REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Renewable Energy
All societies require energy services to meet basic human needs (e.g., lighting, cooking,

space comfort, mobility and communication) and to serve productive processes. Since

approximately 1850, global use of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) has increased to dominate

energy supply, leading to a rapid growth in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions [ CITATION Int \l 1033

]. With a projected world population of 10 billion by the year 2050, the increasing global energy

demand will propel a more rapid depletion of the world's fossil fuel reserves [ CITATION Ele15 \l

1033 ].

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions resulting from the provision of energy services have

contributed significantly to the historic increase in atmospheric GHG concentrations. Most of the

observed increase in global average temperature since the mid-20th century is very likely due to

the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. [ CITATION Int \l 1033 ]

Recent data confirm that consumption of fossil fuels accounts for the majority of global

anthropogenic GHG emissions. Emissions continue to grow and CO2 concentrations had

increased to over 390 ppm, or 39% above preindustrial levels, by the end of 2010. [ CITATION

Int \l 1033 ]

There are multiple options for lowering GHG emissions from the energy system while

still satisfying the global demand for energy services. Some of these possible options, such as

energy conservation and efficiency, fossil fuel switching, RE, nuclear and carbon capture and

storage (CCS) [ CITATION Int \l 1033 ].

 Apart from rapid technological improvement, the strength of renewables lies in the

diversity and the richness of their technology options and applications, as well as their

widespread availability. Every country in the world has at least one renewable energy source that

is significant. Some have many. Renewables offer a large portfolio of different sources and

technologies [ CITATION Int12 \l 1033 ].

Climate change will have impacts on the size and geographic distribution of the technical

potential for renewable sources, but research into the magnitude of these possible effects is

nascent. Because renewable sources are, in many cases, dependent on the climate, global climate

change will affect the RE resource base, though the precise nature and magnitude of these

impacts is uncertain [ CITATION Int \l 1033 ].

It is clear from our analysis that those countries that have deployed renewables so far

were driven by climate-change mitigation, but also by energy diversification, and the reduction

of fossil-fuel imports. Other drivers have been economic-growth aspects such as job creation

and, last but not least, mitigation of other, local pollution. [ CITATION Int12 \l 1033 ]

Many countries are already switching to renewable energy. Apart from looking for clean

energy sources from the environmental point of view, the search for new energy sources as

substitutes for fossil fuels is another reason providing such drive [ CITATION Ele15 \l 1033 ].

Renewable energy can reduce the reliance on exhaustible sources of fossil fuels.

Developed countries are now making more and more investments on the development of

renewable energy technologies. We would envisage that when those equipment and systems are

mature enough to be produced on a large scale, the unit price of electricity so generated could be

comparable to that of the conventional fossil fuel burning process [ CITATION Ele15 \l 1033 ].
Carbonated Soft Drinks
Carbonated beverage is an effervescent drink that releases carbon dioxide under

conditions of normal atmospheric pressure. Carbonation may occur naturally in spring water that

has absorbed carbon dioxide at high pressures underground. It can also be a byproduct of

fermentation, such as beer and some wines. [ CITATION Col12 \l 1033 ]

Soft drinks are sweetened water-based beverages, usually with a balancing acidity. The

predominant ingredient is water – often ignored and frequently maligned – and it should be

remembered that the primary function of soft drinks is hydration. The sweetness and other

characteristics are in some respects secondary and yet they do have importance in the provision

of energy and some of the minor essential nutrients needed to meet daily requirements [ CITATION

Ash05 \l 1033 ].

Soft Drinks Product Types:

Ready-to-drink products. This sector accounts for the largest volume of soft drinks

production and is divided into products that are carbonated, that is, contain carbon dioxide,

and those that are still. Historically, soft drinks were refreshing beverages that copied or

extended fruit juices. Fruit juices typically have around 10–12% naturally occurring sugars

with a pleasant balancing acidity that varies from about 1% down to 0.1%. It is therefore not

surprising that soft drinks were typically formulated around 10–11% sugar content with

about 0.3–0.5% of added acid (usually citric). [ CITATION Ash05 \l 1033 ].

Concentrated soft drinks. Concentrated soft drinks became very important during, and

in the early years following, the Second World War. Many were based on concentrated

orange juice, which was widely available as a nutritional supplement, and were packed in

flat-walled medicine bottles. Most concentrated beverages contain fruit juice or ‘whole fruit’,
 a term that refers to a comminuted form of citrus that includes components of juice, essential

oil, peel (flavedo) and pith (albedo). Concentrated soft drinks are usually flash-pasteurised

and chemically preserved. Concentrates are normally produced at their packed strength, flash

pasteurised and transferred immediately to their final packaging [ CITATION Ash05 \l 1033 ].

The U.S. soft drink industry is composed of two distinct subindustries, by classification

standards, under the manufacturing industry title. The first industry is the Flavoring Syrup and

Concentrate Manufacturing Industry, and the second is the Soft Drink Manufacturing Industry

[ CITATION Kor15 \l 1033 ].

