STANDARDIZED TESTING AND COLLEGE READINESS 1

Standardized Testing and College Readiness

Ella C. McOmber

Independence High School

English 12 DE

Mr. Flake

April 26, 2021

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Abstract

Standardized testing, such as the ACT or the SAT is a commonly used tool to determine a

student's college readiness. However, individuals and organizations have identified problems

with how these tests are created and administered, as well as how effective the results are at

determining a student’s college readiness. Many have highlighted the disparities in standardized

testing marginalized students face. This study aims to identify and examine the impact that social

and economic factors have on a student's test performance and determination of college

readiness. Furthermore, this study aims to determine potential alternative measures to

standardized testing and their usefulness in the college admissions process. To determine the

validity and reliability of standardized tests, research was conducted and information was

collected from professionals in the educational field as well as the organizations that administer

standardized tests. The results showed that standardized tests are not an accurate measure of a

student’s college readiness due to factors such as socioeconomic status having an impact on test

performance. Nevertheless, the results affirmed the fact that alternatives such as, grade point

averages and test-optional admission policies are better at determining a student’s college

readiness and do not affect a college’s ability to admit qualified students. These results suggest

that there is little need for standardized testing to be used in the college admissions process as

they are inherently biased and inaccurate measures of student’s college readiness.

Keywords: College readiness, standardized test, socioeconomic status, grade point

average, test-optional policy

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Standardized Testing and College Readiness

Every year in The United States, millions of students sign up to take the SAT, ACT, or

both. However, since the coronavirus pandemic has caused mass shutdowns, a considerable

number of colleges have gotten rid of the requirement that students take these standardized tests

for admission and many are considering eliminating the requirement for future admissions as

well. This change has come after years of education experts advocating against the tests and

arguing that they are an inadequate measure of college readiness.

Originally, standardized tests were meant to effectively identify qualified students and

accurately predict their future academic success. Unfortunately, since their creation many

marginalized students have been denied an equal opportunity in the testing process and evidence

has shown that other measures predict college readiness better. Standardized tests are inherently

biased and lack qualitative information that would accurately determine college readiness;

therefore, colleges must adopt test-optional policies or abandon standardized testing altogether.

Socioeconomic Status and Standardized Testing

The main criticism of standardized tests is that they are biased against historically

marginalized groups and there is a large amount of data that details how social inequalities are

sustained through standardized testing. For instance, recent empirical evidence has shown that

female students’ SAT math scores are lower than males by one-third a standard deviation.

Additionally, Latinos’ and Afro Americans’ scores are lower than whites by two-thirds and one

standard deviation respectively ( Mulugetta, 2015). This data suggests that the implementation of

standardized testing maintains an already existing disparity between advantaged and

disadvantaged students.

Race and gender are not the only factors that affect standardized testing scores. The level
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of poverty in the communities where schools are located accounts for the great majority of the

difference in test scores from one student to the next (Kohn, 2000). In these areas, students do

not have access to resources in order to perform well on standardized tests.

Researchers have found that socioeconomic status is linked to student achievement, with

household income having the largest impact, positive or negative (Kearns, 2011). Household

income has been found to have a direct effect on total SAT performance for both Black and

White students (Dixon-Román et al., 2013). The National Center for Children in Poverty

reported that 18% of children in the United States live below the federal poverty level; 34% of

Black children live in poor families while, in contrast, 10% of White children live in poverty

(Jiang, Ekono, & Skinner, 2014). Not surprisingly, the effect of household income was nearly

twice as large for Black test-takers than White ones (Dixon-Román et al., 2013).

Moreover, funding disparities mean that students in wealthier areas are more likely to

attend high schools that provide them with advantages in the college application and

standardized test-taking processes (Sebold & Dato, 1981). These schools have access to tutors

and standardized test preparation classes which are all advantages to improving test scores. In

one study about the effect test preparation has on scores, a student was able to raise her SAT

score by 310 points, which is an improvement of more than 25% of the test’s total 1200-point

scoring range (Boykin, 2020). The impact of income and poverty levels on standardized test

achievement is so influential that the test’s supposed determination of students' college readiness

is only a reflection of their socioeconomic status and not their knowledge or abilities.

Determining College Readiness

In the admissions process, standardized test scores are used to predict a prospective

applicant’s college readiness. College readiness can be defined as being prepared for
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postsecondary entry-level courses and career readiness (Conley 2010). In this context, a student’s

potential to succeed is determined by possessing enough understanding and knowledge to

progress from an entry level course to the next level.

