UNIT 8 ASSIGNMENT 1

Josh Smith - HNC

Contents
LO1 Explain the relationships between hardware components and the subsystems used in a
computer system...................................................................................................................................3
P1 Identify the main subsystems of a computer and explain how they are organised and
connected..........................................................................................................................................3
Introduce what a computer system is...................................................................................................3
Von Neuman Architecture.................................................................................................................3
CPU and Memory..............................................................................................................................3
Control Unit and ALU.........................................................................................................................4
How they are connected...................................................................................................................4
Fetch, decode, execute cycle.........................................................................................................4
Input/output......................................................................................................................................5
Screen................................................................................................................................................5
Keyboard...........................................................................................................................................6
Printers..............................................................................................................................................6
Input and output devices connection to the computer.....................................................................6
Storage (secondary)...........................................................................................................................7
USB................................................................................................................................................7
Cloud.............................................................................................................................................7
P2 Explain the purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and include details on its operation.......8
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................8
Central Processing Unit.....................................................................................................................8
The factors Affecting CPU performance............................................................................................8
Multiple cores................................................................................................................................8
Clock speed....................................................................................................................................9
Cache memory...............................................................................................................................9
Fetch Decode Execute.................................................................................................................10
Instructions..........................................................................................................................................11
Control.............................................................................................................................................11
Arithmetic........................................................................................................................................11
Compare..........................................................................................................................................11
Branch.............................................................................................................................................11
LO2 Categorise the key features and services provided by different computer operating systems
and hardware......................................................................................................................................12
P3 Describe a range of different operating systems including the purpose, use and hardware
requirements of each......................................................................................................................12

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Introduction.........................................................................................................................................12
Server OS.............................................................................................................................................12
Linux OS...........................................................................................................................................12
Purpose........................................................................................................................................12
Hardware.....................................................................................................................................12
Use...............................................................................................................................................13
Windows OS....................................................................................................................................13
Purpose........................................................................................................................................13
Hardware.....................................................................................................................................13
Use...............................................................................................................................................13
Mobile OS............................................................................................................................................14
IOS (Apple/iPhone)..........................................................................................................................14
Purpose............................................................................................................................................14
Hardware.........................................................................................................................................14
Use...................................................................................................................................................14
P4 Discuss the key features associated with the architecture of an operating system.......................14
Introduction.........................................................................................................................................14
Protected and supervisor mode......................................................................................................14
Allows disk access............................................................................................................................15
Program Execution..........................................................................................................................16
Operating system Functions............................................................................................................17
Hardware management...............................................................................................................17
Data Access..................................................................................................................................17
System Resource management...................................................................................................17
Program Control..........................................................................................................................17
User Interface..................................................................................................................................17
Memory management.....................................................................................................................18
File management.............................................................................................................................18
Kernel..............................................................................................................................................18
File Systems.....................................................................................................................................18

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LO1 Explain the relationships between hardware components and the
subsystems used in a computer system.
P1 Identify the main subsystems of a computer and explain how they are
organised and connected.

Introduce what a computer system is

A computer system is a basic, complete and functional hardware and software setup with everything
needed for computing performance. the complete computer is made up of the CPU, memory and
related technology, it also has all the peripheral devices connected to it and the operating system
associated with the computer. Computer systems fall into two categories: clients and servers. The
clients are the user’s laptops and desktops computers, tablets and smart phones. This is something
that the user uses themselves. However, servers share their data and applications with lots of users
and servers can range from entry level rack mounts to mainframes.
A computer system is sized for the number of users it handles simultaneously, the type of work
performed and the volume of data that must be stored.

Von Neuman Architecture

The von Neumann machine was made by its namesake, John von Neumann, a physicist and
mathematician, in 1945, expanding on crafted by Alan Turing. The plan was distributed in an archive
called "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC." The report portrayed the previously put away program
PC. Prior PCs, like the ENIAC, were hard-wired to do one errand. On the off chance that the PC
needed to play out an alternate errand, it must be revamped, which was a dreary cycle. With a put
away program PC, a universally useful PC could be worked to run various projects. The hypothetical
plan comprises of: A focal processor comprising of a
control unit and a number-crunching/rationale unit,
A memory unit, Mass stockpiling, Information and
yield. The von Neumann configuration
consequently frames the premise of current
figuring. A comparable model, the Harvard design,
had devoted information address and transports for
both perusing and keeping in touch with memory.
The von Neumann engineering won out on the
grounds that it was less complex to carry out in
genuine equipment.

