Clarke - Extending Contacts The Concept of Unity in Computer Music

Extending Contacts: The Concept of Unity in Computer Music
Author(s): Michael Clarke

Source: Perspectives of New Music, Vol. 36, No. 1 (Winter, 1998), pp. 221-246
Published by: Perspectives of New Music
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/833581
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EXTENDING CONTACTS:
THE CONCEPT OF UNITY
IN COMPUTER MUSIC
MICHAELCLARKE
1. INTRODUCTION
N 1962, Karlheinz Stockhausen's "The Concept of Unity in Elec-

tronic Music" appeared in the very first edition of Perspectivesof New
Music (Stockhausen 1962). In this article, Stockhausen reflects on the
techniques that he had used in the electronic studio of WDR in Cologne
in composing Kontakte (Stockhausen 1960). He also develops ideas
about the ways in which these techniques can lead to a new, more unified
approach to musical structure. The article has become well known and
the extract from Kontakte with which he illustrates his ideas considered as
a classic example of early tape techniques.
Since the sixties, however, technology has changed beyond recogni-
tion. There is apparently little to relate the electronic studio of that era,
222 Perspectivesof New Music
with its tape recorders, splicing blocks, analog pulse generators and fil-
ters, and so on, to the computer software of today. Stockhausen too, it
would seem, has moved on. His recent electronic music has used com-
mercial synthesizers and samplers for its source material. The specific
techniques of Kontakte, and the more general idea of relating the micro-
structure, at the lowest level of synthesis, to the macrostructure of form
do not seem to have a significant role his recent tape music.
Nonetheless, the tape part of Kontakte still has a vibrancy often lacking
in electronic music, and this article therefore sets out to investigate
whether any significant points of contact can be discovered between
Stockhausen's techniques of the 1960s and those of today's computer-
ized studio, and whether his concept of unity might play any part in the
compositions of the new millennium. A study is made of Stockhausen's
original ideas and an investigation undertaken of how they might be
applied to modern technology. It is claimed that the concept of unity is
still very relevant and that, through software implementation, it can in
fact be extended beyond what could be conceived of in the context of a
1960s analog studio.
2. STOCKHAUSENON KONTAKTE
2.1. THE CONCEPT OF UNITY
Stockhausen's article is primarilyconcerned with showing how new (at

that time) studio techniques could lead to a more unified approach to
musical composition. Previously, he argues, the various parameters of
music had each been treated as quite distinct compositional elements and
were seen as independent of one another. In the electronic studio these
differences had if anything been further emphasized by the use of differ-
ent equipment to shape different parameters:pitch by oscillators, timbre
by filters, amplitude by amplifiers, duration by cutting tape to different
lengths, and so on. Perceptually, however, Stockhausen says we perceive
sound as a unified whole and he tries to relate all aspects of sound to a
single compositional procedure: "... I found, for the first time, ways to
bring all properties under a single control" (Stockhausen 1962, 40). The
desire to bring all aspects of music under unified control was of course
the main goal of those composers aspiring towards integral serialism at
this time. In the article "... How Time Passes . . .," Stockhausen had
previously proposed ways of relating rhythmic structures to procedures
for ordering pitch in the context of acoustic music (Stockhausen 1959).
The Concept of Unity in Computer Music 223
Stockhausen saw the studio techniques he was using as a way of bringing

even more unity to composition: "all of the experiential properties of
sound could be traced to a single principle of ordering" (Stockhausen
1962, 41). As Karl H. Worner has commented: "For the composer
everything becomes a single parameter, a single dimension of determi-
nacy. The consequence of this is that the organizing principles that regu-
late a work can actually be used multilaterallyfor all its aspects" (Worner
1973, 137-38).
Central to Stockhausen's argument is the fact that a series of pulses
accelerated to a high speed are perceived as a pitch. He had already
begun to explore the potential of filtered sequences of pulses in his work
in the studio for Gesang derJiinglinge in 1955-56 (Stockhausen 1958).
In composing Kontakte he systematicallyexplored these techniques, tak-
ing them much further. Below about sixteen cycles per second the pulses
are heard separately, but at higher speeds they merge into a sustained
tone and the rate of repetition (for example, 50 or 440 cycles per second)
is perceived as the pitch of the note.
In practice, Stockhausen would record pulses produced by a pulse-
generator onto tape and, by cutting and splicing, form these into a
repeating tape loop. He would then accelerate the repeating sequence
using a variable-speed tape recorder, often rerecording the result and
repeating the acceleration process many times over to achieve the desired
speed. In this way he was able to make transformations between pulses
and frequencies, rhythms and timbres in a single continuous movement,
as if part of one spectrum. Furthermore, in the first part of the article
Stockhausen suggests that other parameters of the sound can be con-
trolled simply by changing the pattern of pulses. "I deduced that all dif-
ferences of acoustic perception can be traced to differences in the
temporal structure of sound waves" (Stockhausen 1962, 40). Intensity,
he argues, results from the density of pulses, timbre is the result of the
pattern of pulses within the repeating loop, and noise is caused by irregu-
lar, aperiodic, pulse patterns.1
Stockhausen extends the spectrum of time beyond rhythm and pitch,
describing a single scale ranging from form at one end to timbre at the
other (Example 1). Form is rhythm expanded to a larger time-scale,
timbre is pitch at a higher frequency. All aspects of music, therefore, are
part of a single, unified time: "The ranges of perception are ranges of
time, and the time is subdivided by us, by the construction of our bodies
and by our organs of perception. And since these modern means have
become available, to change the time of perception continuously, from
one range to another, from a rhythm into a pitch, or a tone or noise into
a formal structure, the composer can now work within a unified time
domain" (Stockhausen 1989, 95). In this context, composition-the
structuring and ordering of sound-starts not with preordained sounds

but with the composition of the timbres themselves: "one would com-
pose the arrangementsof pulses themselves" (Stockhausen 1962, 42).
perceptual
transition
timbre
pitch
meter/rhythm
form
60' 15' 8" 1/8" 1/16" 1/30" 1/6000" 1/13000"
EXAMPLE 1: STOCKHAUSEN S "SINGLE,

