temperature

– Australian Steel Structures Standard

σ y (T )
=1 When 0°C < T ≤ 215°C
σ y (20)

σ y (T ) 905 − T When 215°C < T ≤

= 905°C
σ y (20) 690

Where σy(T) = yield strength of steel at T °C

σy(20) = yield strength of steel at 20 °C
T = temperature of steel in °C
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 Variation of the Modulus of Elasticity with Temperature

– Australian Steel Structures Standard

 
 
E (T ) T 
= 1.0 +  When 0°C < T ≤ 600°C
E (20 )    T  
 2000 ln 1100  
    

 T 
690 1 −  When 600°C < T ≤
E (T )  1000  1000°C
=
E (20 ) T − 53.5

Where E(T) = modulus of elasticity of steel at T °C

E(20) = modulus of elasticity of steel at 20 °C
T = temperature of steel in °C
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 Variation of Mechanical Properties of Steel With Temperature

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 Summary

- Steels: Versatile materials. Large range of properties can be obtained

depending on composition and heat treatment

 Very popular metals and one of the cheapest ones

- Aluminium: has some advantages over steels and can reach strength similar
to some steels but more expansive and much lower elastic modulus

- Materials properties are temperature dependent. Refer to standard for

particular applications to know constraints

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