[ CITATION Goo \l 2057 ]

CPU and Memory

the CPU is used as ‘the brains’ of the computer it follows the fetch decode execute cycle and
processes information given to it. The CPU will be given commands which it will then have to decode
and then execute. CPUs are a vital part of a computer because the quicker the CPU the faster the
computer will run because to change a CPU is a very expensive job whereas changing a RAM is
cheaper and your computers performance will be better with a better CPU. The memory unit will use
RAM, this is sometimes known as the primary/main memory. Compared to the hard drive the ram is
fast, reliable and easily accessible by the CPU. RAM
is split into different parts. Each part of the

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memory has its own address and its own contents, the contents is always in binary form. The
address stored will be able to specifically identify every location within the memory. Loading data
from the hard drive into the faster and quickly accessible ram memory means that the CPU can
operate a lot faster.

[ CITATION exp \l 2057 ]

Control Unit and ALU

A control unit or CU is hardware that coordinates tasks inside a PC's processor. It lets the PC's
rationale unit, memory, and both information and yield gadgets realize how to react to guidelines
got from a program. Instances of gadgets that use control units incorporate computer chips and
GPUs. A control unit works by getting input data that
it changes over into control signals, which are then
shipped off the focal processor. The PC's processor
at that point mentions to the connected equipment
what tasks to complete. The capacities that a control
unit performs are subject to the sort of computer
chip, because of the fluctuation of design between
various makers.

Means "Arithmetic logic unit." An ALU is a

coordinated circuit inside a computer processor or GPU that performs math and rationale activities.
Number juggling guidelines incorporate expansion,
deduction, and moving tasks, while rationale
directions incorporate Boolean correlations, for
example, AND, OR, XOR, and NOT activities. ALUs
are intended to perform whole number figurings.
Along these lines, other than adding and taking
away numbers, ALUs regularly handle the
augmentation of two whole numbers, since the
outcome is likewise a whole number.

[ CITATION ass \l 2057 ]

[ CITATION Com \l 2057 ]

How they are connected

Fetch, decode, execute cycle
The motherboard is the piece of hardware in which the user needs in order to
connect the CPU to the memory. The CPU sits on the motherboard and links to multiple devices
within the computer. The CPU and the memory are both vital to driving a computer and making it
run well. The CPU follows the Fetch – Decode – Execute cycle which means the CPU will check which
program needs to be run next and the program counter will give an address to the CPU of where the
next instruction will come from. The CPU then FETCHs the instruction from the memory location and
then the instruction will be decoded and executed for example this could be taking one value,
putting it into the ALU. Then it will take a different value from the register and then it will add the 2
together.

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[ CITATION Lea \l 2057 ]

Input/output
Screen
This is the used as the visual platform the computer. The screen shows the user
what they are doing on the computer. The screen is a vital part of the computer setup because
without it the user wouldn’t be able to see what they are doing on the computer. For example, the
flat panel part of the computer will be displaying the webpage the user has searched will be
displayed on the screen. The screen is a way of saying how much space the window takes up. So,
when the webpage is on Fullscreen it is using all the available space on the screen. The screen is
connected to the computer by displaying what the user is doing upon the screen itself, the screen is
connected to the computer usually through either a HDMI cable or a VGA cable etc. there is also a
power cord which will come with the screen which means it will be able to be powered on.

[ CITATION exp1 \l 2057 ]

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 Keyboard
The keyboard is one of the main input devices used with the computer. The
keyboard is filled with numbers, letters and symbols which are used to input characters into the
computer as well as perform other function for the user. The modern keyboard uses a USB port to
connect to the computer but there are also Bluetooth keyboards for wireless communications. The
keyboard is used as an input device due it only being able to send data into the computer and not
being able to receive data back. Keyboard is connected to the computer through a USB port
connected from the keyboard going into the computer itself which then lets users be able to enter
data/information into the computer which will then be displayed on the screen for the user to see.