UNIFIED MUSICAL STRUCTURE"
In summary,the main features of Stockhausen's approach are
* all aspects of sound are considered part of a single, unified musical

time,
* everything can be reduced to the arrangementof pulses, and
* in electronic music composition extends to the composition of the
sounds themselves.
2.1.1. STOCKHAUSEN'S EXAMPLES
In the first part of the article Stockhausen illustrates his ideas with
examples based on pulse patterns (Stockhausen 1962, 41). A succession
of accelerating and decelerating pulses is recorded onto tape and then
formed into a repeating loop. He describes, for example, an eight-second
loop such as this (1962, 42) which is accelerated to 1024 times its origi-
nal speed. The eight-second sequence then takes only 1/128th second to
repeat, and this 128 Hz frequency of repetition is perceived as the funda-
mental frequency of the sound. The internal pattern of accelerating and
decelerating pulses which goes to make up the loop determines the
timbre of the sound.2
The second part of the article describes in detail the construction of

one particular passage from Kontakte itself. The one-and-a-half minute
segment from 16'56.5" is a striking demonstration of the continuum
between pitch and pulse. At the start, accelerated pulses are heard as
pitch. The pitch descends in waves, the pulses slowing in speed, until
individual pulses can be perceived as discrete events. In a further imagina-
tive twist, the final pulses are extended in length, drawing attention to
their pitch content and returning full circle to the opening of the extract.
The example does not, however, fulfill Stockhausen's ideal, described
earlier in his article, of shaping all aspects of the sound through a single
technical means (if he means avoiding the control of different parameters
by different equipment). He does not here bring "all properties under a
single control" (Stockhausen 1962, 40). Although pitch and rhythm are
shown to be a single continuum, three different aspects of the sound are
manipulated independently using different pieces of equipment:
1. The original pulse rate is determined by the dial on the pulse-

generator;
2. The frequency of the pulses by controlling the filter's center fre-
quency;
3. The results of (1) and (2) are recorded onto tape and the variable-
speed control of the tape recorder then plays a crucial role in mov-
ing the recording between perception as pitch and perception as
rhythm.
Example 2 summarizes these roles.

Interestingly, the pitches which open and close the example, although
similar in frequency,3 are produced by two quite different means. At the
start the frequency is the speed of a pulse-generator, whereas at the end it
is the center frequency of a filter with a narrow bandwidth (in both cases
the result being accelerated by a variable-speed tape recorder). There is a
certain beauty about the sound coming full circle and returning to the
same point by a different means. Musically, Stockhausen's empiricism is
more than justified, even if he does not achieve the technical consistency
he had been advocating earlier.
2.2. THE SCORE
The realization and performance scores provide another very detailed

source of information about the techniques used in Kontakte (Stock-
hausen 1960). Kontakte exists in two versions, one for four-channel tape
alone, the other with the tape plus piano and percussion. The perfor-
mance score contains a graphic representation of the tape and space-time
notation for the live parts. The realization score gives a detailed account
of how the sounds on tape were produced. Many of the techniques used
in the work are directly related to the ideas explained in Stockhausen
1962. Stockhausen wrote: "Most of the events in Kontakte ... were
composed by means of many temporal transformations of pulse struc-
tures" (Stockhausen 1962, 47).
Timbre filterfreq.
impulsegen. %
Pitch freq.
filterfreq.
impulsegen.
Rhythm freq.
EXAMPLE 2: VARIED FUNCTIONS IN KONTAKTE EXTRACT
The realization score begins with a list of the equipment used to pro-
duce the tape in the Cologne studio, accompanied by photographs and
basic specifications. An account of Stockhausen's work in the studio then
follows. The earlier sessions, which are in chronological order and dated,
comprise a variety of experiments with the recording and processing of
pulses. Diagrams of the equipment set-up are provided, together with a
description of the results. All outcomes are labeled and these labels are
then used to indicate where in later sessions the material is used as the
basis for further transformation. Finally, details are given of the way in
which the sounds were mixed for the finished composition, and at this
point the realization score goes through the sections of the work in
order, showing how they were assembled. The performance score itself is
referenced, enabling the reader to relate the descriptions in the realiza-
tion score to precise events in the music.
The level of detail provided is such that, given the original equipment,
it would be possible to reconstruct certain sections of the piece. Robin
Maconie has noted (Maconie 1990, 102-3) that there is a change from
the earlier experiments where Stockhausen uses very slow and painstak-
ing methods of cutting and splicing to generate his material, to his later
rather faster methods of generating textures using Stockhausen's newly
invented "copy head" technique.
3. THE CONCEPT OF UNITY IN COMPUTERMUSIC
3.1. REGAINING CONTACTS
Forty years have elapsed since the composition of Kontakte. Studio

technology has advanced almost beyond recognition over that time.
Tedious manual cutting and splicing of tape has been replaced by digital
editing, and sophisticated software has replaced analog sound generation
and processing equipment. Unity of a different sort has perhaps been
achieved in that all the processes needed for the composition of an elec-
troacoustic piece, from recording and synthesis to processing and mixing,
can now be found within one piece of equipment, the computer. It might
appear that ideas relating to the techniques of the old analog tape studio
are now themselves obsolete. Stockhausen himself in more recent tape
pieces has apparently moved away from concern with interrelating the
lowest-level microstructures of synthesis to higher macrostructures of
form, even though his formula technique implies such an integration of
structure (but only from the note level upwards). To continue to develop
the innovations of Kontakte his formula should comprise successions of
pulses rather than notes. In a work such as Oktophonie(Stockhausen
1994) the composer employs commercial equipment (for example,
YamahaDX7s and a Roland D50), which does not allow the type of con-
trol necessary to link micro- and macrolevels of structuring in the sort of
way found in Kontakte.4 Even so, this article sets out to investigate the
potential relevance of the concept of unity to today's computer music, to
see if its significance might indeed be extended given the new digital
methods now available.
An initial experiment in this search is to attempt to approximate,
through digital synthesis, the example from Kontakte quoted by Stock-
hausen in his article.5 Software is required that will generate the equiva-
lent of a sequence of pulses that can vary in speed from below sixteen per
second (where they will be perceived as pulse) to 1000 or more per sec-
ond (where they will be perceived as pitch). An equivalent of a filter is
also required to modify the content of the pulses. All this might be done
by using software modules equivalent to the individual analog devices
originally used: pulse-generators, filters, variable-speed tape recorders,