When determining college readiness, proponents of the SAT and ACT argue that the tests

are needed as high school Grade Point Average (GPA) is not an accurate measure of a student’s

abilities because there is no nationally standardized GPA metric. Advocates argue that SAT and

ACT tests have a national standard that lessens disparities, like socioeconomic statuses.

However, Princeton economist Jesse Rothstein estimates that traditional validity studies that omit

socioeconomic variables overstate the predictive power of the SAT by 150% (Sackett, 2009).

On the other hand, a student’s high school GPA, the sum of all course grades throughout a

student’s high school career divided by the total number of credits, is a much more accurate way

to determine a student’s potential college success. University of California researchers found that

the SAT correlated at the .32 level with family income, but high school grades correlated with

family income at the .04 level (Geiser & Santelices, 2007). Ultimately, GPAs reflect a student's

knowledge and abilities much more definitively than standardardized tests.

High school grades are a more accurate predictor of college grades when compared to test

scores. This finding has been supported by the majority of “predictive-validity” studies

conducted, including studies conducted by the testing agencies themselves. According to College

Board, the organization that administers the SAT, there is about a 21% variance in college grades

and what standardized test scores supposedly predict (Kobrin et al., 2008).

Neither the SAT nor the ACT adds more than a few percentage points to what is already

known from high school GPA. The College Board themselves noted that standardized tests alone

do not predict a student's first-year grades and encouraged colleges to look at a student’s grade
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point average in addition to test scores to more accurately predict a student’s potential for

success in their first year of college.

Test-Optional Policies

A few institutions of higher education across the country maintain the use of ‘‘holistic’’

or ‘‘individualized’’ reviews during the selection process, and suggest that standardized test

scores are only one of several components considered in the admissions process. Test scores,

however, continue to be an explicit requirement for admission to many schools (Furuta, 2017).

The aforementioned issues regarding the validity of standardized tests in determining

college readiness have led to college admission offices adopting test-optional policies. This

admission policy enables students to opt-out of submitting standardized test scores as a part of

their applications and is used to increase campus diversity by removing the barriers against

various marginalized groups. A study conducted by Ithaca College, a mid-sized four-year college

in central New York, on the effect of the college’s test-optional policy established that there is a

relationship between test-optional implementation and campus diversity. This relationship is

distinguishable from other plausible factors that may have affected the change in campus

diversity in the absence of the test-optional policy implementation, such as demographic or

recruitment strategy shifts (Mulugetta, 2015). Additionally, institutions such as the California

State University (CSU) system have concluded that they do not need to rely on SAT and ACT

scores when reviewing freshman applications. One administrator at CSU, admitted over

two-thirds of its freshman class regardless of test scores, by focusing more on core curriculum

and high school GPA (Rooney & Schaeffer, 1998). Comprehensive statistical analysis shows that

discontinuing the use of the SAT and ACT in admissions would not harm colleges' abilities to

select applicants.
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In the end, the gains to colleges from de-emphasizing the ACT and SAT, in terms of the

diversity and quality of applicants, is very clear from numerous studies. In a large multicultural

society such as The United States of America, test-optional policies allow the student body of

colleges to represent the most qualified and prepared applicants.

Conclusion

While the concept of standardized tests may have offered a fair and objective way to

determine a student’s college readiness, requiring standardized tests must now be amended.

Research has repeatedly shown that the implementation of standardized tests is deeply biased.

Variables, such as income and race which are out of student’s control have a tremendous effect

on their test performance. Furthermore, findings based on past test data, have shown that

standardized tests have little to no effect on determining college readiness. For these reasons,

institutions of higher education must alleviate the pressure to produce SAT or ACT scores

through test-optional policies or complete elimination of tests as a college admission

requirement.
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Annotated Bibliography

Boykin, C. (n.d.). A Case Study in Standardized Test Preparation. Retrieved December 10,
2020, from
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5fa1cea9dc5e371f7c0a94fe/t/5fb5cae67dc8e13450f
51644/1605749478210/A+Case+Study+in+Standardized+Test+Preparation.pdf

This paper analyzes the prevalence of standardized test preparations and the effect this
has on the improvement of test scores. The author uses anecdotal evidence about the
impact access to test preparation has on students' standardized test scores.The paper also
discusses the availability of test preparations to lower income people and people of color.
The author discusses the impact access to test preparation has on the efficacy of
standardized testing as an indicator of college readiness or knowledge. Dr. C. Malik
Boykin received his doctorate in Social and Personality Psychology from UC Berkeley,
his M.A. in Social-Organizational Psychology from Teachers College, Columbia
University, and his B.S. in Psychology from the University of Maryland University
College. His research focuses on intergroup relations, hierarchy, prejudice, mentorship,
and racial identity.