[ CITATION key \l 2057 ]

Printers
The printer is a piece of hardware which connects to the computer and it takes the
electronic data it is given and produces hard copies of that data. For example, if you had a finished
assignment on the computer but it was needed as a hard copy to hand in then the printer would use
to change that assignment into a paper copy. Printers are very popular pieces of equipment these
days due to them being used in lots of different workplaces such as schools and offices and they are
commonly used when printing pictures and text. The printer can either be hard connected to the
computer through cables or more commonly nowadays it can be blue-toothed to the computer
making it easier for the user due to having less wires and making the desk looked a lot tidier but also
making it faster and more efficient. Printers are great pieces of equipment for the user to have so
that hard copies of important documents can be kept and looked after so if one goes missing you
always have a backup one available to you.

[ CITATION can \l 2057 ]

Input and output devices connection to the computer

All three of these devices are all linked to the same computer and do a different job in
making a computer work and help the user be able to input data or information easily and continue
to help make their job easier. All these devices have developed over the years and have all become
more modern. These devices can all either be hard wired to computer itself or can be wirelessly
connected through a LAN or something that gives a good connection between the two devices. All
these devices I have listed above link to each other as well because without the keyboard the user
would not be able to input how many sheets they want to print using the printer, they need the
screen to see the information going in and be able to see if they are doing everything correctly.

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 Storage (secondary)
USB
A USB means ‘universal serial bus’ and this is the most common type of port used
when working with computers. The port can be used to connect most things such as keyboard,
mouse, games controller, printers etc. The USB is also faster than the older ports like the serial port.
The USB has a wide variety of uses, some of them being supporting the electrical power, the USB has
replaced a wide range of interfaces. USB connects to the computer through a port in on the pc and it
can connect multiple devices. The USB can also be used to look after data in which is kept on a small
drive and can be moved around and can be used in multiple pcs so users can manually transfer
around the information. The USB is a small stick which can be inserted into either a USB 2.0 port or a
USB 3.0 and can connect a number of devices making the users able to have more devices connected
to the computer such as the keyboard, face camera, microphone etc.

[ CITATION USB \l 2057 ]

Cloud
Cloud storage is used for businesses and other consumers to save data securely
online, so it is easily accessible and easily shared with those who get the permission. Cloud storage is
very good for backing up data because it is all saved online so and can be recovered if needed. Cloud
storage is simple to use and is good because data can be moved in a safe and secure way. The cloud
can also be used as a long-term storage holder as well as sort, this is good because it can hold files
which are not needed frequently but are needed over a long period of time. Cloud storage is
connected to the computer through the internet and is downloaded locally so it makes it easier for
users to store their data because they can save it to the cloud (internet) and then be able to access it
anywhere they are able to too, they are able to connect to it through any computer or phone/tablet
and this through just logging in the cloud then all their files are available to them.

[ CITATION Clo \l 2057 ]

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P2 Explain the purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
and include details on its operation.  

Introduction
In this section I will be talking about machine language. I will be including what it does, how it helps
and the way it fits into the computer. Machine language is a big part of a computer system and is
important to the way the computer runs. The machine language is the way the computer
communicates within the components.

Central Processing Unit

The CPU is used as ‘the brains’ of the computer it follows the fetch decode execute cycle and
processes information given to it. The CPU will be given commands which it will then have to decode
and then execute. CPUs are a vital part of a computer because the quicker the CPU the faster the
computer will run because to change a CPU is a very expensive job whereas changing a RAM is
cheaper and your computers performance will be better with a better CPU.

The instruction register stores the machine instructions that are currently executing. The record is
usually at the top of the memory hierarchy. Various registers have different functions in the central
processing unit (CPU); The function of the instruction register is to save the instructions currently
queued for use. In a typical CPU, in addition to the accumulator, there are also address registers
such as instruction registers, data registers, and index registers. The CPU performs searching,
decoding, and performing operations on the storage unit according to its use of registers. All of
these provide memory processing for the core of the basic principles of the CPU, which is why some
experts refer to registers as "the most important part of the CPU." In a sense, the instruction register
is particularly important because it contains the "active" memory value currently being processed.