and so on. A more interesting approach, however, is to use a single syn-
thesis algorithm that combines the features of all the devices used by
Stockhausen. This also has the advantage of being closer to Stock-
hausen's ideal of a single unified process.
Software in fact exists that can recreate the features of Stockhausen's
example while at the same time bringing all aspects of the sound within
the control of a single software algorithm. The FOF synthesis algorithm
was originally designed for an apparently very different purpose: it was
created as part of the CHANT program at IRCAM by Xavier Rodet and
others to imitate the human singing voice and to reproduce very pre-
cisely the spectrum of other harmonic sounds (Rodet, Potard, and Bar-
riere 1984). The algorithm works in the time domain by producing a
series of very precisely timed and shaped excitations or grains. These exci-
tations are directly equivalent to the pulses used by Stockhausen and can
be formed at any rate, so that they can be perceived either as a pulse or as
pitch. The content and shape of the excitations may be controlled in
great detail and, when the speed of generation of excitations is fast
enough to be perceived as pitch, changes in content and shape result in
changes to the spectrum. In fact, the changes to the excitation shape in
the time domain correspond precisely to the filtering of pulses used by
Stockhausen in Kontakte:changes to the content and shape of the excita-
tions result in changes to the center frequency and bandwidth of the
resulting formant region. With FOF synthesis, there is a precise, mathe-
matically defined relationship between the parametersin the time domain
and the resulting spectrum. It is designed so that the input parameters
relate closely to the perceived characteristics of the sound (e.g., funda-
mental frequency, formant frequency, and bandwidth) making it possible
to work quite intuitively with the algorithm. With increasing computing
speeds it is also possible to work in real time, manipulating the sound as it
is being heard.6This is all very far from the laborious experiments Stock-
hausen undertook, in which a considerable amount of time was required
to generate even short passages of sound.
3.2. RECREATING THE EXAMPLES
In recreating Stockhausen's examples, the version of FOF synthesis

adapted by the author as part of Csound is used (Clarke 1992). The key
input parametersof the algorithm in this context are the fundamental fre-
quency and formant frequency. The fundamental frequency input con-
trols the rate at which new excitations (pulses) are generated, something
Stockhausen controlled using the frequency dial of a pulse-generator and

then modified with the variable-speed control of a tape recorder. The
required input for the fundamental frequency in relation to Stock-
hausen's data is therefore:
fundamental frequency = pulse-gen. freq. * vari-speed ratio
Example 3a shows the results of this calculation graphically.
The formant-frequency parameter of FOF synthesis corresponds to the

center frequency of the filter used by Stockhausen. His original settings
were again modified by his later use of vari-speed:
formant frequency = filter center frequency * vari-speed ratio
Example 3b shows the resulting data for this calculation.
Stockhausen's
originalexamples: 3 4 5 6
3000Hz
formant
freq.
400Hz 196Hz 160Hz
166
fund.
) freq. \/\ 14.5
.91
3.63
6" 8" 12" 12"
EXAMPLE 3: FOF INPUTS FOR KONTAKTE EXTRACT7
Other input parameters, for example, "kdur," adjust the length of the
pulse. The initial settings once again need to be modified to take into
account Stockhausen's use of vari-speed: as the speed increases, the
length of the pulses decreases in inverse proportion to the speed:
kdur = initial setting / vari-speed ratio
A Csound orchestra and score designed to produce an approximation to

the Kontakte extract can be found in the Appendix.8 A detailed examina-
tion of the original recording (to resolve a number of ambiguities in
Stockhausen's data) and a careful examination of the characteristicsof the
analog equipment originally used would permit an even closer approxi-
mation.9 However, the purpose of this experiment was not to replicate
the original but rather to demonstrate that the techniques used by Stock-
hausen are still availabletoday in digital form. Indeed, the digital realiza-
tion suggests new possibilities for the concept of unity. The potential for
their use and the relevance of the concept in this context form the next
stage of the investigation.
4. EXTENDINGCONTACTS
The digital model of the analog processes used by Stockhausen provides

the basis from which to extend the concept of unity into new areas. The
software introduces new features and permits the integration of addi-
tional parameters, going beyond what was possible using analog tech-
niques in a number of significant ways.
4.1.SYNCHRONIZATION/DE-SYNCHRONIZATION OF MULTIPLE
STREAMS WITH PRECISE TIMBRAL CONTROL
Stockhausen's analog technique resulted in the separate creation of

each pulse stream. In Kontakte he frequently layers a number of such
streams in the final mixing stage of a section. This process can be fol-
lowed in the later pages of the realization score. However, the mixing of
presynthesized streams did not allow him to have precise control over the
synchronization of the streams at the microlevel. At the mixing stage,
synchronization depended on the visual alignment of tapes on different
machines and was then subject to fractional differences in the starting
mechanisms and speeds of these machines. Although such differences
were not of significance in terms of normal mixing procedures, they
would not have provided the control necessary for the synchronization of
streams so as to ensure the precise alignment of pulses.
This limitation does not exist in the digital realization. It is possible to
generate multiple streams of pulses at the same time and to control with
absolute precision the relationships between them. As a result, new possi-
bilities arise, extending the range of contacts and with it the concept of
unity. Multiple streams, precisely synchronized at the microlevel at the
time of synthesis, can work together to produce exact timbres. Each

stream of accelerated pulses or grains produces a sound spectrum equiva-
lent to a formant region in a natural instrumental sound. A number of
such streams synchronized with the same pulse rate (i.e., fundamental
frequency) and each with different center frequencies (formant frequen-
cies), can combine to recreate a particularspectrum. Indeed, this was the
original purpose ofFOF synthesis: as part of the CHANT program it was
designed to imitate the human singing voice.
New transitions and contacts therefore become possible, between dif-
ferent timbres, and between identifiable timbres and rich, multi-layered
textures. All of this can be controlled at the microlevel, streams moving
in and out of phase with a level of precision not available to Stockhausen
in 1960. In terms of the concept of unity, this means that the production
of precisely specified timbres, whether traditional or totally new sounds,
is brought within the ambit of this single unified method. Furthermore,
texture becomes an extra dimension within the concept of unity: the syn-
chronization and desynchronization of streams is an additional parameter
for control within this single approach, and one with much potential.
Example 4 illustrates, schematically, a simple example of streams diverg-
ing and reforming in terms of their fundamental frequency.
Common
fund. fundamental
freq. Common
fundamental
re-established
0" time 60"
EXAMPLE 4: DIVERGENCE AND CONVERGENCE OF

