Professional Documents
Culture Documents
hospitality enterprises
Abraham Pizam
Department of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, Orlando,
Florida, USA
Taylor Ellis
Department of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, Orlando,
Florida, USA
[ 328 ]
Abraham Pizam and to this view, include perceived best brand, the services consist of a harmonious mixture of
Taylor Ellis most recently used brand, a brand used by a three elements: the material product in a
Customer satisfaction and its reference person, products competing for the narrow sense which in the case of a restau-
measurement in hospitality same needs, and the like (p. 338).
enterprises rant is the food and beverages; the behaviour
International Journal of Changes in satisfaction with the meal and attitude of the employees who are
Contemporary Hospitality experience may result from changes in the responsible for hosting the guest, serving the
Management meal and beverages and who come in direct
11/7 [1999] 326±339 perception of the actual quality of outcomes
received, or from changes in the expectations contact with the guests, and the environ-
against which these outcomes are compared. ment, such as the building, the layout, the
Alterations in the expectations can result furnishing, the lighting in the restaurant, etc.
from change in needs (i.e. hungry versus full; Czepiel et al. (1985) on the other hand,
tired versus rested) change of objectives (i.e. suggest that satisfaction with a service is a
business trip vs leisure trip), new personal or function of satisfaction with two independent
vicarious experiences (i.e. recently had a elements. The functional element, i.e. the
superb hospitality experience at another food and beverage in a restaurant, and the
hotel) and any other influences that make performance-delivery element, i.e. the
salient a particular quality of outcomes (i.e. service. To prove the independence of the two
it's a very hot day and the restaurant is not elements from each other, the authors claim
air conditioned) (McCallum and Harrison, that restaurant clients are quite capable of
1985). having responses to each element that differ
Past research in customer satisfaction and one from the other: ``The service was great,
service quality has resulted in increasing the food poor'' or conversely... (p. 13).
Davis and Stone (1985, p.29) divide the
research efforts to look at new ways to
service encounter into two elements: direct
evaluate these concepts. Historically, the
and indirect services. For example, direct
assumption has been that a linear relation-
services may be the actual check-in/check-
ship exists between satisfaction/dissatis-
out process in hotels, while the indirect
faction and disconfirmation or performance
services include the provision of parking
evaluations. Researchers such as Oliva et al.
facilities, concierge, public telephones for
(1992) proposed a catastrophe model theoriz-
guests' use, etc.
ing the nature of the relationship of satis-
Lovelock (1985) divides the service attri-
faction with transaction costs and brand
butes into two groups: core and secondary.
loyalty. This theory hypothesizes that satis-
Airline service provides a good example, with
faction and dissatisfaction occur at different customers first making inquiries and reser-
points, specifically these behaviours are vations, then checking in their baggage,
associated with transaction costs and brand getting seat assignments, being checked at the
loyalty and are not monotonic. Research by gate, receiving on-board service in flight, and
various authors (Cronin and Taylor, 1992; retrieving their baggage at the destination
Oliver and Swan, 1989; Cadotte et al., 1987) airport. Each of these activities is an opera-
using structural modelling, found underlying tions task that is secondary to the core
product of physically transporting passengers
causal dynamics among Customer Service
and their bags between two airports. But
model constructs. The result of this discovery
these secondary tasks have a greater poten-
is that CS researchers must, determine a tial to generate customer dissatisfaction if
generalizable causal relationship among performed poorly (p. 272).
model constructs and identify a representa-
tive parsimonious CS structural model. In a restaurant situation Lovelock's core will
be composed of the food and beverage, while
his secondary will be composed of everything
else, including service, environment, etc.