The execution part of the MCU program includes instruction register, instruction decoder, timing
and control logic. The 14-bit instructions stored in program memory are copied to the instruction
register for decoding; each instruction contains an opcode and an operand. The instruction decoder
logic converts the opcode bits into the settings for all internal control lines. This operand provides
text, file register address or program address, these addresses will be used for instructions.

[ CITATION CPU \l 2057 ]

The factors Affecting CPU performance

Multiple cores
In the Anthony Neuman method, which means the computer architecture used by
most computers follows the fetch, decode and execute system one at a time. Modern day

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computers now have many core processors such as dual and quad core processors which means the
computer will be able to run faster. With multiple cores the computer will have better performance
with the more cores it has. With the multiple cores the processor can now be up to two or four times
faster than a normal processor. The actual speed of a processor is dependent upon the software it is
being run on. Not all software will take advantage of the processor with the dual or quad core.
Gaming software and editing software will take full advantage of the cores because that is what they
are programmed to do. Whereas office applications such as word will not take up all the cores within
the processor.

[ CITATION Mul \l 2057 ]

Clock speed
The processor requires a check beat to work effectively, so a continuous clock is
given to give the clock beat. One clock cycle is identical to 1 Hz, that is one cycle for every second. A
PC check speed is regularly in the gigahertz area. That is a billion cycles for every second. Common
velocities are two to four gigahertz. The quicker the clock speed, the quicker the guidelines can be
prepared by the processor. The CPU speed decides the number of figurings it can act in one moment
of time. The higher the speed, the more computations it can perform, consequently making the PC
quicker. While a few brands of PC processors are accessible, including Intel and AMD, they all
utilization a similar CPU speed standard, to figure out what speed every one of their processors run.
If a processor has double or quad centres, the PC's exhibition can increment regardless of whether
the CPU speed stays as before. A double center 3.0 GHz processor would be fit for performing
twofold the quantity of figurings as a solitary center 3.10 GHz processor.

[ CITATION Clo1 \l 2057 ]

Cache memory
Cache memory is a modest quantity of superior Slam (Random Access Memory) that
is incorporated with the processor. RAM stores information which has been over and over utilized by
the processor and it doesn't need a solicitation from the framework memory. This sort of
information is basic to the quick preparing of video altering games and 3D applications. Utilizing this
kind of memory will speed up the processing of data. There are 2 levels of cache memory. Level 1 is
commonly a high velocity reserve is incorporated directly into the processor. This is the level 1 store.

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One of the fundamental inspirations driving this idea is the "territory of reference." It implies that an
area just got to by the CPU has a higher likelihood of being returned to for the time being. So, the L1
reserve holds the latest information. At the point when it needs the information once more, the chip
first checks the L1 reserve. Since the information is there, it kills the need to return to the slower
primary memory. The cycle is typically multiple times quicker than with the primary memory. Level 2
is to store memory, or the auxiliary reserve, on a PC is generally situated on a memory card arranged
near the processor. It interfaces straightforwardly to the focal preparing unit, and a circuit that is
coordinated into the motherboard controls it. The circuit is known as the L2 regulator. The level 2
reserve gets as of late utilized information not in the level 1 store. The L2 store on numerous PCs
empowers the processor to get around 95% of the data it needs from the reserve memory.