FUNDAMENTAL FRQUENCIES
Conceptually, at least, it is possible to view a whole composition as a

single set of grains, subdividing into coordinated streams which then
move in and out of synchronization, forming and dissolving timbres.
With this approach comes the possibility of a new and very rich and fluid
type of counterpoint. Out of the overall unity (the total pool of grains),
separate strands (formant regions/grain streams) may form for a period
of time, and can interact, moving in and out of coordinated groupings

(timbres/textures). The whole pool of grains might, for example, be
transformed from an amorphous mass (the parametersof each being ran-
domized and unsynchronized), to become a number of independent
streams which then come into synchronization to form a new unity as
related components of a single timbre. A multi-level, hierarchical struc-
ture of changing relationships is thereby formed within an overall unity.
The author has begun to explore some of these possibilities in a series of
works using FOF and FOG (see 4.4 below) synthesis (Clarke 1987,
1996a, 1998).
4.2. PERIODICITY/APERIODICITY
Stockhausen's article refers to the relationship between pitch and

noise. He describes how a regular succession of pulses, when accelerated,
will produce pitch, whereas a randomly spaced succession will result in
noise. Furthermore, he explains how greater randomness will result in a
broader spectrum of noise, ultimately in white noise. With the digital ver-
sion, far more control is possible over the introduction of random ele-
ments, and with FOF synthesis randomness can be applied to a number
of different parameters. Digitally generated random-number sequences
or data read from stored tables of pseudo-random numbers can be used
to modulate parameters of the synthesis, so that varying degrees of ran-
domization can be introduced. The direct equivalent to the procedure
described by Stockhausen is the application of randomness to the period-
icity of the pulses, the fundamental frequency in FOF synthesis. Applied
in small amounts, this adds an element of "jitter"to the fundamental fre-
quency without destroying the sense of there being a specific pitch to the
sound. (Such jitter is a feature of, for example, human singing, and its
inclusion can help to make the imitation more realistic). As the amount
of random variation increases, the precise focus of the fundamental pitch
becomes blurred and chorusing effects emerge. With further increases,
the sound becomes more noisy, eventually losing any sense of pitch with
an increasing bandwidth of noise in the sound. Other parameters of the
sound may be randomized with varying results. Amplitude, formant fre-
quency, and the parameterscontrolling the length and shape of the pulse
are the most interesting. It is here that another form of contact is estab-
lished, with granular synthesis. If on the one hand the digital interpreta-
tion of Stockhausen's techniques leads to links with highly controlled
manipulation of the frequency domain in the form of FOF synthesis, it
also leads to links with the time-domain, texturally oriented approaches
of granular synthesis. The author has previously highlighted the connec-

tions between FOF synthesis and granularsynthesis (1996b). In this con-
text, such links can be seen as extending the range of contact from the
region of the synthesis of pitch and rhythm to include the domain of the
synthesis of texture. Producing textures is not a separate process from
that of synthesizing pitches or rhythms, but part of the same process:
they are part of a continuum.
4.3. SPATIAL CONTROL
Five basic parameters of music are commonly defined: pitch, timbre,

rhythm, dynamics, and space. Stockhausen's article on the concept of
unity embraces the first three of these and, to a lesser extent, the fourth.
Space is not brought into this unity, even though Kontakte itself is noted
for its use of quadraphonic spatialization, and in particular for the
extraordinary way in which Stockhausen created very effective circular
movement among the channels. The spatial aspect of Kontaktewas added
after the initial generation of the sounds, and was not part of the unified
synthesis process. With the digital version, it is possible for spatialization
to be a fully integrated aspect of the initial synthesis process, and for it to
become part of an enlarged concept of unity. It is possible to control and
synchronize the spatial movement of different strands very precisely. Spa-
tialization can therefore contribute, in a fully integrated way, to the struc-
turing of multiple streams described in 4.1, above. Spatial divergence or
convergence might, for example, correspond to, or counterpoint, the
deviation and confluence of streams such as that shown schematically in
Example 4. The author is currently working on new variations on the
FOF/FOG algorithm which permit detailed spatial control at still lower
levels, making it possible to specify the spatial position of each individual
pulse. Spatial position then becomes an aspect of grain construction,
approaching Stockhausen's ideal of determining every aspect of sound
through the control of pulses in the time domain.
4.4. FOG SYNTHESIS
Stockhausen's basic building block was the pulse produced by an ana-

log pulse-generator. The "contacts" of the title refers not only to con-
tacts between the different parameters of music but also between
different types of sound. Many of the electronically produced sounds on
tape take on something of the quality of acoustic instrumental sounds, in

particularthe sounds of the percussion instruments played in the version
with live performance. In this way, contact is established between the
tape and the live performance. FOF synthesis, as has been described ear-
lier, provides a much more precise and controlled means of generating
specific spectra. There is also another way in which contact can be estab-
lished between existing sounds of whatever sort and synthesized sounds.
An extension of FOF synthesis, FOG synthesis (Eckel, Iturbide, and
Becker 1995; Clarke 1996b), enables any soundfile to be the source
material for the pulses. This means that recorded sounds, from any
source, can be integrated into the same processes of transformation.
Careful blending of FOF and FOG synthesis can further extend the pos-
sibilities of movement between natural and synthesized sound, creating a
continuum between sampled sounds, simulation of acoustic sounds, and
new, synthesized sounds.
4.5. OCTAVIATION
Stockhausen demonstrates the unified scale of pitch and rhythm in the

