Conceptual revision

Analytical Chemistry

Analytical chemistry is the science of obtaining, processing, and communicating information about
the composition and structure of matter. In other words, it is the art and science of determining
what matter is and how much of it exists.
La química analítica es la ciencia de obtener, procesar y comunicar información sobre la
composición y estructura de la materia. En otras palabras, es el arte y la ciencia de determinar qué
es la materia y cuánto de ella existe.

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/careers/college-to-career/areas-of-chemistry/analytical-
chemistry.html#:~:text=Analytical%20chemistry%20is%20the%20science,how%20much%20of
%20it%20exists.

Analyte

A chemical substance that is the subject of chemical

una sustancia química que es objeto de análisis químico

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/analyte

Classic mathoods of analysis

Classical analysis, also termed wet chemical analysis, consists of those analytical techniques that
use no mechanical or electronic instruments other than a balance. The method usually relies on
chemical reactions between the material being analyzed (the analyte) and a reagent that is added
to the analyte. Wet techniques often depend on the formation of a product of the chemical
reaction that is easily detected and measured. For example, the product could be coloured or
could be a solid that precipitates from a solution.
https://www.britannica.com/science/classical-analysis

Instrumental methoods of analysis

The instrumental methods of chemical analysis are divided into categories according to the
property of the analyte that is to be measured. Many of the methods can be used for both
qualitative and quantitative analysis. The major categories of instrumental methods are the
spectral, electroanalytical, and separatory.

https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-analysis/Classical-methods

Quantitative analysis
Quantitative analysis (QA) is a technique that uses mathematical and statistical modeling,
measurement, and research to understand behavior. Quantitative analysts represent a given
reality in terms of a numerical value.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/q/quantitativeanalysis.asp#:~:text=Quantitative%20analysis
%20(QA)%20is%20a,terms%20of%20a%20numerical%20value.

Conductivity

Conductivity is the measure of the ease at which an electric charge or heat can pass through a
material. A conductor is a material which gives very little resistance to the flow of an electric
current or thermal energy. Materials are classified as metals, semiconductors, and insulators.

https://www.lehigh.edu/~amb4/wbi/kwardlow/conductivity.htm#:~:text=Conductivity%20is
%20the%20measure%20of,metals%2C%20semiconductors%2C%20and%20insulators.

Electrode Potential

Is the electromotive force of a galvanic cell built from a standard reference electrode and another
electrode to be characterized.[1] By convention, the reference electrode is the standard hydrogen
electrode (SHE). It is defined to have a potential of zero volts.

The electrode potential has its origin in the potential difference developed at the interface
between the electrode and the electrolyte. It is common, for instance, to speak of the electrode
potential of the M+/M redox couple.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrode_potential

Absorption and emission of light

Absorbed light is light that isn't seen while emitted light is light that is seen. Emission is when
electrons return to energy levels. Absorption is when electrons gain energy and jump to higher
energy levels.

https://sites.google.com/a/coe.edu/principles-of-structural-chemistry/relationship-between-light-
and-matter/emission-and-absorption

Chromatographic techniques

Various chromatography methods have been developed to that end. Some of them include
column chromatography, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), paper chromatography, gas
chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, gel permeation chromatography, high-pressure
liquid chromatography, and affinity chromatography
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5206469/#:~:text=Various%20chromatography
%20methods%20have%20been,and%20affinity%20chromatography%20%5B6%5D.

Electroponetic methoods

There are three distinct modes of electrophoresis: zone electrophoresis, iso-

tachophoresis, and isoelectric focusing. These three methods may be used alone or in
combination to separate molecules on both an analytical ( L of a mixture separated) and
preparative (mL of a mixture separated) scale.

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1081/SPM-100100006?
journalCode=lspr19#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20distinct%20modes,of%20a%20mixture
%20separated)%20scale.

Electrochemistry

Electrochemistry is the branch of physical chemistry concerned with the relationship between
electrical potential, as a measurable and quantitative phenomenon, and identifiable chemical
change, with either electrical potential as an outcome of a particular chemical change, or vice
versa. These reactions involve electrons moving between electrodes via an electronically-
conducting phase (typically, but not necessarily, an external electrical circuit such as in
electrolessplating), separated by an ionically-conducting and electronically insulating electrolyte
(or ionic species in a solution).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemistry

Elextrochemical reactions

Electrochemical reactions entail the transfer of electrons to or from a molecule, atom, or ion at an
interface between an electronic conductor, the electrode (through which the electrons reach or
leave the interface), and an ionic conductor (through which the ions travel).

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/electrochemical-
reaction#:~:text=Electrochemical%20reactions%20entail%20the%20transfer,through%20which
%20the%20ions%20travel).