[ CITATION Cac \l 2057 ]

Fetch Decode Execute

The CPU follows the Fetch – Decode – Execute cycle which means the CPU will check
which program needs to be run next and the program counter will give an address to the CPU of
where the next instruction will come from. The CPU then FETCHs the instruction from the memory
location and then the instruction will be decoded and executed for example this could be taking one
value, putting it into the ALU. Then it will take a different value from the register and then it will add
the 2 together. The essential undertaking of the CPU is to execute programs utilizing the get –
translate – execute cycle. This is additionally called as the guidance cycle. The cycle starts when the
PC is turned on and closes when the PC is closed. In plain CPUs the get execute cycle is done
logically, every guidance is being dealt with before the succeeding one is started. In current CPUs the
get execute cycle is executed at the same time, in equal through a guidance pipeline, which implies
the following order begins being executed before the past order has finished. This is made
conceivable since the cycle has been separated into discrete advances. To run a program, the
program code is duplicated from auxiliary stockpiling into the essential memory. The CPU's program
counter is determined to the memory area where the main order in the program has been saved and
execution begins. The program begins running. A program counter monitors the memory address of
the order to be executed straightaway. In a program, each machine code order consumes a space in
the fundamental memory. These memory areas each have a particular memory address. The
program counter saves the location of each order and trains the CPU in what succession they ought
to be executed. At the point when a program is being completed, the CPU carries out the bring
translate the execute cycle, which repeats again and again until showing up at the STOP guidance.

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Instructions
Control
Program control instructions are machine codes used by machines or users in assembly language to
instruct the processor to perform operations accordingly. These instructions are various. Users also
use them in assembly language. However, in level languages, user code is converted into machine
code, so instructions are passed to instruct the processor to perform tasks.

Arithmetic
Arithmetic instructions define a set of operations performed by the arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
processor. Arithmetic instructions are further divided into binary, decimal, logic, shift/rotate and
bit/byte manipulation instructions.

The decimal arithmetic instructions perform decimal arithmetic on binary coded decimal (BCD) data,
is not used as much as in the past, but it is still related to certain financial and industrial applications.

Arithmetic shift operations are generally used to drive two arithmetic operations (such as multiplying
by 2), because the instructions are much faster than equivalent multiplication or division operations.
Bit / Byte Operations Bit instructions test and modify single words and double words Bit operands.
The byte instruction sets the value of the byte operand to indicate the state of the flags in the
EFLAGS register.

Compare
Compare is a significant guidance generally utilized in 8085 chips. The 8085-guidance set has two
kinds of Compare tasks: Contrast and collector (CMP) and Contrast quick and gatherer (CPI). The
microchip looks at an information byte (or register/memory substance) with the substance of the
collector by deducting the information byte from (A), and demonstrates whether the information
byte is not exactly, more prominent than or equivalents to the substance of gatherer by changing
the banners. Notwithstanding, the substance are not adjusted. The two kinds of Think about
directions are clarified momentarily in the accompanying area:

Think about (register or memory) with gatherer (CMP R/M) –

 This is a 1-byte guidance. It compares the information byte in the register or memory with
the substance of aggregator.
 On the off chance that A not as much as (R/M), the CY banner is set, and Zero banner is
reset.
 On the off chance that an equivalents to (R/M), the Zero banner is set and CY banner is
reset.
 On the off chance that A more prominent than (R/M), the CY and Zero banner are reset.

At the point when memory is an operand, its location is determined by HL Pair. No substance are
adjusted; anyway all excess banners (S, P, AC) are influenced by the consequence of deduction.

Branch
A branch in a PC program is a guidance that advises a PC to start executing various guidelines instead
of basically executing the directions all together. In significant level dialects, these are ordinarily
alluded to as stream control techniques and are incorporated into the language. In gathering
programming, branch guidelines are incorporated into a central processor.

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Expanding is a fundamental idea in software engineering. It implies a guidance that advises a PC to
start executing an alternate piece of a program as opposed to executing explanations individually.
Spreading is executed as a progression of control stream proclamations in undeniable level
programming dialects. These can include:

 If statements
 For loops
 While loops
 Go to statements

Expanding guidelines are likewise executed at the computer processor level, however they are
considerably less modern than the sorts of directions found in significant level dialects. These
directions are gotten to through get together programming and are likewise alluded to as "bounce"
guidelines.

LO2 Categorise the key features and services provided by different

computer operating systems and hardware 
P3 Describe a range of different operating systems including the purpose, use
and hardware requirements of each.