example from Kontakte by an uninterrupted movement from pitch to
pulse. This is achieved by a single continuous movement (though not in a
straight line), a glissando on the rate at which pulses are generated. This
is one way of moving seamlessly from one mode of perception to the
other; indeed, using the techniques and equipment available to Stock-
hausen it was probably the only one. With the digital approach outlined
above another method is possible: multiple octaviation.10 With octavia-
tion, an octave descent (or a series of successive octave descents) is made
by fading out alternate pulses. Once this has been completed, only half
the original number of pulses per second remains, i.e., the sound has
descended one octave. There is no sense of the pitch sliding as there is
with a glissando, just the gradual emergence of another octave, and yet
the technique results in a potentially subtle and intriguing movement
between octaves, and hence between pitch and pulse.
Some particularly interesting possibilities arise when octaviation and
glissando techniques are combined, including the possibility of creating a
tone, similar to the well-known aural illusion created by Roger Shepard
(1964), but using an entirely different technique. The Shepard tone is a
psychoacoustic illusion designed to give the impression of an infinitely
falling (or rising) pitch. It is perhaps the aural equivalent of Escher's
drawing of a perpetual staircase. It uses a timbre comprising octave over-
tones (synthesized additively) and, by imperceptibly fading out the lower
octaves as they fall and fading in new octaves at the top, creates a cycle of
falling overtones which the listener perceives as an unbroken, endless
descent. Shepard's original example used a scale of discrete tones. Jean-
Claude Risset (1969) later produced an infinite glissando based on the
same principles. He has also produced a rhythmic equivalent based on
work by Kenneth Knowlton (Risset 1989, 1997) in which a series of
pulses apparently makes an accelerando or decelerando infinitely. FOF
synthesis provides a link between the endless glissando and the infinite
accelerando. By combining octaviation with glissando it is possible to
recreate the endless glissando as a continual accelerando/decelerando
(with everything speeded up into the frequency domain). Because fre-
quency in FOF synthesis is the rate at which new pulses (excitations) are
produced, an upwards glissando is the result of a gradual acceleration of
these pulses. An infinite accelerando will produce an infinite glissando.
To prevent the accelerando going out of range, octaviation is used to
imperceptibly fade out alternate pulses. In the same time that the accele-
rando has caused the pitch to rise by one octave, octaviation has caused
alternate pulses to fade to nothing. The sound has returned to its starting
pitch, but has apparently continued to rise (Example 5), a pattern which
can be continued infinitely.
2x"
4
(a) One-octavedescentby glissando

2x"
x"
(b) Octaviation returns pitch to original octave
EXAMPLE 5: PERPETUAL GLISSANDO BY OCTAVIATION
This is very similar what Risset was doing rhythmically, but transposed
into the frequency domain, illustrating once again the concept of unity.
Although in itself no more than an intriguing phenomenon, this example
indicates some of the interesting ambiguities that can be explored cre-
atively using octaviation.
4.6. RHYTHMIC STRUCTURES AND TIMBRE
It is possible to use the digital method to extend Stockhausen's experi-

ments in accelerating complex rhythms to produce new timbres. With
the computer it is possible to make subtle and continually changing vari-
ations to a complex rhythmic pattern and for this to be rendered either as
a rhythm or, accelerated, as a timbre. Here, an interesting comparison
can be made with a model developed for investigating rhythmic struc-
tures, especially those of African-Americanbased musics. In presenting a
paper at the 1997 International Computer Music Conference (Iyer,
Bilmes, Wright, and Wessel 1997), David Wessel described an example
using this model with eight independent interleaved streams. Each
stream is based on a "tatum" or pulse, which can be varied in a number
of ways, including, for example,
(i) periodic variation of the pulse speed

(ii) random variation of the pulse position
(iii) changes to the duration of each pulse
(iv) changes to the amplitude of each pulse.
Since the model is concerned with rhythmic structure, it can be real-

ized through MIDI. A similar structure can, however, be implemented
using FOF or FOG synthesis for sound generation. In that context it is
easy to change the time-scale of the model, moving from the time
domain to the frequency domain, and so explore the timbral implications
of complex rhythmic structures, and go beyond what could be achieved
with analog tape loops. In the context of FOF synthesis, the four vari-
ables listed above become
(i) periodic modulation of the fundamental frequency (vibrato at low

speeds, frequency modulation at high speeds)
(ii) aperiodic modulation of the fundamental (jitter in small amounts,
in large amounts the introduction of noise)
(iii) modulation of the excitation length (timbral modulation)

(iv) amplitude modulation (tremolo at low speeds).
The interleaving of eight independent streams can be related to the

concept of octaviation: simply fading out certain streams results in octavi-
ation. More interestingly, each stream can take on an separatelife, various
parameters, including those listed (i) to (iv) above and spatial position-
ing, being adjusted independently for each stream but at times coming
into synchronization. Once again the digital realization reveals new
points of contact for further exploration.
5. CONCLUSION:A MULTIDIMENSIONALSOUND SPACE
It has been shown that Stockhausen's ideas are still relevant in the con-
text of computer music. The digital implementation makes the tech-
niques much easier and more intuitive to use and introduces a number of
significant new possibilities.
Stockhausen's realization of his concept of unity consisted primarilyof
a single continuum: the movement from form to rhythm, to pitch, to
timbre. He also describes the way in which different pulse patterns within
a repeating loop can lead to timbral changes (including the introduction
of noise through randomness) but in his most extended example he
resorts to separate processing, by means of a filter, to control timbre.
Likewise, spatialization and textural layering had to be introduced after
the initial synthesis process was completed. In the analog studio it was
not possible to integrate these dimensions into a single process. The
result of the digital realization of these techniques, as shown above, is
that such aspects can become part of a single process in which the shap-
ing and positioning (temporal and spatial) of excitations determines
every aspect of the sound synthesis. A multidimensional sound space is
thereby created in which it is possible to move continuously between
many different sounds, from simple rhythms and pitches to complex
multi-layered textures diffused in space, and to mediate between them.
Example 6 attempts to portray on the two dimensional page something
of the richness of this complex multidimensional sound space. This can
only be fully grasped through sound.
Perceptually,we hear the unity of a sound event but also are aware of a
variety of different aspects of it. The multidimensional model mirrors
that diversity within unity. Furthermore, the multidimensional scheme
results in an extremely rich complex of possible inter-relations between
Synthesized
sounds Timbral Polyphonic
streams Textures
Fast Timbre Texture
Cross Poly-
Pulses rhythm
.i Async
| ow/ 1Complex //
Slow Pulse Rhythm
---- Distribution-- Sync.
Periodic Aperiodic
FOF/FOG
Sampled
sounds
Focusedposition N Diffuse
Spatialdimension
EXAMPLE 6: A MULTIDIMENSIONAL SOUND SPACE
sounds. It is possible to move in many different directions and to travel