Conley, D. T. (2007, March). Redefining College Readiness. Retrieved January 04, 2021, from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED539251.pdf

This paper provides a definition of college readiness that differs from current
representations of this concept primarily in its scope The paper suggests that few
systematic attempts have been made to integrate the various aspects or components of
college readiness that have been investigated in some depth during the last 20 years.
David Conley is an academic expert in college readiness.

Dixon-Román, E. J., Everson, H. T., & McArdle, J. J. (2013). Race, Poverty and SAT Scores:
Modeling the Influences of Family Income on Black and White High School Students’
SAT Performance. Teachers College Record, 115(4), 1–33.

There are few empirical studies on the related influences of family income and high
school achievement on college admissions test scores. The focus of this paper is to study
the association of family income with SAT performance. For example, if the relationship
between family income and SAT performance is non-linear and does the relationship
change due to race.Most importantly, the study investigated how strong are the effects of
poverty on SAT performance. The results suggest the effects of family income on SAT
scores, though relatively modest in contrast to high school achievement, are substantial,
non-linear, and nearly twice as large for Black students. The findings are discussed with
respect to social inequality and educational opportunity in college admissions. Dr.
Dixon-Román is director of the Master of Science in Social Policy Program, chair of the
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Data Analytics for Social Policy Certificate of the Masters of Science in Social Policy
Program. Howard Everson, Ph.D., has experience directing research for the College
Board and Educational Testing Service (ETS), as well as the National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP) Statistical Services Institute. John J. McArdle is a
professor of psychology and gerontology and the director of the Unified Studies of
Cognition Laboratory.

Fururta, J. (2017). Rationalization and Student/ School Personhood in U.S. College Admissions:
The Rise of Test-optional Policies, 1987 to 2015. Retrieved December 14, 2020, from
https://sociology.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj9501/f/publications/furuta_-_rationalizati
on_and_personhood_in_college_admissions_policies-rise_of_test-optional_policies_198
7-2015.pdf

This article examines the rise of ‘‘test-optional’’ college admissions policies since the
1990s. It argues that the rationalization of college admissions policies after World War II
contributed to the rise of ‘‘meritocratic’’ stratification and standardized tests, like the
SAT. The author argues that schools more committed to enlarged conceptions of student
personhood are more likely to adopt a test-optional policy, in order to recruit students
who fit the distinctive characteristics of their school identity. Jared Furuta received a B.A.
in Philosophy from Brown University and is currently a part of Stanford University’s
School of Humanities and Sciences. He pursues research in global/transnational
sociology, social stratification, organizations, and the sociology of education.

Geiser, S., & Santelices, M. V. (2007, June 1). Validity Of High-School Grades In Predicting
Student Success Beyond The Freshman Year:High-School Record vs. Standardized Tests
as Indicators of Four-Year College Outcomes. Retrieved January 07, 2021, from
https://cshe.berkeley.edu/publications/validity-high-school-grades-predicting-student-suc
cess-beyond-freshman-yearhigh-school

This study finds that high-school grade point average (HSGPA) is the best predictor not
only of freshman grades in college, the outcome indicator most often employed in
predictive-validity studies, but of four-year college outcomes as well. The paper includes
findings from a previous study by UC and the SAT which demonstrated that HSGPA in
college-preparatory courses was the best predictor of freshman grades for a sample of
almost 80,000 students admitted to the University of California. The findings of this
paper are that HSGPA is the strongest predictor of four-year college outcomes for all
academic disciplines, campuses and freshman cohorts. Additionally, HSGPA has less
adverse impact than standardized tests on disadvantaged and underrepresented minority
students. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for
admissions policy and argues for greater emphasis on the high-school record, and a
corresponding de-emphasis on standardized tests, in college admissions. Saul Geiser is a
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research associate at the Center for Studies in Higher Education at the University of
California, Berkeley. Maria Veronica Santelices, PhD, is an associate professor at
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Department of Education.