Introduction
This section is on Operating systems or OS for short. In this section I will be talking about different
operating systems and what purpose, use and hardware is associated with all of them. There are lots
of different operating systems that are used on a day to day basis and some are better than others
for specific purposes and function such as Mac OS is very good for graphic designers whereas
windows is not. I will also include phone OS because mobile phones have become a big part of
modern day life, they are used lots everyday so they need to be reliable and fast.

Server OS
Linux OS
Purpose
Linux is the most used open source operating system and the most well-known. As an operating
system, Linux software sits under all the other software within a computer, the software receives
requests from programs and relaying the request to the computer hardware.

Hardware
Linux has specific hardware requirements such as

 2 GHz dual core processor

 4 GiB RAM for the storage
 25 GB of hard drive space
 VGA capable of 1024x768 screen resolution
 Either a CD or DVD port/USB port of media installation
 Internet access is always helpful as well

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Use
Lots of people choose to use Linux because it is an open source software, so it is easily accessible,
and this is convenient for users. The OS is free which makes it more appealing to users and the
security within the Linux OS is one of the main features and what is also known for. The OS is
lightweight and has a good performance, so therefore lots of people choose to use Linux and trust in
it. Linux is a desktop OS and is used as an alternate option for OS such as windows and mac os. Linux
is used to revive old PCs and used to learn more about computers work which can help give people
more knowledge about computer leading to developments in products in both hardware and
software. Linux is very good for using when It comes to security because the software is really good
at brushing up on hacking and is good with anti-virus software.

[ CITATION Lin \l 2057 ]

Windows OS
Purpose
Windows is a series of operating systems developed by Microsoft. Each version of Windows includes
a graphical user interface, with a desktop that allows users to view files and folders in windows. For
the past two decades, Windows has been the most widely used operating system for personal
computers PCs.

Hardware
 Latest OS: Make sure you're running the latest version—either Windows 7 SP1 or Windows
8.1 Update
 Processor: 1 gigahertz (GHz) or faster processor
 RAM: 1 gigabyte (GB) for 32-bit or 2 GB for 64-bit.
 Hard disk space: 16 GB for 32-bit OS or 20 GB for 64-bit OS
 Graphics card: DirectX 9 or later with WDDM 1.0 driver

Use
Windows OS is the most well-known and widely used OS in the world. The OS is easy to use and
most users are already familiar with the windows OS because it is easy to work with. The OS is
backwards compatible, and this is good because it means users can use the older versions of the OS
is, they are more comfortable using them. The OS is like and plug and play so the user can just plug
in and be ready to go which is quick, easy and helpful to them, so they don’t have to wait a long time
for the installation.

[ CITATION Win \l 2057 ]

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Mobile OS
IOS (Apple/iPhone)
Purpose
iOS is derived from Mac OS X and is a Unix-like operating system. There are four abstract layers in
iOS: Core OS Layer - Provides the underlying functions and frameworks for security and interaction
with external hardware Core Service Layer - Provides the services required by the top layer Media
Layer - Provides graphics , necessary audio and video technology. Coco Touch Layer - The location
where the frame is located, generally used when creating applications. iOS comes with many default
applications, including email clients, Safari web browser, portable media player (iPod), and phone
applications. Developers can use the iOS Development Kit (SDK) software to create applications for
Apple mobile devices. The SDK contains tools and interfaces for developing, installing, running, and
testing applications. You can use the iOS system framework and the Objective-C programming
language to write native applications.

Hardware
The hardware needed to run iOS is items such as phones and ipads.

 OS X 10.8 or the latest version available.

 2GB of memory
 12.5GB of available storage

Use
Apple's mobile operating system, iOS, runs iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch devices. It was originally
called iPhone OS, but it was renamed with the introduction of the iPad. It uses a multi-touch
interface in which simple gestures can operate the device, such as sliding your finger on the screen
to go to the next page or pinching your finger to zoom out. The OS is used everyday in the modern
day.

P4 Discuss the key features associated with the architecture of an

operating system. 

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Introduction
In this section I am going to be talking about operating systems in more details and addressing there
functions and the features they have. Operating systems are a big part of using a computer and what
happens within the computer. The Biggest OS is the windows OS because this is the most used and
well known.