between any two points in an infinite variety of ways.
Unity in the form of the integral serialism of the late 1950s may no
longer be a goal for most composers now at the turn of the century, but
the ability to make connections between sounds and to transform one
type of sound event into another is a central feature of many composi-
tions. Alcedo Coenen (1994) has described Stockhausen's progressive
relativity,a radicalapproach to serialism, creating an ever increasing range
of parameters with scales that mediate between extremes, and his music
as one in which every tone "is meant to be a crossing point of several
continua" (Coenen 1994, 208). The multidimensional sound space
described here provides an ideal opportunity to work in just such a way
(together with many other possibilities), a single technique unifying
movement between the many different regions in the space. In the richly
varied sound world that has been opened up by computer music, means
of establishing unity and of structuring relationships between sounds are
of particular importance. Extending Stockhausen's theory of unity in
electronic music and developing a multidimensional concept of unity in
computer music is one way to approach this task.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
With thanks to Paul Archbold, Sandra Cowie, and Lisa Reim for their
advice and assistance.
APPENDIX: A CSOUND ORCHESTRA AND SCORE
Orchestra:
sr=44100
kr=4410
ksmps=10
nchnls=2
;Reverberationunit
; gal = global input from FOF instruments
; al = reverb output
; a2 = final output: scaled sum of reverb and dry signal
; kl = level of reverberation
instr 1
gal init 0
kl linseg 0 ,14 ,0 ,5.5 ,.3 ,1.4 ,.3 ,2.4 ,.1 ,1.2 ,.1 ,.5 ,.6 ,p3-26.0 ,.6 ,.9 ,0
,.1 ,0
al reverb gal*kl ,2.0 ;reverb
a2 = (gal+al)*.4
outs a2 ,a2
gal =0
endin
;FOF instruments ... variables (where used)

gal = global output to reverb unit
al = FOF output
a2 = formant frequency
a3 = fundamental frequency
k4 = acceleration factor
k5 = bandwidth
k6 = excitation attack time (skirtwidth)
k7 = excitation duration
k8 = amplitude
;Stockhausen's Ex 3
instr 2
k4 = 10
a2 linseg 20 ,p3*.125 ,40 ,p3*.125 ,30 ,p3*.125 ,60 ,p3*.125 ,50
,p3*.125 ,100 ,p3*.125 ,75 ,p3*.25 ,150
a3 = 17.6
; xamp xfund xform koct kbnd kris kdur kdec olps fna fnb tdur
al fof40000 ,a3*k4 ,a2*k4 ,0 ,70 ,.00015 ,.1 ,.007 ,20 ,1 ,2 ,p3
gal = gal+ al
endin
;Stockhausen's Ex 4
instr 3
k8 linseg 40000 ,p3 ,60000
k6 linseg .00015 ,p3 ,.001
k4 linseg 10 ,p3, 7
a2 linseg 150 ,p3*.1 ,150 ,p3*.45 ,20 ,p3*.45 ,150
a3 linseg 17.6 ,p3*.06 ,16.6 ,p3*.3 ,8 ,p3*.16 ,9.4 ,p3*.16 ,5.3 ,p3*.16
,6.8 ,p3*.16 ,4.0
; xamp xfund xform koct kband kris kdur kdec olps fna fnb tdur
al fofk8 ,a3*k4 ,a2*k4 ,0 ,70 ,k6 ,.1 ,.007 ,20 ,1 ,2 ,p3
gal = gal+ al
endin
;Stockhausen's Ex 5
instr 4
k6 linseg .001 ,p3 ,.012
k8 linseg 60000 ,p3*.3 ,60000 ,p3*.7 ,15000
k4 linseg 7, p3*.3, 3.6363, p3*.7 , 3.6363
a2 linseg 150 ,p3/14 ,200 ,p3/14 ,125 ,p3/14 ,75 ,p3/14 ,100 ,p3/14
,50 ,p3/14 ,75 ,p3/14 ,54 ,p3/2 ,54
a3 linseg 4.0 ,p3 ,.725
k7 linseg .1 ,p3*.5 ,1 ,p3*.5 ,2
k5 linseg 70 ,p3*.25 ,30 ,p3*.25 ,20 ,p3*.5 ,10
; xamp xfund xform koct kband kris kdur kdec olps fia fnb tdur
al fofk8 ,a3*k4 ,a2*k4 ,0 ,k5 ,k6 ,k7 ,.007 ,20 ,1 ,2 ,p3
gal = gal+ al
endin
;Stockhausen's Ex 6
instr 5
k8 linsegl5000 ,p3*.25 ,20000 ,p3*.25 ,7000 ,p3*.25 ,2000 ,p3*.25
,1000
k6 linseg .012 ,p3*.1 ,.005 ,p3*.3 ,.005 ,p3*.2 ,.05 ,p3*.4 ,.05
k5 linseg 10 ,p3*.16 ,10 ,p3*.01 ,100 ,p3*.07 ,5 ,p3*.46 ,.1 ,p3*.3 ,.1
k4 = 3.6363
a2 linseg 54 ,3.5 ,54 ,.385 ,154.44 ,.175 ,63.18 ,.175 ,63.18 ,.2625
,291.6 ,.6125 ,44.5 ,16.39 ,44.5
a3 linseg 1 ,3.5 ,.45 ,.2625 ,1.7 ,.2625 ,.58 ,.35 ,1.2 ,.7 ,.82 ,.7
,.42 ,11.725 ,.11 ,4 ,.11
k7 linseg 2 ,p3*.6 ,1 ,p3*.4 ,15
; xamp xfund xform koct kband kris kdur kdec olps fna fib tdur
al fofk8 ,a3*k4 ,a2*k4 ,0 ,k5 ,k6 ,k7 ,.1 ,20 ,1 ,2 ,p3
gal = gal+ al
endin
;Final sustained note