The components of satisfaction
Lewis (1987), too, classifies the service
Unlike material products or pure services, encounter attributes in two groups: essential
most hospitality experiences are an amalgam and subsidiary. The essential attributes are
of products and services. Therefore it is identical to Czepiel's functional, Davis and
possible to say that satisfaction with a Stone's direct, Reuland and colleagues' pro-
hospitality experience such as a hotel stay or duct, and Lovelock's core, i.e. the food and
a restaurant meal is a sum total of satis- beverage in the meal experience. On the
factions with the individual elements or other hand Lewis's subsidiary attributes are
attributes of all the products and services more comprehensive than either Davis and
that make up the experience. Stone's indirect, Czepiel's performance-
There is no uniformity of opinion among delivery, or Lovelock's secondary, and
marketing experts as to the classification of include such factors as: accessibility,
the elements in service encounters. Reuland convenience of location, availability and
et al. (1985, p. 142) suggest that hospitality timing and flexibility, as well as interactions
[ 329 ]
Abraham Pizam and with those providing the service and with but is also a determinant of customer
Taylor Ellis other customers. It is equivalent to a satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Measuring the
Customer satisfaction and its combination of the behaviour and environ-
measurement in hospitality gap between expected and perceived service
enterprises ment elements in the Reuland et al. model. is a routine method of utilizing customer
International Journal of Yet other researchers support the idea that feedback. Zeithaml et al., (1988) suggested a
Contemporary Hospitality the service encounter attributes are situa- model that details the gaps between customer
Management tion-specific and as such cannot be classified
11/7 [1999] 326±339 expectations and the actual service delivered.
into universal elements. For example, (see Figure 1). Vavra (1997, p. 91) identified a
Fiebelkorn (1985) doing a study at Citibank sixth gap namely the difference between the
found that overall satisfaction with Citibank customers' desired service and their expected
as one of the customer's banks (or his bank service.
only) is based on satisfaction with the last Since its introduction in 1988, SERVQUAL
encounter with the bank in five main areas: has been used in hundreds of studies includ-
teller encounter, platform encounter, ATM ing numerous studies in the hospitality and
(automatic teller machines) encounter, tourism industries (Fick and Ritchie, 1991;
phone encounter, problem encounter. He Saleh and Ryan, 1991; Luk et al., 1993; Bojanic
then concludes that ``the common thread and Rosen, 1994; Lee and Hing, 1995; Ryan
running through all five service-encounter and Cliff, 1997). SERVQUAL was also used by
types is that customers want: prompt service Knutson et al. (1991) to create a lodging-
by people who know what to do and how to do specific instrument called LODGSERV which
it, and who care about them as valued is a 26 item index designed to measure
customers'' (Fiebelkorn, 1985, p. 185). consumer expectations for service quality in
the hotel experience. LODGSERV, however,
is not as popular among hospitality and
Dimensions of satisfaction tourism researchers as SERVQUAL and was
In service organizations, the assessment of used only in a limited number of studies (i.e.
the quality of a service is made during the Patton et al., 1994; Ekinci et al., 1998).
actual delivery of the service ± usually an But SERVQUAL has also been seriously
encounter between the customer and a criticized (Carman, 1990; Finn and Lamb,
service contact person. Parasuraman et al. 1991; Babakus and Boller, 1992; Brown et al.,
(1985, 1988, 1991) identified the following five 1993; Smith, 1995). The main criticisms of the
generic dimensions of service quality model relate to the application of expecta-
(SERVQUAL) that must be present in the tions and the gap scoring. First, the concep-
service delivery in order for it to result in tualization of expectation as a comparison
customer satisfaction: standard in the model is a difficult concept to
. Reliability ± the ability to perform the quantify. Second, if the variables are difficult
promised services dependably and to quantify then, by implication, the gap
accurately. score becomes that much less secure as a
. Responsiveness ± the willingness to help measurement. Third, some methodological
customers and provide prompt service. issues arise. Finally, doubt has been
. Assurance ± the knowledge and courtesy of expressed as to the universal quality of the
employees as well as their ability to dimensions. (Eckinci and Riley, 1998, p. 355)
convey trust and confidence.