Protected and supervisor mode

Modern CPUs support something called dual mode operation. CPUs with this capability use
two modes: protected mode and supervisor mode, which allow certain CPU functions to be
controlled and affected only by the operating system kernel. When a computer first starts up, it is
automatically running in supervisor mode. Administrator mode generally manages deciphering
various orders and is equipped for executing special directions. It has full admittance to all parts of a
framework and is generally held for the working framework (operating system) since operating
system schedules run in director mode. Administrator mode is the programmed mode chosen when
a PC is controlled on. It permits the underlying projects executed in the PC, basically the bootloader,
Profiles and operating system, to have limitless admittance to the equipment. It is additionally the
mode chosen by the operating system bit for low-level errands that require unhindered equipment
access. Administrator mode may give admittance to various peripherals, to memory the executives
equipment or to various memory address spaces. It gives the truly necessary defensive hindrance
between applications. It is additionally equipped for hinder empowering, crippling, returning and
stacking of processor status. Director mode can likewise change and make memory address spaces
and furthermore access the memory address spaces of different activities. It likewise can get to the
distinctive information structures inside the operating system.

[ CITATION Pro \l 2057 ]

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 Allows disk access
This is important because this will avoid having multiple drives letter to store your data
upon, storage space allows the user to create a virtual drive that they can expand upon when they
need to do so. Also having multiple disks can be placed into one pool which means that the user can
have multiple spaces, and this means cheaper space for the user. Also referred to as Disk space,
storage stockpiling, or capacity limit, Disk space is the most extreme measure of information a plate,
plate, or drive is skilled holding. Disk space is shown in MB (megabytes), GB (gigabytes), or TB
(terabytes). A wide range of media fit for putting away data have a storage limit, including a Disc,
DVD, floppy circle, hard drive, memory stick/card, and USB thumb drive. As data is saved to a circle,
the storage use is expanded. Be that as it may, the Disk space consistently stays as before. For
instance, a 200 GB hard drive with 150 GB of introduced programs has 50 GB of free space yet at the
same time has an absolute limit of 200 GB. At the point when a gadget arrives at its ability, it can't
hold any more data.

[ CITATION all \l 2057 ]

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 Program Execution
Execution in PC and programming designing is the cycle by which a PC or virtual machine
executes the guidelines of a PC program. Every guidance of a program is a depiction of a specific
activity which to be done all together for a particular issue to be explained; as guidelines of a
program and along these lines the activities they portray are being done by an executing machine,
explicit impacts are created in agreement to the semantics of the directions being execute. A PC
program is normally composed by a software engineer in a programming language. From the
program in its comprehensible type of source code, a compiler or constructing agent can determine
machine code a structure comprising of guidelines that the PC can straightforwardly execute.
Likewise Know, how a PC gathers and executes a program? A compiler takes the program code
(source code) and converts the source code to a machine language module (called an article
document). Another specific program, called a linker, consolidates this article document with other
recently assembled object records (specifically run-time modules) to make an executable document.
At the point when the central processor executes a program, that program is put away in the PC's
fundamental memory (likewise called the Slam or arbitrary access memory). Notwithstanding the
program, memory can likewise hold information that is being utilized or prepared by the program.

[ CITATION com \l 2057 ]

17
Operating system Functions
All computers need an operating system to run, regardless of its brand, model, or age. The most
obvious function of the operating system is to provide you with a usable interface, while it also
controls many other elements behind the scenes. The operating system allows the interaction of
computer hardware and software. Without it, the computer would be an expensive paperweight.

Hardware management
One of the most important basic functions of an operating system is managing all the
internal and external hardware of the computer. The operating system controls all connected
devices and tells them how to operate and interact. The result of the operation and interaction is the
basic performance of the computer. Some examples of hardware controlled by the operating system
include hard drives, optical drives, video cards, and external port drivers such as USB and Firewire.

Data Access
The operating system is also responsible for accessing, storing and retrieving data on the
computer's hard drive, so this is also one of the basic functions of the operating system. It also
manages data temporarily stored in computer RAM. The data stored and retrieved can include
document files, image data, videos, and music. When the hard drive reads and writes data, the
operating system tells it what to write and how to read it.