instr 6
k8 linseg 1000 ,p3 ,10000
; xamp xfund xform koct kband kris kdur kdec olps fna fnb tdur
al fofk8 ,.01 ,162 ,0 ,.05 ,.05 ,10 ,.1 ,20 ,1 ,2 ,p3
gal = gal+ al
endin
Score:
fl 0 4096 10 1
f2 0 1024 19 .5 .5 270 .5
t 0 60
c Reverb instrument plays throughout, levels varied in orchestra

il 0 54
c These notes play Stockhausen's examples in succession as in Kontakte

c N.B. in the original the first note overlaps with other events.
i2 04.1
i3 4 4.07
i4 8 14.5
i5 21 21.5
i6 41.5 12
e
NOTES
1. Stockhausen was interested in reducing all aspects of sound to the

shaping of a single dimension, a succession of pulses. The digital age
throws up an interesting sidelight on this: digital recording is a suc-
cession of pulses, or samples, regularly spaced according to the sam-
pling rate. Sound, in all its aspects, can be produced by algorithms
which control this single dimension.
2. This is in effect an example of frequency modulation in which the fre-
quency of pulse generation is modulated by a signal whose period is
the length of the tape loop. Since both the pulse sequence and the
modulating signal repeat together in synchrony every loop, the car-
rier frequency is an integer multiple of the modulation frequency and
the sidebands are therefore all harmonics of the modulation fre-
quency. Because both the carrier and modulating waveforms are not
sinewaves but contain many harmonics the overall timbre is extremely
rich.
3. Stockhausen describes the final pulses as having a frequency of 44
Hz, which is then accelerated by a factor of 2.5 (Stockhausen 1962,
46). This calculation would suggest that the final frequency should
be 110 Hz. However, both the article and the realization score (see
below) give the frequency of the final pulses as "160 cps," and in any
case the tape at this point is in unison with the note E from the piano.
It would therefore seem that the final acceleration factor is in fact
3.63. Other data given in the realization score of the work supports
this conclusion.
4. It seems significant that although the realization score of Kontakte
and the introduction to Oktophonie are superficially similar, for
example in their photographs of equipment and use of diagrams, they
differ substantiallyin content, in that the former describes the forma-
tion of the sound material from the lowest level whereas the latter is
largely concerned with the spatialization of preformed material, the
creation of which is not described in detail.
5. It should be noted that the intention here is not to try to reproduce
Kontakte precisely but to demonstrate that the techniques Stock-
hausen used can be realized digitally and that the concept of unity
might, therefore, still be of relevance today. Stockhausen has himself
discussed the possibility of a new realization of Kontakte (Stock-
hausen 1998). He rightly laments the lack of timbral control pro-
vided by recent commercial synthesizers; however, such limitations
do not apply to the highly sophisticated computer software (such as

Csound or MSP) now able to generate sound in real time.
6. A forthcoming paper by the author at the 1999 International Com-
puter Music Conference will describe these possibilities further.
7. This diagram draws on data from Stockhausen's 1962 article and
from the realization score of Kontakte. Where there are discrepancies
between the two sources the data in the score has been given prefer-
ence.
8. Although starting from the original data in Stockhausen's article and
the realization score, small changes have been made empirically (for
example to timings) to produce a more accurate result.
9. Reproducing the qualities of the original reverberation unit is one of
the major obstacles Stockhausen envisages in any new realization
(Stockhausen 1998). However, the reverberation unit is not directly
related to the concept of unity itself and does not feature in Stock-
hausen's 1962 article. (A small amount of very basic reverberation
has been added, however, in the Csound realization in the Appendix,
to approximate reverberation perceived in the original recording.)
One way in which a reasonably accurate digital equivalent might be
devised would be to calculate the impulse response of the original
unit and use convolution (Roads 1996, 428) to reproduce its effect.
10. For a fuller description of multiple octaviation see Clarke, Manning,
Berry, and Purvis 1988.
REFERENCES
Clarke, J. Michael. 1987. Mdlarsang. CD recording: MPSCD003

(1995). London: Impetus Distribution.
. 1992. "An FOF Synthesis Tutorial." In Csound Manual, 107-
10. Cambridge: MIT Media Lab.
1996a. TIM(br)E. Octophonic tape.
1996b. "Composing at the Intersection of Time and Fre-
quency." Organised Sound 1, no. 2:107-17.
.1998. Prism for trumpet and octophonic tape.
Clarke, J. Michael, P. D. Manning, R Berry, and A. Purvis. 1988.
"VOCEL: New Implementations of the FOF Synthesis Method." Pro-
ceedingsof the 14th International ComputerMusic Conference,Cologne,
September20-25, 1988, ed. Christoph Lischka and Johannes Fritsch,
357-71. Cologne: Feedback Studio (Feedback Papers 33).
Coenen, Alcedo. 1994. "Stockhausen's Paradigm:A Survey of His Theo-
ries." Perspectivesof New Music 32, no. 2 (Summer): 200-225.
Eckel, G., M. R. Iturbide, and B. Becker. 1995. "The Development of
GiST, a GranularSynthesis Toolkit Based on an Extension of the FOF
Generator." Proceedings of the International Computer Music Confer-
ence, Banff, Canada, 296-302. San Francisco: International Com-
puter Music Association; Banff, Alta: Banff Centre for the Arts.
Maconie, Robin. 1990. The Worksof Karlheinz Stockhausen. 2d ed.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Risset, Jean-Claude. 1969. An Introductory Catalog of Computer-
SynthesisedSounds. Murray Hill, New Jersey: Bell Laboratories (re-
issued as part of The Historical CD of Digital Sound Synthesis.Mainz:
Wergo, 1995).
. 1989. "ParadoxicalSounds." In Current Directions in Computer
Music Research, ed. Max V. Mathews and John R. Pierce, 149-58.
Cambridge: MIT Press.
. 1997. "Rhythmic Paradoxes and Illusions: A Musical Illustra-
tion." Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference,
Thessaloniki, Greece, 7-10. San Francisco: International Computer
Music Association; Thessaloniki: Program of Psychoacoustics of the