Jiang, Y., Ekono, M., & Skinner, C. (2014, February). Basic Facts about Low-Income Children
Children 6 through 11 Years, 2012. Retrieved from
http://stage.nccp.org/publications/pdf/text_1090.pdf

This paper is about the effect of poverty on children. The paper details that parental
education and employment, race/ethnicity, and other factors are associated with children’s
experience of economic insecurity. This fact sheet describes the demographic,
socioeconomic, and employment characteristics of children in middle childhood and their
parents. The authors of this paper are all associated with the National Center for Children
in Poverty, an American non-partisan research center that promotes the interests of
children in low-income families.

Kearns, L. (2011). High-stakes Standardized Testing and Marginalized Youth: An Examination

of the Impact on Those Who Fail. Retrieved December 14, 2020, from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ936746.pdf

This study examines the impact of high-stakes, large-scale, standardized literacy testing
on youth who have failed the Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test. Interviews with
youth included, indicate that the unintended impact of high-stakes testing is
problematic.The author argues that these findings suggest it is necessary to broaden the
dialogue about the impact of high-stakes standardized literacy testing and its effects. Dr.
Laura-Lee Kearns received her PhD and Bachelor of Education from the Ontario Institute
for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto. She specializes in creating more
equitable and democratic spaces in schools.

Kohn, A. (2000). Measuring What Matters Least. In The case against standardized testing:
Raising the scores, ruining the schools (pp. 1-23). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
doi:https://purpletod.co.za/docs/Standardized%20Testing.pdf\

Alfie Kohn is an American author and lecturer in the areas of education, parenting, and
human behavior. He is a proponent of progressive education and offers criticisms of
traditional American society. In his works, he draws information from social science
research. This section of the book details the increase in standardized testing, the harms
of a test driven curriculum and how little scores reflect student’s knowledge.

Mulugetta, Y., Ph.D. (2015). Understanding the Impacts of The Optional Admission Policy.
Retrieved December 14, 2020, from
file:///Users/ellamcomber/Downloads/testoptionalpaper2.pdf
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Test Optional Policies (TOP) relations to diversity in admissions is not well researched.
Using the data of six cohorts from Ithaca College. The study concludes that TOP
positively affected diversity at each stage of the enrollment process: application,
admission, enrollment and retention. Yuko Mulugetta was Chief Analytics Officer at
Ithaca College.

Rooney, C., & amp; Schaeffer, B. (1998). Test Scores Do Not Equal Merit: Enhancing Equity
& Excellence in College Admissions by Deemphasizing SAT and ACT Results.
Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED426107.pdf

This paper presents case studies from the experiences of institutions such as, Bowdoin
college and the California state university system. The case studies indicate that high
school performance is the best available method for screening applicants, and that tests
add little useful information to the high school record. Moving away from reliance on
admissions tests promotes sounder educational practices in high schools by downgrading
the importance of multiple-choice examination preparation. At the time of publication,
Charles Rooney was the Fairtest Assistant Director. Bob Schaeffer is FairTest's Interim
Executive Director, and has served as Public Education Director of FairTest, the National
Center for Fair & Open Testing, since its founding in 1985. Fairtest is an American
educational organization that addresses issues related to fairness and accuracy in student
test taking and scoring.

Sackett, P. R., Kuncel, N. R., Arneson, J. J., Cooper, S. R., & Waters, S. D. (2009). Does
socioeconomic status explain the relationship between admissions tests and
post-secondary academic performance? Psychological Bulletin, 135(1), 1–22.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013978

Critics of educational admissions tests assert that tests measure nothing more than
socioeconomic status and that their apparent validity in predicting academic performance
is an artifact of SES. The authors examined multiple large data sets containing data on
admissions and related tests, SES, and grades showing that socioeconomic status is
related to test scores. All contributors to this paper are either psychologists or professors
of psychology, specialized in cognitive ability throughout a lifetime.

Sebold, F. D., & Dato, W. (1981). School Funding and Student Achievement: an Empirical
Analysis. Public Finance Quarterly, 9(1), 91–105.
https://doi.org/10.1177/109114218100900108

This article presents the results of an empirical analysis of the relationship between
school funding and student achievement across school districts in California. Student
achievement is measured by district average scores on own standardized tests. The model
controls for standard socioeconomic factors and entry-level student performance. It is
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found that changes in expenditure patterns would have a statistically significant effect on
test scores. Frederic Sebold was a professor of economics at the University of San Diego.
William Dato is an adjunct professor at both the University of San Diego School of Law
and California Western School of Law, teaching appellate practice and products liability.