. Empathy ± the provision of caring,
individualized attention to customers, and Overall satisfaction vs satisfaction
. Tangibles, the appearance of physical with individual attributes
facilities, equipment, personnel and In the previous section we indicated that it is
communication materials. possible to say that satisfaction with a
The model conceptualizes service quality as a hospitality experience is a sum total of
gap between customer's expectations (E) and satisfactions with the individual elements or
the perception of the service providers' attributes of all the products and services
performance (P). According to Parasuraman that make up the experience. Though super-
et al. (1985), service quality should be ficially the above statement makes sense, in
measured by subtracting customer's percep- reality the matter is more compounded. The
tion scores from customer expectation scores question that we have to ask ourselves is
(Q = P ± E). The greater the positive score whether when customers experience the
represents the greater the positive amount of attributes of the hospitality experience they
service quality or visa versa. form a set of independent impressions on
The gap that may exist between the custo- each and compare those with the expecta-
mers' expected and perceived service is not tions of the same attributes. And, is the
only a measure of the quality of the service, resultant overall level of satisfaction
[ 330 ]
Abraham Pizam and determined by the arithmetic sum total of models consumers establish a minimum
Taylor Ellis these impressions? The answer to the above acceptable level for each important product
Customer satisfaction and its attribute and make a choice (or become
measurement in hospitality question is dependent on one's belief about
enterprises the process of consumer choice. More satisfied) only if each attribute equals or
International Journal of specifically, it is related to whether one exceeds the minimum level. In a restaurant
Contemporary Hospitality believes that consumer choice behaviour example each of the three attributes of
Management
11/7 [1999] 326±339 could be explained by compensatory or non- quality of food and beverage, quality of the
compensatory models. service, and the ambiance of the restaurant
Non-weighted compensatory models will have to pass a threshold before overall
presume that customers make trade-offs of satisfaction will occur. If ambiance did not
one attribute for another in order to make a pass this threshold, no matter how good the
decision, i.e. a weakness in one attribute is food and the service was, the result is overall
compensated by strength in another. In a dissatisfaction.
hotel stay example, if the guestroom was Disjunctive models are similar to conjunc-
small and uncomfortable, but the service was tive models, with one exception. Rather than
good, the resultant overall satisfaction with establishing a minimum level on all impor-
the hotel experience might still be high; small tant attributes, in conjunctive models
and uncomfortable room was traded-off with consumers establish such levels only on one
good service, because both of them were of or a few attributes, e.g. the food in our
equal importance to the customer. Weighted restaurant example (Lewis and Chambers,
1989, p, 157).
compensatory models (sometimes referred to
Research evidence conducted in tourism
as expectancy-value models) also assume that
and hospitality enterprises (Mazursky, 1989;
people have a measurement of belief about
Cadotte and Turgeon, 1988) support the
the existence of an attribute, but that each
disjunctive models. In a study conducted in
attribute has an importance weight relative
1978 among 432 foodservice firms represent-
to other attributes. Using this model in our
ing 22,000 foodservice units, Cadotte and
previous example, we might conclude that
Turgeon asked company executives to list the
because guestroom quality was rated higher
type and frequency of their guests'
in its relative importance than service was,
complaints and compliments. As indicated in
the resultant overall satisfaction with the
Table I, the data from the surveys suggest
hotel experience will be dissatisfaction. that:
Non-compensatory models (no trade-offs of . . .some restaurant attributes are more likely
attributes) can take one of two forms: to earn guest complaints than compliments.
conjunctive or disjunctive. In conjunctive Availability of parking, hours of operation,
traffic congestion, noise level, and spacious-
Figure 1 ness of the establishment all appear in the
Hospitality service quality gap top-ten complaint list... In contrast, guests
express appreciation for high performance in
some areas, but rarely complain when per-
formance is so-so. The survey results suggest
that guest react favorably to a clean neat
restaurant, neat employees, ample portions,
and responsiveness to complaints. The qual-
ity and quantity of service, food quality,
helpfulness of the employees, and the prices
of drinks, meals and other services appear in
both the list of most frequent complaints and
the list of the most frequent compliments
(Cadotte and Turgeon, 1988, p. 47).
[ 336 ]
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