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
Roads, Curtis. 1996. The Computer Music Tutorial. Cambridge: MIT
Press.
Rodet, Xavier, Yves Potard, and J. B. Barriere. 1984. "The CHANT
Project: From the Synthesis of the Singing Voice to Synthesis in Gen-
eral." ComputerMusicJournal 8, no. 3:15-31.
Shepard, R. 1964. "Circularityin Judgements of Relative Pitch." Journal

of the Acoustical Societyof America 36:2346-53.
Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1958. "Actualia." Die Reihe 1:45-51. Bryn
Mawr, Pennsylvania:Theodore Presser Co. (English version).
. 1959. "... How Time Passes...." Die Reihe 5. Bryn Mawr,
Pennsylvania:Theodore Presser Co. (English version).
.1960. Kontakte (realization score) UE 13678 (1968); (perfor-
mance score) UE 14246 (1966).
. 1962. "The Concept of Unity in Electronic Music." Trans.
Elaine Barkin. Perspectivesof New Music 1, no. 1 (Fall): 39-48.
.1989. Stockhausenon Music: Lecturesand Interviews Compiled by
Robin Maconie. London and New York:Marion Boyars.
.1994. Oktophonie(score). Kurten: Stockhausen-Verlag.
1998. "Bildung ist grofe Arbeit: Karlheinz Stockhausen in
Gesprach mit Studierenden des Musikwissenschaftlichen Instituts der
Universitat zu Koln am 5. Februar 1997." In Stockhausen70: Das Pro-
grammbuch Kiln 1998, ed. Imke Misch and Christoph von Blumroder
(Signale aus Koln: Beitrage zur Musik der Zeit 1), 1-36. Saarbriicken:
Pfau-Verlag.
Iyer, Vijay, Jeff Bilmes, Matthew Wright, and David Wessel. 1997. "A
Novel Representation for Rhythmic Structure." Proceedings of the
International Computer Music Conference, Thessaloniki, Greece, 97-
100. San Francisco: International Computer Music Association; Thes-
saloniki: Program of Psychoacoustics of the Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki.
Worner, Karl H. 1973. Stockhausen:Life and Work.Trans. Bill Hopkins.
London: Faber and Faber.

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Extending Contacts: The Concept of Unity in Computer Music

Author(s): Michael Clarke

N 1962, Karlheinz Stockhausen's "The Concept of Unity in Elec-

2.1. THE CONCEPT OF UNITY

Stockhausen's article is primarilyconcerned with showing how new (at

Stockhausen saw the studio techniques he was using as a way of bringing

structuring and ordering of sound-starts not with preordained sounds

60' 15' 8" 1/8" 1/16" 1/30" 1/6000" 1/13000"

EXAMPLE 1: STOCKHAUSEN S "SINGLE,

In summary,the main features of Stockhausen's approach are

* all aspects of sound are considered part of a single, unified musical

2.1.1. STOCKHAUSEN'S EXAMPLES

The second part of the article describes in detail the construction of

1. The original pulse rate is determined by the dial on the pulse-

Example 2 summarizes these roles.

2.2. THE SCORE

The realization and performance scores provide another very detailed

EXAMPLE 2: VARIED FUNCTIONS IN KONTAKTE EXTRACT

3. THE CONCEPT OF UNITY IN COMPUTERMUSIC

3.1. REGAINING CONTACTS

Forty years have elapsed since the composition of Kontakte. Studio

originally used: pulse-generators, filters, variable-speed tape recorders,

3.2. RECREATING THE EXAMPLES

In recreating Stockhausen's examples, the version of FOF synthesis

Stockhausen controlled using the frequency dial of a pulse-generator and

fundamental frequency = pulse-gen. freq. * vari-speed ratio

Example 3a shows the results of this calculation graphically.

The formant-frequency parameter of FOF synthesis corresponds to the

formant frequency = filter center frequency * vari-speed ratio

Example 3b shows the resulting data for this calculation.

6" 8" 12" 12"

EXAMPLE 3: FOF INPUTS FOR KONTAKTE EXTRACT7

kdur = initial setting / vari-speed ratio

A Csound orchestra and score designed to produce an approximation to

The digital model of the analog processes used by Stockhausen provides

Stockhausen's analog technique resulted in the separate creation of

time of synthesis, can work together to produce exact timbres. Each

0" time 60"

EXAMPLE 4: DIVERGENCE AND CONVERGENCE OF

Conceptually, at least, it is possible to view a whole composition as a

of time, and can interact, moving in and out of coordinated groupings

Stockhausen's article refers to the relationship between pitch and

of granular synthesis. The author has previously highlighted the connec-

4.3. SPATIAL CONTROL

Five basic parameters of music are commonly defined: pitch, timbre,

4.4. FOG SYNTHESIS

Stockhausen's basic building block was the pulse produced by an ana-

tape take on something of the quality of acoustic instrumental sounds, in

Stockhausen demonstrates the unified scale of pitch and rhythm in the

(a) One-octavedescentby glissando

(b) Octaviation returns pitch to original octave

EXAMPLE 5: PERPETUAL GLISSANDO BY OCTAVIATION

4.6. RHYTHMIC STRUCTURES AND TIMBRE

It is possible to use the digital method to extend Stockhausen's experi-

(i) periodic variation of the pulse speed

Since the model is concerned with rhythmic structure, it can be real-

(i) periodic modulation of the fundamental frequency (vibrato at low

(iii) modulation of the excitation length (timbral modulation)

The interleaving of eight independent streams can be related to the

5. CONCLUSION:A MULTIDIMENSIONALSOUND SPACE

Fast Timbre Texture

EXAMPLE 6: A MULTIDIMENSIONAL SOUND SPACE

sounds. It is possible to move in many different directions and to travel