System Resource management

The operating system is also responsible for accessing, storing and retrieving data on the
computer's hard drive, so this is also one of the basic functions of the operating system. It also
manages data temporarily stored in computer RAM. The data stored and retrieved can include
document files, image data, videos, and music. When the hard drive reads and writes data, the
operating system tells it what to write and how to read it.

Program Control
The operating system also runs programs that enable them to run and run as designed. The
program must be designed to run on a specific operating system to work, because the operating
system needs to display any interface and facilitate communication between the program and the
hardware connected to the computer. Without the operating system to run it, the program will not
be able to perform its tasks.

User Interface
User interface, also known as "user interface" or simply "interface", is the way people control
software applications or hardware devices. A good user interface provides an "easy-to-use"
experience, allowing users to interact with software or hardware in a natural and intuitive way.
Almost all software programs have a graphical user interface or GUI. This means that the program
includes graphical controls, and the user can use the mouse or keyboard to make selections. The
typical GUI of a software program includes menu bars, toolbars, windows, buttons, and other
controls. Macintosh and Windows operating systems have different user interfaces, but they share
many of the same elements, such as desktops, windows, icons, etc. These common elements allow
people to use any operating system without completely re-learning the interface. Similarly,
programs like word processors and web browsers have similar interfaces to provide a consistent
user experience across multiple programs.

18
Memory management
Memory management is the process of controlling and coordinating computer memory and
allocating parts called blocks to various running programs to optimize overall system performance.
Memory management resides in the hardware, OS (operating system), and programs and
applications. In hardware, memory management involves components that physically store data,
such as RAM (random access memory) chips, flash-based SSDs, memory caches, and memory caches.
(Solid State Drive). In the operating system, memory management involves allocating (and
constantly reallocating) specific memory blocks to various programs as user needs change. At the
application level, memory management ensures that there is always enough memory available for
the objects and data structures of each running program. Application memory management
combines two related tasks, called allocation and reclamation. When a program requests a block of
memory, a part of the memory manager called the allocator allocates the block to the program.
When the program no longer needs the previously allocated data. Storage blocks, which can be used
for reallocation. This task can be performed manually (by the programmer) or automatically (by the
memory manager).

File management
The data from each computer is stored in a complex hierarchical file system, consisting of directories
and subdirectories underneath. Files are generally stored in these directories, generally following a
predetermined hierarchical structure determined by program instructions. However, users can also
organize many other files according to their wishes, such as images, videos and documents. The file
management system is ultimately the software used to organize, move, and use these files. In fact,
file management systems focus on how files are organized, not how they are stored. The tracking
component of the A file management system is the key to creating and managing the system. The
system shares files that contain different stages of processing and exchanges them continuously. It
consists of a simple interface to display stored files. It allows users to search, move and sort them
based on different conditions (such as last modified date, creation date, file type/format, size

Kernel
The operating system provides us with a graphical interface to issue commands to the computer
system. But the system cannot understand these commands directly. The translation of the code
into binary language is carried out by the basic component of the operating system (OS), namely
KERNEL. The user processes the lowest kernel layer, then processes the kernel with the system. The
kernel acts as an intermediary between the hardware and software of the system. The kernel is not
an operating system (OS); it is the central module of the operating system. This is the first program
loaded into protected memory areas during startup. It remains in memory until the system is
powered on. The kernel is a low-level abstraction class. User activity uses a system call to interact
with the system. System calls invoke the kernel, then the kernel performs the user action. The kernel
uses space to handle all the operations of a system such as process manager, memory manager,
device manager, I / O manager and the use of user space to run programs or write a program.

19
File Systems
Alternately known as file management or FS, a file system is a method of organizing and retrieving
files from storage media (for example, a hard drive). The file system is usually made up of files that
are broken down into groups called directories. Folders may contain additional files or folders.
Today, the most common file system used with Windows is NTFS. Without file management, all files
would be unorganized and a file with the same name would not exist. Files are usually managed
hierarchically, allowing you to view files in the current directory and then navigate to all subfolders.

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