As of 2010, there were 151 companies in the U.S. soft drink industry that manufacture

flavoring syrup concentrates, powdered concentrates, and related products for use in soda

fountains or for manufacturing soft drinks. Their products are sold primarily to soft drink

producers and grocery wholesalers [ CITATION Kor15 \l 1033 ].

As of 2010, there were 1,209 companies in the U.S. soft drink industry that blend

ingredients such as water, liquid beverage bases/syrup, and sweeteners, and then package and

distribute these beverages for sale. Excluded from this industry grouping are alcoholic beverage

producers and companies that only produce beverage ingredients or distribute beverages

[ CITATION Kor15 \l 1033 ].

Battery Fundamentality
Scientifically, batteries are referred to as electrochemical or galvanic cells, due to the fact

that they store electrical energy in the form of chemical energy and because the electrochemical
reactions that take place are also termed galvanic [ CITATION Kum10 \l 1033 ]. Batteries are rated

in terms of their nominal voltage and ampere-hour capacity. The voltage rating is based on the

number of cells connected in series and the nominal voltage of each cell [ CITATION Vut01 \l

1033 ].

The ampere-hour (Ah) capacity available from a fully charged battery depends on its

temperature, rate of discharge, and age. The maximum power available from a battery depends

on its internal construction [ CITATION Vut01 \l 1033 ].

Batteries consist of single (although the term defines a collection), or multiple galvanic

cells, connected in series to generate higher voltages [ CITATION Sch06 \l 1033 ]. Batteries (and also

fuel cells) rely on chemical reactions at the electrodes to generate electrical energy. The behavior

of certain electrode-electrolyte interfaces, however, resembles that of a conventional capacitor in

that charge transfer across the interface over a limited voltage range, up to ca. 3 V, is greatly

impaired [ CITATION Sch06 \l 1033 ].

Galvanic reactions are thermodynamically favorable (the free energy difference, ΔG , is

negative) and occur spontaneously when two materials of different positive standard reduction

potentials are connected by an electronic load (meaning that a voltage is derived) [ CITATION

Kum10 \l 1033 ]. Even though the potential should be thermodynamically sufficient to drive one

or more electron transfer processes, the rates at which such reactions proceed are negligibly

small rendering the interface as effectively charged [ CITATION Sch06 \l 1033 ].

Voltaic cells are driven by a spontaneous chemical reaction that produces an electric

current through an outside circuit. These cells are important because they are the basis for the

batteries that fuel modern society. But they aren't the only kind of electrochemical cell. The
reverse reaction in each case is non-spontaneous and requires electrical energy to occur.

[CITATION SAY45 \l 1033 ].

A chemical Redox reaction involves the transfer of electrons from one species to another

(usually metals). Without the battery setup, the reaction would just proceed and produce no

electrical work. By running the electrons through an external circuit the reaction can produce

electrical (I.e. non-PdV) work [ CITATION Kum10 \l 1033 ].

Electrolytic cells, like galvanic cells, are composed of two half-cells--one is a reduction

half-cell, the other is an oxidation half-cell. The direction of electron flow in electrolytic cells,

however, may be reversed from the direction of spontaneous electron flow in galvanic cells, but

the definition of both cathode and anode remain the same, where reduction takes place at the

cathode and oxidation occurs at the anode. Because the directions of both half-reactions have

been reversed, the sign, but not the magnitude, of the cell potential has been reversed. [ CITATION

SAY45 \l 1033 ]

Electrolysis is used to drive an oxidation-reduction reaction in a direction in which it does

not occur spontaneously by driving an electric current through the system while doing work on

the chemical system itself, and therefore is non-spontaneous. [CITATION SAY45 \l 1033 ]

Batteries operate by converting chemical energy into electrical energy through

electrochemical discharge reactions. Batteries are composed of one or more cells, each

containing a positive electrode, negative electrode, separator, and electrolyte. Cells can be

divided into two major classes: primary and secondary. Primary cells are not rechargeable and

must be replaced once the reactants are depleted. Secondary cells are rechargeable and require a

DC charging source to restore reactants to their fully charged state [ CITATION Vut01 \l 1033 ].
 Examples of primary cells include carbon-zinc (Leclanche or dry cell), alkaline-

manganese, mercuryzinc, silver-zinc, and lithium cells (e.g., lithium-manganese dioxide, lithium-

sulfur dioxide, and lithiumthionyl chloride). Examples of secondary cells include lead-lead

dioxide (lead-acid), nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron, nickel-hydrogen, nickel-metal hydride, silver-

zinc, silver-cadmium, and lithium-ion. [ CITATION Vut01 \l 1033 ]

Whether a battery, an electrochemical capacitor, a fuel cell, or a judicious combination of

two or more of these, the level of sophistication involved in the design and manufacturing of a

power source for a specific application, including microelectronics, transportation, and larger

scale stationary stacks over the next few years may well approach the same degree of complexity

as the devices they will power. [ CITATION Sch06 \l 1033 ]