Electromotive force

Electromotive force, abbreviation E or emf, energy per unit electric charge that is imparted by an
energy source, such as an electric generator or a battery. Energy is converted from one form to
another in the generator or battery as the device does work on the electric charge being
transferred within itself. One terminal of the device becomes positively charged, the other
becomes negatively charged. The work done on a unit of electric charge, or the energy thereby
gained per unit electric charge, is the electromotive force. Electromotive force is the characteristic
of any energy source capable of driving electric charge around a circuit. It is abbreviated E in the
international metric system but also, popularly, as emf.

https://www.britannica.com/science/electromotive-force

Electrochemical cells

An electrochemical cell is a device that can generate electrical energy from the chemical reactions
occurring in it, or use the electrical energy supplied to it to facilitate chemical reactions in it. These
devices are capable of converting chemical energy into electrical energy, or vice versa.

https://byjus.com/chemistry/electrochemical-cell/#:~:text=An%20electrochemical%20cell%20is
%20a,electrical%20energy%2C%20or%20vice%20versa.

Electrolytic cells

Voltaic cells are driven by a spontaneous chemical reaction that produces an electric current
through an outside circuit. These cells are important because they are the basis for the batteries
that fuel modern society. But they are not the only kind of electrochemical cell. The reverse
reaction in each case is non-spontaneous and requires electrical energy to occur.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Analytica
l_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Electrolytic_Cells

Electrode

An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit
(e.g. a semiconductor, an electrolyte, a vacuum or air). The word was coined by William Whewell
at the request of the scientist Michael Faraday from two Greek words: elektron, meaning amber
(from which the word electricity is derived), and hodos, a way.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrode

Cathode

A cathode is the electrode from which a conventional current leaves a polarized electrical device.
This definition can be recalled by using the mnemonic CCD for Cathode Current Departs. A
conventional current describes the direction in which positive charges move. Electrons have a
negative electrical charge, so the movement of electrons is opposite to that of the conventional
current flow. Consequently, the mnemonic cathode current departs also means that electrons
flow into the device's cathode from the external circuit.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode
Anode

An anode is an electrode through which the conventional current enters into a polarized electrical
device. This contrasts with a cathode, an electrode through which conventional current leaves an
electrical device. A common mnemonic is ACID, for "anode current into device". The direction of
conventional current (the flow of positive charges) in a circuit is opposite to the direction of
electron flow, so (negatively charged) electrons flow out the anode of a galvanic cell, into an
outside or external circuit connected to the cell. In both a galvanic cell and an electrolytic cell, the
anode is the electrode at which the oxidation reaction occurs.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anode

Measuring electrodes

The coating adhesion strength of lithium-ion battery electrodes is a very important mechanical
property, affecting the electrochemical life time of battery cells and the electrochemical handling
during cell manufacturing. Hence the establishment of a standardized pull-off test with high
reproducibility was long time overdue. The measurement setup is realized in a material testing
machine. Machine and process parameters have been investigated to propose a reliable
measurement procedure with a clearly specified parameter setup. Data acquisition rate (f),
contact stress (σc), dwell time (td) and pull-off velocity (vpo) were identified to affect the adhesion
strength measurement significantly. Finally electrodes with material and process parameter
variations were manufactured to assess the applicability of the presented method. The impact of
the amount of binder and its molecular weight as well as the influence of the dry mixing and the
dispersing process on adhesion strength was verified and the differences can be clearly
distinguished by the developed test method.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143749615000342

Reference electrodes

A reference electrode is an electrode which has a stable and well-known electrode potential. The
high stability of the electrode potential is usually reached by employing a redox system with
constant (buffered or saturated) concentrations of each participant of the redox reaction.[1]

There are many ways reference electrodes are used. The simplest is when the reference electrode
is used as a half-cell to build an electrochemical cell. This allows the potential of the other half cell
to be determined. An accurate and practical method to measure an electrode's potential in
isolation (absolute electrode potential) has yet to be developed.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_electrode#:~:text=A%20reference%20electrode%20is
%20an,participant%20of%20the%20redox%20reaction.

Electrolytes
An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a
polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which
disperse uniformly through the solvent. Electrically, such a solution is neutral. If an electric
potential is applied to such a solution, the cations of the solution are drawn to the electrode that
has an abundance of electrons, while the anions are drawn to the electrode that has a deficit of
electrons. The movement of anions and cations in opposite directions within the solution amounts
to a current. This includes most soluble salts, acids, and bases. Some gases, such as hydrogen
chloride (HCl), under conditions of high temperature or low pressure can also function as
electrolytes.[clarification needed] Electrolyte solutions can also result from the dissolution of some
biological (e.g., DNA, polypeptides) and synthetic polymers (e.g., polystyrene sulfonate), termed
"polyelectrolytes", which contain charged functional groups. A substance that dissociates into ions
in solution acquires the capacity to conduct electricity. Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium,
magnesium, and phosphate are examples of electrolytes.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte

Activity and activity c An activity coefficient is a factor used in thermodynamics to account for
deviations from ideal behaviour in a mixture of chemical substances.[1] In an ideal mixture, the
microscopic interactions between each pair of chemical species are the same (or macroscopically
equivalent, the enthalpy change of solution and volume variation in mixing is zero) and, as a result,
properties of the mixtures can be expressed directly in terms of simple concentrations or partial
pressures of the substances present e.g. Raoult's law. Deviations from ideality are accommodated
by modifying the concentration by an activity coefficient. Analogously, expressions involving gases
can be adjusted for non-ideality by scaling partial pressures by a fugacity coefficient.oefficient

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_coefficient